WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


':j^^y^' 


THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 

NEW  YORK    ■    BOSTON   •    CHICAGO 
SAN    FRANCISCO 

MACMILLAN  &  CO.,  Limited 

LONDON  •  BOMBAY  •  CALCUTTA 
MELBOURNE 

THE  MACMILLAN  CO.  OF  CANADA,  Ltd. 

TORONTO 


WORLD    GEOGRAPHY 


ONE -VOLUME    EDITION 


BY 

RALPH   S.   TARR,  B.S.,  F.G.S.A. 

Vi 
PROFKSSOH    OF    PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY   AT    CORNELL    UNIVERSITY 

AND 

FRANK   M.   McMURRY,   Pii.D. 

PROFESSOR    OF    ELEMENTARY    EDUCATION    AT    TEACHERS    COLLEGE 
COLUMBIA    UNIVERSITY 


WITH    MANY    COLORED    MAPS    AND    NUMEROUS    ILLUSTRATIONS 
CHIEFLY    PHOTOGRAPHS    OF    ACTUAL    SCENES 


THE    MACMILLAN    COMPANY 
1912 

All  rights  reserved 


\ 


9  O 


Copyright,  1912, 
By  the  MACMILLAN  COMPANY. 


Set  up  and  electrotyped.    Published  January,  1912. 


Xorinaati  i^rtgs 

J.  8.  Gushing  Co.  —Berwick  &  Smith  Co. 

Norwood,  Mass.,  U.S.A. 


PREFACE 


Heretofore  it  has  been  necessary  for 
pupils  desiring  to  study  geography  witk 

a  fair  degree  of  thorough- 
Need  of  a 

one-volume  H^SS  to  purchase  two  ex- 
complete  pensive  books,  at  least,  and 
geograp  y  study  each  from  cover  to 
cover.  This  plan  involves  much  useless 
repetition,  since,  owing  to  the  nature  of 
the  subject,  most  of  the  fundamental 
notions  of  geography  must  appear  in  the 
first  volume  as  well  as  in  the  second. 
Moreover,  a  geography  treating  all  topics 
in  a  single  volume  is  more  useful  as  a 
book  of  reference. 

The  ultimate  basis  for  all  study  of 
geography  is  experience.  Hence  Home 
Necessity  of  Geography  should  receive 
Home  Geog-  careful  attention.  Yet  text- 
other  basal  books  rarely  treat  this  sub- 
notions ject  at  all,  and  those  that  do 
devote  but  few  pages  to  it. 

Home  experience  alone,  however,  can- 
not offer  a  complete  basis  for  the  later 
study  of  geography,  because  no  one  lo- 
cality presents  all  the  features  required. 
For  this  reason  the  best  books  have 
contained  some  definitions  and  illustra- 
tions, as  of  mountain,  river,  valley, 
harbor,  and  factory,  and  have  planned 
to  build  the  later  text  upon  the  ideas 
these  gave  as  a  foundation.  But  mere 
definitions  do  not  produce  vivid,  accu- 
rate pictures.  The  average  pupil  who 
has  pursued  geography  for  a  year  has 
little  notion  of  the  great  importance  of 
soil,  of   what   a   mountain   or   a   river 


really  is,  of  the  value  of  good  trade 
routes,  and  why  a  vessel  cannot  be  sure 
of  finding  a  harbor  wherever  it  may  cast 
anchor,  along  the  coast.  Yet  such  ideas 
are  the  proper  foundation  for  the  study 
of  geography  in  the  higher  grades. 

The  first  185  pages  of  this  volume 
attempt  to  supply  this  foundation  by 
treating,  first,  such  common  How  this  need 
things  as  food,  clothing,  shel-  is  met 
ter,  soil,  hills,  valleys,  industries,  climate, 
and  government,  which  are  part  of  every 
child's  environment ;  secondly,  such  fea- 
tures as  mountains,  rivers,  lakes,  and 
the  ocean,  which,  though  absent  from 
many  localities,  must  be  taught  in  prep- 
aration for  later  study ;  and  thirdly, 
country  and  city  contrasted  with  each 
other.  Definitions  and  abstract  state- 
ments, however,  are  not  relied  upon  for 
giving  this  knowledge,  but  detailed  de- 
scriptions and  discussions  instead.  This 
by  no  means  involves  neglect  of  the 
child's  own  environment  after  the  intro- 
duction of  the  unfamiliar  matter,  for 
throughout  the  geographies,  home  ex- 
periences are  used.  We  believe  that  this 
plan  gives  a  fuller  guarantee  of  fitness 
for  advanced  study  than  is  now  fur- 
nished by  any  other  common  school  text. 

One  of  the  most  important  features  of 
this  volume  is  the  establish-  „         .   . 

.  .      .        ,  .       How  relation- 

ment  oi  a  closer  relationship  ship  to  man 
between  man  and  the  earth  ^^^  been 
than   has   usually  been   at- 
tempted in  geography  texts.     A  large 


25780A 


VI 


PREFA CE 


number  of  the  topics,  instead  of  being 
coldly  presented,  as  so  much  fact  to  be 
learned,  both  have  been  approached,  and 
also  have  received  their  full  treatment, 
from  the  viewpoint  of  maiis  interest  in 
them. 

For  example,  for  typical  treatment  of 
a  continent  turn  to  Asia  (p.  415),  and 
of  -a  single  country,  to  China  (p.  426). 
Asia  is  declared  to  be  the  largest  and 
most  populous  of  all  the  continents,  and 
also  to  have  the  oldest  civilization.  Be- 
sides, it  lies  next  to  Europe,  the  best 
known  continent.  Yet,  possibly,  except 
Africa,  it  is  the  least  known  of  all  the 
continents.  Why  it  should  be  so  little 
known  becomes  then  a  question  of  real 
interest ;  and  the  answer,  as  presented 
on  pages  415-419,  involves  considera- 
tion of  its  surface  features,  climate,  and 
inhabitants.  Likewise  in  the  study  of 
China  (pp.  426-433),  the  former  prog- 
ress of  its  inhabitants  first  receives  at- 
tention. This  is  contrasted  with  their 
present  backwardness.  Then,  since  the 
future  progress  of  the  Chinese  is  one  of 
the  live  questions  of  the  day,  the  area  and 
population  of  the  country,  the  variety  of 
its  climate,  its  surface  features,  resources, 
manufacturing,  and  facilities  for  trans- 
portation, are  all  considered  with  refer- 
ence to  this  one  problem.  Finally,  the 
recent  advances  of  China  are  discussed 
and  its  principal  cities  located.  Thus, 
as  far  as  possible,  each  continent  and  each 
country  has  been  approached  from  the 
point  of  view  of  the  learner,  and  the 
questions  raised  at  the  beginning  con- 
trol the  presentation  that  follows. 

Organization  of  subject 
The  danger  matter,  however,  is  perhaps 
TzatiZan?'''  ^^6  task  that  has  required 
how  avoided     the  greatest  effort  by  the  au- 


thors. Organization  is  as  great  a  factor 
in  the  mastery  of  knowledge  as  in  the 
conduct  of  business  or  of  politics. 

The  tendencies  in  geographies  are,  on 
the  one  hand,  to  list  the  facts  as  inde- 
pendent entities  regardless  of  sequence 
and  perspective.  The  extreme  of  this 
method  is  found  in  the  treatment  of  the 
United  States  by  individual  states,  in 
which  case  the  demand  for  any  real 
organization  is  ignored.  Or,  all  the 
continents  and  countries  are  treated 
according  to  exactly  the  same  outline, 
i.e.  in  the  order  of  location,  area,  sur- 
face, climate,  agriculture,  etc.  This  is 
sometimes  called  a  scientific  organiza- 
tion ;  but  the  deadly  routine  that  it 
establishes  shows  it  to  be  about  as  psy- 
chological as  it  would  be  to  describe 
the  appearance  of  several  persons  under 
the  order  of  head,  body,  and  extremities 
in  each  case.  And,  again,  no  matter 
what  outline  is  followed,  there  is  a  strong 
tendency  to  include  many  statements  that 
are  irrelevant  even  to  the  loose  headings 
under  which  they  fall,  and  that,  there- 
fore, destroy  sequence  and  unity. 

In  order  to  avoid  these  tendencies  the 
authors  have  first  fairly  drilled  them- 
selves in  the  fact  that  good  literature 
is  organized  around  ideas  of  live  in- 
terest to  man  ;  and  that  any  text  what- 
ever, intended  for  children,  if  it  is  to 
possess  the  earmarks  of  good  literature, 
must  be  organized  on  this  basis,  with 
most  careful  attention  to  sequence  and 
perspective.  With  this  principle  in 
mind,  they  have  set  to  work  to  do  two 
things  :  — 

First,  for  each  page,  more  or  less,  they 
have  fixed  upon  some  central  thought 
that  binds  firmly  together  the  details 
underlying  it,  and  secures  their  unity. 


PREFACE 


Vll 


What  this  central  idea  is  in  each  case  is 
clearly  shown  in  the  marginal  heading ; 
and  by  grasping  it  early,  the  child  is 
enabled  to  master  a  lesson  much  more 
quickly  and  easily  than  otherwise. 

In  the  second  place,  the  authors  have 
selected  for  the  unifying  thoughts,  not 
merely  scientific  abstractions,  but  ideas 
likely  to-  prove  of  peculiar  interest  to 
young  students.  The  treatment  of 
Africa,  beginning  on  page  446,  well 
illustrates  this,  as  well  as  that  of  Asia 
and  of  China,  to  which  reference  has 
already  been  made. 

The  unifying  thought  just  mentioned 
is  usually  some  vital  problem,  from  the 
point  of  view  of  which  facts 
IxlentT/         are  selected  and   arranged, 
physiography     j^    solving  •  such    problems 
full  use  is  made  of  the  truth  that  geog- 
raphy must  rest  upon  a  physiographic 
foundation.     The  authors  believe  that, 
when    the    physiographic   truths   about 
a    given    region    are    clearly    grasped, 
most  of  the  other  geographic  facts  easily 
arrange  themselves  as  links  in  a  causal 
chain.     Thus  the  many  details  touching 
a  particular  locality  are  taught  in  relation 
to  one  another,  so  that  they  approach 
the  form  of  a  narrative. 

Physiography  has,  therefore,  been  in- 
troduced freely ;  but  under  two  limita- 
tions.    First,  only  such  physical  facts 
are   included    as   are    shown   really   to 
function  in  man's  relation  to  the  earth. 
Physiography  that  is  clearly  shown  to 
have  a  real  bearing  upon  man  greatly 
enriches    geography;    it   is   the   unused 
physical  geography  that  is  a  stumbling 
block.     Second,  these  physical  facts  are 
presented  in   connection  ivith  their  use, 
not  entirely  apart  from  it  and  in  a  dif- 
ferent part  of  the  book. 


Few  teachers  will  deny  that  clearness 
of   comprehension,  and  interest  in  any 
sub]  ect,  are  greatly  dependent  ^g^^ig 
upon  the  abundance  of  care-  i.  whyabun- 
fuUy  selected  details.     Good    ^ 
stories,  such  as  that  of  Robinson  Crusoe, 
reveal  this  fact  very  plainly.     Accord- 
ingly, while  this  volume  treats  only  of 
the  same  subjects  as  other  geographies, 
it  contains  more  detail  than  any  one  of 
them,  as  is  shown  by  the  larger  amount 
of  page  surface. 

One  very  common  objection  to  such 
detail  is  that  it  makes  lessons  long,  and 
therefore  difficult.  That  may  2.  Danger  of 

.  abundant  de- 

easily  happen,  tor  unorgan-  ^^.  ^nd  how 
ized  details  render  a  line  of  avoided 
thought   circuitous  and  confusing,   and 
more  to  be  dreaded  than  even  a  skele- 
ton  outline.     But   on  the  other  hand, 
well  organized  details  make  a  subject 
not  only  interesting  but  simple  and  easy. 
It    is    partly    good    organization    that 
makes  it  possible  for  one  to  reproduce  a 
long  story  with  ease  after  a  single  read- 
ing ;    and  it  is  often  largely  because  of 
poor  organization  that  even  a  half  page 
of  text  is  difficult  to  reproduce. 

Accordingly,  such  topics  as  farm,  cat- 
tle ranch,  irrigation,  lumber  camp,  and 
factory  are  treated  at  unu-  3.  Examples  of 
sual  length  in  connection  unusual  detail 
wdth  the  section  of  country  in  which 
each  is  most  prominent. 

For  example,  lumbering,  fishing,  and 
the  manufacture  of  cloth,  boots,  and  shoes 
receive  their  most  detailed  treatment  m 
connection  with  New  England ;  the  mining 
of  coal  and  iron  ore  and  the  manufacture 
of  iron  goods  are  discussed  in  connection 
with  the  Middle  Atlantic  States;  and  gold 
mining,  irrigation,  and  grazing  are  natu- 
rally included  under  the  Western  States. 


Vlll 


PREFACE 


The  industries  and  objects  thus  de- 
scribed, being  fairly  typical  of  industries 
and  objects  found  elsewhere,  are  on  that 
account  worthy  (5f  being  called  types. 

The  study  of  the  United  States  has 
furnished  occasion  for  detailed  treatment 
of  most  geogr&,phic  types.  Some  impor- 
tant features  and  occupations,  however, 
are  not  found  in  the  United  States,  but 
to  these  the  authors  have  given  the  same 
careful  consideration.  For  instance,  the 
Brazilian  forest  is  presented  as  a  type  of 
tropical  forests  (pp.  318-319).  Other  il- 
lustrations may  be  found  in  the  treatment 
of  the  linen  industry  on  page  344,  and 
of  the  silk  industry  on  page  363. 

A  common  defect  in  the  teaching  of 
geography  is  that  pupils  are  allowed  to 
Extent  of  forget  about  one  country 
review  and  while  studying  others,  and 
comparison  ^^le  result  is  that,  by  the 
time  Australia  is  reached,  most  of  what 
previously  has  been  learned  about  the 
United  States,  as  well  as  other  coun- 
tries, has  faded  from  memory.  Yet  the 
relation  between  North  America  and  the 
other  continents  is  so  marked  that  this 
defect  is  quite  unnecessary.  For  ex- 
ample, most  of  the  industries  and  basal 
principles  of  physiography  and  climate 
have  received  the  child's  attention  when 
he  has  completed  a  general  study  of  the 
United  States.  Foreign  lands  illustrate 
the  same  great  ideas  as  our  own  country, 
under  different  conditions.  This  means 
that  the  comprehension  of  foreign  coun- 
tries may  best  be  gained,  if  one  uses  one's 
previous  knowledge  of  the  United  States 
as  a  basis  of  comparison.  If,  then,  this 
old  similar  knowledge  is  carefully  called 
to  mind  when  the  physiography,  climate, 
and  industries  of  a  foreign  land  are  ap- 
proached, pupils  will  not  only  secure  a 


fuller  appreciation  of  that  region,  but 
will  also  freshen  their  knowledge  of  the 
United  States. 

Such  review  of  the  United  States  is 
a  prominent  feature  of  this  volume. 
For  example,  in  approaching  the  physi- 
ography of  South  America  (p.  3l0),  the 
physiography  and  climate  of  Europe 
(p.  334),  etc.,  the  authors  have  reproduced 
at  some  length  the  corresponding  condi- 
tions found  in  our  own  country. 

To  supplement  this  kind  of  review, 
several  sets  of  questions,  which  call  for 
still  different  comparisons  with  the 
United  States,  are  included,  one  series 
being  found  at  the  close  of  the  treatment 
of  each  continent.  These  reviews  are 
likewise  rich  in  motive,  inasmuch  as 
they  recall  leading  facts  in  regard  to 
the  United  States  from  varying  points 
of  view.  It  should  be  kept  in  mind, 
also,  that  each  set  at  the  same  time 
reviews  another  continent  from  a  new 
point  of  view. 

Pages  273-291  present  an  organized 
review  of  North  America  alone,  which 
includes  the  principal  facts  about  our 
continent  that  every  pupil  should 
know  on  completing  the  grades.  The 
last  section,  "  Review  of  the  United 
States  and  Comparisons  with  Other 
Countries,"  provides  for  still  further 
review.  It  has  seemed  to  the  authors 
an  anticlimax  to  close  several  years" 
study  of  geography  with  the  Islands  of 
the  Pacific,  lands  farthest  away  from 
us  and  of  least  interest.  On  the  other 
hand,  it  has  been  deemed  highly  impor- 
tant that,  after  all  the  countries  of  the 
world  have  been  treated,  the  closing 
chapter  should  show  in  summary  the 
rank  of  our  own  land  and  its  relation 
to  others. 


PREFACE 


IX 


The  most  difficult  part  of  common 
school  geography  is  that  dealing  with  the 
Place  of  gen-  motions  of  the  earth,  lati- 
erai  geography  tude  and  longitude,  winds, 
rainfall,  ocean  currents,  and  tempera- 
ture. Yet  these  subjects  are  generally 
placed  at  the  beginning  of  the  advanced 
book,  so  that  their  treatment  follows 
immediately  upon  Primary  Geography. 
This  arrangement  requires  children  to 
move  abruptly  from  a  meager  study  of 
the  simplest  facts  to  the  broadest  ab- 
stractions, which  is  thoroughly  bad. 

In  this  volume  practically  all  of  this 
difficult  subject  matter  is  delayed  till 
after  the  middle  of  the  course  (p.  292), 
with  the  exception  of  a  very  brief  treat- 
ment of  latitude  and  longitude  on  page 
92.  Whatever  facts  in  regard  to  winds, 
rainfall,  temperature,  etc.,  are  needed 
in  the  intensive  study  of  North  America 
have  been  plainly  stated,  when  wanted, 
like  other  concrete  facts. 

After  the  study  of  our  continent  has 
been  completed,  and  a  fair  number  of 
concrete  data  bearing  on  these  matters 
has  been  presented,  winds  and  rain,  and 
ocean  movements  and  distribution  of 
temperature,  are  treated  in  detail.  By 
this  arrangement,  the  study  of  these 
difficult  subjects  has  been  postponed  at 
least  one  year,  until  so  many  of  the 
facts  that  are  necessary  to  their  apprecia- 
tion have  been  presented  concretely  that 
they  then  may  be  approached  somewhat 
inductively.  The  detailed  treatment  of 
latitude,  longitude,  and  standard  time, 
and  of  the  revolution  of  the  earth,  with 
its  effects,  is  not  included  in  the  main 
text  at  all,  but  is  placed  in  the  Appendix. 
The  authors  are  convinced  that  the  latter 
topic  should  not  be  studied  in  the  elemen- 
tary school,  and  that  the  former  should 


be  omitted  by  many  schools.  This  ar- 
rangement is  one  of  the  most  important 
among  the  distinguishing  features  of 
this  volume. 

The  general  principles  regarding  in- 
dustries, distribution  of  inhabitants,  mu- 
tual relation  of  city  and  country,  and 
dependence  of  various  sections  upon  one 
another,  contrary  to  custoni,  are  also 
presented  in  the  last  part  of  the  volume. 
One  reason  is  that  these  principles  ap- 
proach abstractions  in  their  nature,  and 
are,  therefore,  too  difficult  to  be  earlier 
understood  by  children.  They  are,  more- 
over, to  a  large  extent,  a  summary  of 
what  has  preceded,  and  therefore  natu- 
rally come  late,  where  a  more  inductive 
approach  is  possible.  The  guiding  prin- 
ciple is  that  comparison  of  facts  (of 
countries,  in  this  case)  should  not  be 
undertaken  until  after  the  facts  them- 
selves have  been  studied. 

While  there  is  no  reason  why  a  text- 
book in  geography,  more  than  any 
other  text,  should  offer  sug-  _ 

,        ,  ,  1      1  r   How  the  text 

gestions    about   methods    Ot  may  teach 

study,  every  one  knows  that  proper  method 
children's  ways  of  studying  °  ^  "  y 
are  often,  extremely  crude,  involving 
great  waste.  On  this  account  it  seemed 
advisable  to  include  definite  suggestions 
on  this  subject,  applicable  both  to  this 
and  to  other  books.  These  are  found 
on  pages  10,  30,  53,  66,  and  80.  They 
occupy  little  space ;  but  they  will  have 
accomplished  much,  if  they  are  influen- 
tial in  leading  children  to  do  the  things 
suggested,  and  if,  in  addition,  they  di- 
rect the  attention  of  both  children  and 
teachers  to  a  more  careful  consideration 
of  proper  methods  of  study. 

Also,  by  the  insertion  of  marginal 
headings,  so  carefully  worded  that  they 


PREFACE 


usually  suggest  a  single  and  definite 
question  for  the  text  to  answer,  it  is 
expected  that  children  will  be  materi- 
ally influenced  to  master  their  lessons 
by  ^'points"  rather  than  by  pages  —  a 
very  vital  factor  in  the  proper  method 
of  study. 

Half-tones  from  photographs  are  used 
whenever  possible,  and  these  have  been 
Useofilius-  selected  with  great  care 
trations  from    collections  .of    many 

thousands.  In  all  cases  they  are  in- 
troduced, not  as  mere  pictures,  but  as 
illustrations  of  topics  treated  in  the 
text.  It  is  expected  that  they  will  be 
studied,  as  well  as  the  text.  It  is  be- 
lieved that  the  book  is  as  thoroughly 
illustrated  as  is  desirable  for  the  needs 
of  the  student,  and  the  authors  have 
used  care  not  to  overillustrate  by  throw- 
ing together  a  heterogeneous  mass  of 
pictures  unrelated  to  the  text.  It  is 
their  belief  that  a  geography  should  not 
be  a  picture  album. 

The  maps  in  this  book  have  been 
made  by  The  Williams  Engraving  Com- 
Acknowledg-  p^ny,  with  the  exception  of 
ments  ^.he  relief  maps,  which  were 

prepared  by  E.  E.  Howell,  of  Washing- 
ton. 

Mr.  Philip  Emerson  of  the  Cobbett 
School,  Lynn,  Massachusetts,  and  Pro- 


fessor R.  H.  Whitbeck  of  the  Univer- 
sity of  Wisconsin  have  aided  in  various 
ways  in  the  preparation  of  this  volume. 
Valuable  assistance  in  gathering  statistics 
and  making  lists  of  books  of  reference 
has  been  rendered  bv  Mr.  Irvine  Perrine 
and  Miss  Kathryn  Kyser  of  Cornell  Uni- 
versity. The  sources  of  the  material 
for  the  text  have  been  many,  of  course  ; 
but  among  them  Mills'  "International 
Geography,"  "The  Statesman's  Year 
Book,"  The  United  States  Census  Re- 
port, and  Ratzel's  "  History  of  Man- 
kind "  call  for  special  mention. 

For  the  illustrations,  many  of  the 
drawings  have  been  prepared  by  Mr. 
C.  W.  Furlong,  the  well  known  artist. 
In  addition,  the  authors  are  especially 
indebted  to  William  Ran  of  Philadel- 
phia, from  whose  extensive  collection 
they  have  selected  a  large  part  of 
the  photographs  from  which  half-tones 
were  made.  To  other  photographers 
whose  pictures  have  been  used  —  a  list 
far  too  long  to  incorporate  here  —  the 
authors'  thanks  are  due.  Special  men- 
tion should  also  be  made  of  the  as- 
sistance rendered  by  the  Philadelphia 
Commercial  Museum,  in  supplying  a 
series  of  world  product  maps,  and  in 
giving  permission  to  reproduce  certain 
photographs. 


THE  AUTHORS 


TABLE    OF    CONTENTS 


PART  I.     HOME   GEOGRAPHY 

SECTION 

I.     Food,  Clothing,  and  Shelter    . 

1.  Among  the  People  of  our  own  Couii- 

try 

2.  Among    the    Negroes    of     Central 

Africa    ...... 

3.  Among  the  Eskimos 

4.  Among  the  People  of  the  Desert 
II.     Land,  Wateh,  and  Air 

1.  The  Laud  .         .         .         . 

2.  Water 

3.  Air 


III. 


IV 


II. 


III. 


Industry,    Commerce,    and    Govkrn 
ment    .... 

1.  Industry  and  Commerce 

2.  Country  and  City 

3.  Government 
Maps         .... 

PART   II.     WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 

(ieneral  Facts  about  the  Earth 
1.    Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth 
Daily  Motions  of  the  Earth 
Zones         .... 
Latitude  and  Longitude   . 
The  Continents 
The  Oceans 


PART   in.     NORTH   AMERICA 
General  Facts 
L    Divisions  of  North  America 
2.    Map  of  North  America     . 

United  States 

General  Facts   . 

The  Northeastern  States*. 

The  Southern  States 

The  Central  States    . 

The  Western  States . 

Territories  and  Dependencies 
United  States  . 
L    Alaska       .... 
2.   Cuba  and  Porto  Rico 


The 
1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 


PAGE 
1 


3 
5 

7 

10 
10 
31 
54 

59 
59 
67 
75 
81 


86 
88 
91 
92 
93 


101 
101 
102 
104 
104 
111 
147 
174 
202 

238 
238 
241 


IV. 


V. 


VL 


3.  Panama  Canal  Zone        .         .         .     244 

4.  The  Hawaiian  Islands    .         .         .  ^\^^ 

5.  Other  Small  Island  Possessions       .     246 

6.  The  Philippine  Islands  .         .         .246 
Countries    North    of   thS    United 

States 249 

1.  Canada  and  Newfoundland     .         .     249 

2.  Greenland 261 

Countries    South    of    the    United 

States     .        .         .        •         .        .    263 

1.  Mexico 263 

2.  Central  America     ....     268 

3.  The  West  Indies     .         .        .         .270 

4.  The  Bermuda  Islands     .         .         .272 
Review  of  North  America        .        .     273 

1.  The  United  States  .         .         .         .273 

2.  Other  Countries  of  North  America     289 

3.  Relation   of  the  United  States   to 

Other  Countries  ....     290 

4.  Value  of  Steam  and  Electricity  in 

Development  of  North  America      290 


IL 


IH. 


I. 

n. 

IIL 

IV. 

V. 

VL 

VII. 


PART  IV.     GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 

Winds  and  Rain  ..... 

1.  Winds 

2.  Rain 

Ocean    Movements     and    Distribu- 
tion of  Temperature . 

1.  Tides       .         ... 

2.  Ocean  Currents       .... 

3.  Distribution  of  Temperature 
The  Races  of  Mankind      .        . 

PART  V.     SOUTH   AMERICA 

General  Facts     

Argentina,  Uruguay,  and  Paraguay 

Brazil 

The  Guianas  and  Venezuela   . 
The  Tropical  Andean  Countries    . 

Chile 

Islands  near  the  Continents  . 


292 
292 
293 

299 
290 
299 
303 
306 


310 
316 
317 
320 
321 
326 
328 


XI 


Xll 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  —  LIST  OF  MAPS 


PART   VI.    EUROPE 

BEOTION 

I.'   General  Facts  about  Europe 
II.     The  Great  Powers  of  Europe 

1.  The  British  Isles 

2.  German  Empire 

3.  France 

4.  Italy. 

5.  Austria-Hungary 

6.  Russia 


III. 


The  Lesser  Powers  of  Europe 

1.  Norway  and  Sweden 

2.  Denmark  . 
The  Netherlands 
Belgium     . 
Spain  and  Portugal 
Switzerland 
Greece 
Turkey  and  Balkan  Countries 


330 
337 
337 
350 
360 
368 
376 
381 

387 
387 
391 
392 
395 
398 
403 
407 
410 


PART   Vir.     ASIA,   AFRICA,    AUSTRALIA, 

AND   ISLAND   GROUPS 
I.     Asia 415 


1.  General  Facts  about  Asia 

2.  The  Turkish,  or  Ottoman,  Empire 

3.  Arabia,  Persia,  and  Afghanistan 

4.  Russia  in  Asia  .        .        . 

5.  The  Chinese  Empire 

6.  The  Japanese  Empire  and  Korea 

7.  Indo-China  and  the  Malay  Peninsula 


415 
419 
423 
425 
426 
433 
437 


SECTION 

II.     Africa 


1.  General  Facts  about  Africa 

2.  Northern  Africa 

3.  Southern  Africa 

4.  Central  Africa  . 

5.  Islands  near  Africa  . 

III.     Australia,    the    East    Indies,    and 
Other  Islands  of  the  Pacific 

1.  Australia  ..... 

2.  New  Zealand     .... 

3.  The  East  Indies 

4.  Islands  of  the  Pacific 


PAGE 

446 
446 
452 
457 
460 
463 

464 
464 
472 
473 
475 


PART  VIII.  REVIEW  OF  UNITED  STATES 
AND  COMPARISONS  WITH  OTHER 
COUNTRIES 

APPKNDIX 

I.    Latitude,  Longitude,  and  Standard 

Time 493 

1.  Latitude  and  Longitude  .         .        .     493 

2.  Standard  Time  .         .         .         .496 
IL     Revolution   of  the   Earth   and   its 

Effects 498 

III.  References  to  Descriptions,  in  Prose 

AND  Poetry,  of  Topics  treated  in 
this  Geography,  for  Teacher  and 
Pupil 501 

IV.  Tables  of  Area,  Population,  etc.    .     511 

Index 521 


LIST   OF   MAPS 


COLORED   MAPS 


106. 
107. 
116. 
133. 


134. 

136. 
138. 
140. 
144. 

147. 

187. 

192. 
194. 
233. 
235. 
270. 


Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres  facing 
The  World  on  Mercator's  Projection   " 
The  Zones  .        ....     on 

Claims   of  France,   England,   and   Spain 
upon  the  Central  Part  of  North  America, 

facing 


86 
86 
91 


101 

"         102 

"         103 

between  104  and  105 

facing     105 


1760 

North  America,  Political 

North  America,  Physical 

United  States,  Political 

United  States,  Physical     . 

Northeastern  States,  Political 

between  111  and  112 

Northeastern  States,  Physical  .        facinf/     113 

New  York  City,  Philadelphia,  and  Balti- 
more        facing     141 

Southern  States,  Political    between  147  and  148 

Southern  States,  Physical 

Central  States,  Political 

Central  States,  Physical 

Western  States,  Political 


facing  148 
between  174  and  175 

facing  175 
between  202  and  203 


facing 


FrOPRK 

272.    Western  States,  Physical 

318.   Alaska " 

Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  with  Special  Map 
of  the  West  Indies         .         .        facing 

United  States'  Dependencies  in  the  Pacific 

Canada       

Mexico  and  Central  America    . 

Forest  Map  of  the  United  States 

Mean    Annual    Rainfall  of    the 
States 

Races  of  Man     . 
425.   South  America,  Political 
427.    South  America,  Physical 
450.   Europe,  Political 
452.    Europe,  Physical 

British  Isles 

British  Empire 

German  Empire,  The  Netherlands,  and 
Belgium  ....       facing 


322. 

328. 

336. 
354. 

387. 
408. 

420. 


4.59. 
476. 
479. 


PAGE 

203 

238 

241 


facing 

244 

<( 

249 

(( 

263 

i( 

280 

United 

facing 

296 

on 

307 

facing 

309 

<( 

310 

(t 

330 

^^ 

331 

li 

337 

a 

348 

350 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS  —  LIST  OF  MAPS 


487.   The  World,  showing  Possessions  of  United 


States,    Germany, 
Netherlands   . 
493.    Western  Europe 
517.   Central  Europe 
566.    Asia,  Political    . 
568.   Asia,  Physical    . 
576.   Holy  Land 
610.    Africa,  Political 


Era 


ice, 


and    The 
facing 


355 
360 
376 
415 
416 
421 
446 


FKiURE  PAGK 

612.    Africa,  Physical         .         .         .        facing  447 

634.  Australia  and  Islands  of  the  Pacific,  Po- 
litical       facing  464 

636.    Australia    and    Islands    of    the    Pacific, 

Physical          ....       facing  465 

652.   Possessions  of  the  Leading  Nations  of  the 

World facing  476 

682.   Transportation  and  Telegraph  Lines     "  489 


BELIEF   MAPS 


FIGURE 

135.  North  America  . 

139.  United  States     , 

145.  New  England  States  . 

146.  Middle  Atlantic  States 
193.  Southern  States 

234.  Central  States    . 


PAGE 

103 
105 
112 
113 
148 
175 


FIGURE 

271.  Western  States 

426.  South  America 

451.  Europe 

567.  Eurasia 

611.  Africa 

635.  Australia   . 


PAGE 

203 
309 
331 
416 
447 
465 


CITY  MAPS 


FIGURE  PAGE 

182.   Buffalo,  Rochester,  and  Albany         .        .     139 

187.  New  York  City,  Philadelphia,  and  Balti- 

more (Colored)        .         .         .      facing     141 

188.  Boston,  Providence,  Portland,  and  Worces- 

ter   142 

221.   Baltimore,    Washington,    and    Philadel- 
phia         165 

224.   New  Orleans,  Memphis,  Birmingham,  and 

Atlanta 167 


259.   Chicago  and  Milwaukee    . 

263.    Detroit,    Toledo,    Cleveland,    Cincinnati 

and  Pittsburg        .... 
267.    St.   Louis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha,  Minne 

apolis,  and  St.  Paul 
303.    San   Francisco,    Portland,   Tacoma,   and 

Seattle  ..... 

349.   Montreal  and  Quebec 


193 

196 

198 

226 
259 


MAPS   ILLUSTRATING   CLIMATE 


405.  Wind  Belts  of  the  Earth  .         .         .         .292 

406.  Heavy  Rainfall,  where  Prevailing  Wester- 

lies blow  over  the  Rising  Coast     .         .  294 

407.  Mean  Annual  Rainfall  of  the  World         .  295 

408.  Mean    Annual    Rainfall    of    the    United 

States  (Colored)     .         .         .       facing  296 

409.  A  Weather  Map  of  the  United  States       .  296 

410.  A  Weather  Map  of  the  United  States       .  296 
416.    Isothermal   Chart   of   the  United  States 

for  January 304 


FIGURE  PAGE 

417.  Isothermal  Chart    of    the  United  States 

for  July 304 

418.  Isothermal  Chart  of  the  World  for  January     305 

419.  Isothermal  Chart  of  the  World  for  July  .     306 
430.  Rainfall  of  South  America        .         .         .311 

456.   Rainfall  of  Europe 335 

464.  Rainfall  of  British  Isles    .         .         .         .340 

616.  Wind  and  Rainfall,  Africa        .         .         .     4.50 

641.  Wind  and  Rainfall,  Australia  .         .         .     468 

690.   Map  of  the  Zones 499 


PRODUCT   MAPS 


201.  The  Cotton  Belt        .... 

209.  Forest  Regions  of  the  Southern  States 

213.  Coal  Fields  of  the  Southern  States  . 

371.  Corn  Regions  of  the  United  States   . 

373.  Wheat  Regions  of  the  United  States 


153 
157 
1.59 
275 
276 


375.    Cotton-producing  States,  United  States    .  277 

378.  Tobacco-producing  States,  United  States  277 

379.  Leading   Fruit-growing   Regions    of    the 

United  States 278 

380.  Irrigation  in  the  United  States  .         .  278 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS  —  LIST  OF  MAPS 


387.   Forest  Map  of  tlie  United  States  (Colored) 

facing     280 
Value  of  Lumber  and  Timber  Products 

of  the  United  States  .  .  .  .280 
Distribution  of  Fish,  North  America  .  281 
Distribution  of  Deposits  of  Coal  and  Iron 

in  the  United  States  ....  281 
Mineral  Regions  of  the  United  States  .  282 
Leading  Manufacturing  Districts  in  the 

-  United  States 283 

402.   Navigable  Tnterior  Water  Routes  of  the 

United  States  .  .  '  .  .  .285 
Railroads  of  the  United  States  .         .     286 

Trunk  Line  Railroads  in  Eastern  Part  of 

the  United  States 287 

Coal  Fields  of  Europe        •         .         .         .     333 
Coal  Distribution  in  the  British  Isles       .     342 
Geographic      Distribution      of      Indian 
Corn 478 


389. 

390. 
391. 

394. 
397. 


403. 
404. 

455. 
466. 
654. 


FIGURE  PAGB 

655.  Geographic  Distribution  of  Wheat  .  .  479 
657.    Geographic  Distribution  of  Cane  and  Beet 

Sugar     .        .        .        .        .        .         .479 

659.  Geographic  Distribution  of  Rice       .         .  480 

660.  Geographic  Distribution  of  Coffee    .         .  480 

662.  Geographic     Distribution    of     Tea     and 

Cacao 481 

663.  Geographic    Distribution    of    Sheep   and 

Cattle 481 

665.    Geographic  Distribution  of  Cotton  .         .  482 

667.    Geographic  Distribution  of  Silk        .         .  483 

669.    Geographic  Distribution  of  Coal       .         .  483 

671.  Geographic  Distribution  of   Rubber  and 

Petroleum 484 

672.  Geographic  Distribution  of  Iron  Ores  .  484 
674.  Geographic  Distribution  of  Gold  Ores  .  485 
676.  Geographic  Distribution  of  Silver  Ores  .  486 
678.    Geographic  Distribution  of  Manufactures  486 


POPULATION   MAPS 


141.   Distribution  of  Population  in  the  United 

States,  1790 106 

143.   Density  of  Population  in  North  America 

at  the  Present  Time         ....     107 
367.    Distribution  of  Population  in  the  United 

States,  1900 273 


428. 
457. 
572. 
614. 
640. 


Density  of  Population,  South  America 
Density  of  Population,  Europe 
Density  of  Population,  Asia 
Density  of  Population,  Africa  . 
Density  of  Population,  Australia 


PAGE 

310 
336 
419 
448 
468 


OTHER   MAPS 


142.   Map  to  show  when  and  how  the  United 

States  obtained  its  Territory         .        .     106 

183.    Erie  Canal 140 

196.   Fall  Line 150 

216.   Map  to  show  the  Extent  of  Cotton  Manu- 
facturing in  the  South  .         .         .         .162 
368.   Distribution  of  Principal  Cities  and  Towns 

of  the  United  States       ....     274 


FIGL'RB  PAGB 

413.  Ocean  Currents  of  the  World    .         .         .300 

414.  Ocean  Currents  of  North  America    .         .     301 
539.    Portion  of  The  Netherlands  below  the  Sea 

Level .392 

622.    The  Lower  Nile 455 

688.     Standard  Time  of  the  United  States        .     495 


WORLD    GEOGRAPHY 


PART   I.     HOME   GEOGRAPHY 


SECTION  I.    FOOD,   CLOTHING,  AND   SHELTER 


i.   Among  the   People  of   our  Own 
Country 

1.  Food 

In  the  spring,  men  begin  to  work  the 
soil.  Those  who  have  small  gardens 
What  the       break     up 

farmers  do       the  ground 

with  such  tools  as 
spades  and  forks. 
Those  who  live  on 
farms  turn  the  soil 
over  with  plows 
drawn  by  horses.  In 
these  ways  the  soil  is 
loosened  and  made 
soft,  so  that  seeds  and 
plants  can  grow  in 
it.  After  the  plant- 
ing is  done,  the  weeds 
must  be  killed  and 
the  soil  must  be  loos- 
ened again.  In  places  where  little  rain 
falls,  other  ways  of  watering  the  plants 
must  be  found. 

Later  in  the  summer,  the  crops  are 
ready  to  gather.  This  is  the  harvest 
season,  and  it  is  a  very  busy  time  for 
the  farmers.  They  often  begin  work  at 
sunrise,  and  do  not  stop  before  dark. 

They  raise  much  more  than  they  need 
for   themselves,  and  what  they  do  not 


want  they  sell.     Those  of  us  who  live 
in  the  city  eat  at  every  meal  ^^^  ^^^.^^ 
some  of  the  things  that  were  work  is  of 
grown  on  farms.    This  shows  ^^"® 
how  important  to  every  one  of  us  is  the 
work  of  farmers. 


A  herd  of  dairy  cows  in  pasture. 


One  of  their  most  valuable  crops  is 
grass.  To  be  sure,  we  do  not  eat  grass. 
Yet  it  helps  to  give  us  food.  Can  you 
tell  how  ?  If  you  cannot  answer  this 
question,  perhaps  Fig.  1  will  help  you. 
Make  a  list  of  the  different  kinds  of 
food  that  you  eat  in  one  day,  and  find 
how  many  of  them  come  from  farms. 

A  very  great  number  of  men  are  kept 
busy  raising  animals,  grain,  and  vege- 


HOME  CiEOGRAPlIY 


tables  to  furnish  food  for  other  people. 
How  would  you  like  that  kind  of  work  ? 
What  are  some  of  the  pleasant  things 
about  it  ? 

Many  other  people  are  at  work  pre- 
paring the  farm  crops  for  food.  For  ex- 
Preparing  ample,  milk  is  made  into 
our  food  butter  and  cheese,  oats  into 

oatmeal,  and  sugar-cane  into  sugar. 
Can  you  tell  the  story  of  a  loaf  of  bread  ? 

2.    Clothing 
Every  one  must  have  clothing  as  well 
as  food.       The     Indians     dressed    very 


Fig.  2.  —  Picking  cotton  in  a  cottonfield  in  tlie  Soutli.     TIh;  wiiite  patches  are  fluffy 
cotton  out  of  wliich  cotton  goods  are  made. 

lightly  in  summer;  but  in  winter  they 
had  to  wear  heavy  clothing  made  out 
of  the  skins  of  animals. 

We  wear  much  more  clothing  than 
the  Indians  did,  both  in  summer  and 
Materials  for     in  winter,  and  it  is  of  many 

more    kinds.     Most   of    the 

materials   for   our   clothing, 

as  well  as  those  for  our  food, 
come  from  the  soil.  For  example,  girls' 
dresses  are  often  made  of  cotton.  Point 
out  such  a  dress.  In  some  regions  cotton 
is   one  of  the  farmers'  principal  crops. 


our  clothing, 
and  where 
they  come 
from 


Fields  of  cotton  (Fig.  2)  are  as  common 
in  the  South  as  cornfields  are  in  the 
North. 

Linen  handkerchiefs,  collars,  and  cuffs 
are  made  of  flax.  This  plant  also  is 
raised  in  large  fields,  much  as  wheat  and 
oats  are  grown. 

Some  of  the  materials  for  our  cloth- 
ing come  from  animals  that  feed  on 
plants  For  example,  a  boy's  coat,  if 
not  made  of  cotton,  is  made  of  wool, 
which  grows  on  sheep.  Find  such  a  coat. 
The  leather  for  your  shoes  came  from 
the  hide  of  some  animal,  perhaps  a 
cow.  Name  several 
things  that  you  wear, 
and  tell,  if  you  can, 
from  what  material 
each  has  been  made. 

Cotton,  wool,  and 
hides  are  called  raw 
materials.  „,   , 

-,      ,  ,    Work  neces- 

Mujchwork  sary  to  change 
is     usually  raw  materials 
into  clothing 

necessary 

to  change  raw  mate- 
rials   into    clothing. 
For    example,    cotton 
and  wool  must  be  spun 
into  yarn  and  woven 
into  cloth.     Perhaps  you  can  tell  what 
more  must  be  done  to  make  a  dress  or 
coat.      What   are   some   of   the    things 
that   must   be  done  with  hides   before 
they  become  shoes  or  gloves? 

The  work  of  preparing  our  clothing 
keeps  many,  many  thousands  of  men 
and  women  busy  both  winter  and  sum- 
mer. Do  you  know  any  persons  who  do 
such  work  ?  Describe  some  of  this  work 
that  you  have  seen.  Where  was  it  done  ? 
What  clothing  have  you  seen  made  in 
your  own  home? 


FOOD,    CLOTHING,   AND   SHELTER 


3 


3.    Shelter 

Shelter,  as  well 
as  food  and  cloth- 


mor, 


IS 


Why  shel-    ^"o'  _ 

ter  is  very  im- 

necessary     portant. 

We  must  have 
houses  to  protect 
us  against  rain ; 
also,  against  the 
heat  of  summer 
and  the  cold  of 
winter.  We  must 
have  fuel,  too, 
such  as  coal,  or 
wood,  or  gas,  to 
warm  our  houses. 
The  Indians 
often  lived  in 
tents     called 

Materials  wigwams 
used  for      /jpjo.      3) 
shelter       rpi  ^" 
in  our  -^  ilGSG  cLY^ 

country  pleasant 
enough  in  sum- 
mer, but  are  very 
cold  in  winter. 
Sometimes  the  In- 
dians built  much  better  shelters,  in  some 
places  using  wood,  in  others,  stone  or 
clay. 

What  are  some  of  the  materials  that 
we  use  in  building  our  houses  ?  Make 
as  full  a  list  of  them  as  you  can.  Where 
does  the  wood  for  the  floors  and  for 
other  parts  of  a  house  come  from  ?  The 
stone  ?  Where  is  the  material  for  brick 
found  ?  For  nails  ?  Can  you  tell  where 
the  other  materials  in  your  list  come 
from  ?     Where  is  coal  found  ? 

Most  of  the  men  in  our  country  are 
engaged  in  some  one  of  these  three  kinds 


Fig.  3.—  An  Indian  wigwam,  the  home  of  the  Indian  girl  who 
stands  in  the  foreground  of  the  picture. 


of  work ;  that 
is,  in  preparing 
food,  or  clothing, 
or  shelter.  People 
living  in  other 
countries  have 
the  same  kinds  of 
work  to  do.  But 
in  many  other 
countries  the 
food,  clothing, 
and  shelter  are 
very  different 
from  ours,  for 
reasons  that  you 
will  now  learn. 

2.  Among  the 
Negroes  of 
Central  Af- 
rica 

Central  Africa, 
the  home  of  the 
Negroes,  is  a  part 
of  the  earth  where 
the  people  live 
in  a  very  strange 
way.     Have  you 


The  heat  and 
rain  in  Cen- 
tral Africa 


ever  thought  what  a  differ- 
ence   it    would    make    with 
us,   if  we   had   summer   all 
the  time  ?     Central  Africa  is  just  such  a 
land.     Every  day  in  the  year  is  hot. 

In  some  parts  of  Central  Africa  the 
air  is  damp  or  muggy,  too,  as  it  is  here 
on  our  most  unpleasant  summer  days, 
and  heavy  thunderstorms  are  common. 
It  is  one  of  the  rainiest  places  on  the 
earth. 

Where  there  is  so  much  heat  and  rain, 
plants  grow  very  rapidly.  You  have 
noticed,  perhaps,  how  grass  and  plants 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


thrive  on  warm,  damp  days.  Because 
there  is  just  such  weather  all  the  time 

The  vegeta-  ^^  *^^^^  P^^^  ^^  Africa,  plants 
tion  that  grow  there  in  vast 'numbers, 

grows  there  Giant  trees  are  found  in  the 
forests,  and  vines,  trees,  and  other  plants 
grow  so  close  together  that  one  cannot 
make  his  way  through  them  without 
cutting  a  path. 

Many  fruits  and  vegetables  grow  wild 
there ;  and  since  there  is  no  winter  in 


goats,  or  from  wild  game,  such  as  the 
buffalo  and  antelope. 

It  is  also  easy  to  provide  clothing  in 
hot  countries.  One  reason  is  that  not 
much  of  it  is  wanted.  Figure  4  shows 
how  little  clothing  is  needed  in  the  hot 
country  of  Central  Africa.  Sometimes 
skins  of  animals  are  used  ;  but  the  na- 
tives often  use  cloth  made  from  the 
bark  and  fiber  of  trees  and  plants  that 
grow  in  that  land. 

Since  there  is  no  win- 
ter,   one    mio;ht     think 


that    houses 


Their  shelter 


Fig.  4. — Negroes  of  Africa  sitting  in  front  of  their  grass-covered  huts 

that  land,  there  is  no  season  when  all 
the  vegetation  stops  growing  and  loses 
its  leaves. 

It  is  very  easy  for  people  to  obtain 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter  in  such  a  land. 
What  the         Food  is  plentiful.     Bananas 
people  eat         or  other  fruits  can  be  plucked 
wear  from  the  trees  and  bushes  at 

any  time  of  year.  Or  if  beans,  potatoes, 
and  corn  are  wanted,  one  has  only  to 
scrape  a  hole  in  the  soft  earth  for  plant- 
ing the  seeds.  There  is  plenty  of  meat 
to  be  had,  too,  from  cattle,  sheep,  and 


would      not 
be  needed  ;  but  the  heat 
and  rain  make  shelter  of 
some  sort  very  necessary. 
Sometimes     the    people 
live  in  trees,  or  in  caves, 
as     the    Swiss     Family 
Robinson    lived    for    a 
time.      Sometimes   they 
stick   branches   of   trees 
into   the  ground  in  the 
form  of  a  circle,  fasten 
the  upper  ends  together, 
and  then  cover  the  sides 
and  top  with  brush,  mud, 
grass,  or  straw  (Fig.  4). 
Their  huts  are  always  very  simple ;  they 
are  only  one  story  high  and  usually  have 
no  windows.      When   a   savage   Negro 
first   saw   one   of  our    houses,  he  cried 
out,  "  This  is  not  a  hut ;  it  is  a  moun- 
tain with  many  caves  in  it !  " 

You  can  see  that  the  Negroes  who 
live  in  the  hot,  damp  part  of  Central 
Africa  do  not  have  to  work  hard  for 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  Are  they 
fortunate  to  have  such  an  easy  time? 
Would  you  like  to  live  in  such  a  country 
and  in  such  a  way  ? 


FOOD,   CLOTHING,   AND   SHELTER 


3.   Among  the  Eskimos 

Far  to  the  north  of  us  is  the  home  of 
the  Eskimos.  They  have  both  summer 
The  cold  and  and  winter.  But  the  sum- 
snow  in  the  mer  is  so  cold  that  the 
Far  North  ground  does  not  thaw  ex- 
cept  at  the  very  surface.  The  winters 
are  bitterly  cold.  Heavy  snows  then 
fall,  the  ground  freezes  to  a  great  depth, 
and  thick  ice  forms  on  the  sea  (Fig.  5). 

In  such  a  country  no  trees  can  grow. 
The  Eskimo  children  have  never  seen 
Plants  and  ^^^es  of  any  kind.  Only 
animals  found  small  plants  are  found  there, 
^^^^  such  as  mosses,  grasses,  and 

very  low  bushes ;  and  these  plants,  grow- 


in  fishing  and  in  hunting  the  seal  and 
walrus ;  and  now  and  then  they  catch 
some  sea  birds  or  a  polar  bear.  They 
have  very  little  food  except  the  flesh  of 
these  animals.  Even  that  is  difficult  to 
get,  especially  in  winter  when  the  sea  is 
frozen  over  with  thick  ice. 

These  sea  animals  supply  oil  for  heat 
and  for  light  in  the  long,  dark  winter. 
The  seals  have  a  layer  of  other  uses 
fat  under  the  skin,  which  of  animals 
helps  to  keep  them  warm.  This  seal 
fat,  or  blubber,  is  burned  in  small 
lamps  for  both  heat  and  light.  But 
the  Eskimos  do  not  do  much  cooking. 
They  are  fond  of  raw  meat  and  eat  it 
even  when  it  is  frozen ! 


Fig.  5.  —  Eskimos  on  sledges  drawn  by  dogs  on  the  frozen  Arctic  Ocean. 


ing  wild,  furnish  no  food  except  a  few 
small  berries. 

With  so  little  vegetation,  there  can  be 
but  few  wild  animals  on  the  land,  for 
they  would  have  nothing  to  eat.  There 
are  a  few  reindeer,  foxes,  and  wolves, 
but  scarcely  any  other  land  animals. 

What,  then,  can  the  Eskimos  them- 
selves find  to  eat  ?  Not  very  many 
What  the  things,  to    be   sure.      They 

Eskimos  eat  have  to  look  to  the  sea,  not 
to  the  land,  for  their  food.  From  one 
year's  end  to  another,  they  are  engaged 


In  summer  the  Eskimos  go  hunting 
in  small  canoes,  or  kayaks,  that  are 
easily  upset  in  storms.  In  winter  they 
often  go  on  long  and  dangerous  journeys 
over  the  ice  on  sleds,  or  sledges,  drawn 
by  dogs  (Fig.  5).  Can  you  give  reasons 
why  horses  are  not  used  in  the  land  of 
the  Eskimo  ? 

The  sleds  and  canoes  are  not  made  of 
wood,  like  ours.  The  reason  is  that 
no  wood  grows  in  that  country.  The 
only  wood  the  Eskimos  have  is  that 
which  drifts  ashore  from  distant,  forest- 


6 


HOME   GEOGRAPHY 


covered  lands,  or  from  the  wrecks  of 
vessels.  There  is  so  little  of  this  that 
pieces  of  wood  are  highly  prized.  An 
Eskimo  will  gladly  exchange  valuable 
furs  for  a  small  amount  of  wood. 

Parts  of  the  bodies  of  animals  take 
the  place  of  wood  for  many  uses.  Their 
bones  are  used  to  build  the  framework 
of  the  sledges    and    kayaks,    and    their 


ent  that  is  from  the  clothing  worn  by 
the  Negroes  of  Central  Africa! 

The  Eskimo  houses  are  even  stranger 
than  their  clothing.  Although  there  is 
plenty  of  stone  for  building,  -^j^  ^j^^ 
it  hardly  pays  to  build  stone  Eskimos  build 
houses  because  the  Eskimos  snow  huts 
have  to  move  from  place  to  place  in 
order  to   find   food.      On    this    account 


Fig.  (J.  —  An  Eskimo  igloo  made  of  blocks  of  snow.     In  the  upper  riglit-hand  corner  is  a  little  figure  show- 
ing the  inside  of  the  igloo. 


skins  are  stretched  over  these  frames,  in- 
stead of  boards.  Bones  are  also  used  to 
make  spears,  fishhooks,  pipes,  and  even 
needles ;  and  skins  are  made  into  har- 
ness for  the  dogs. 

The  Eskimos  need  the  warmest  kind 
of  clothing.  Their  boots  are  made  of 
What  the  the  skins  of  animals,    with 

Eskimos  wear  the  fur  on.  Their  clothes 
also  are  made  of  fur ;  and  in  that  cold 
land  they  need  to  wear  these  furs  both 
in  summer  and  in  winter.     How  differ- 


whole  villages  often  must  be  moved 
many  miles. 

In  summer,  therefore,  the  Eskimos 
live  in  tents  made  of  skins,  which  are 
easily  taken  down  and  moved  about. 
In  winter  they  live  in  huts  made  of  snow. 
There  is  always  plenty  of  snow  at  hand, 
no  matter  where  the  people  happen  to  be ; 
and  in  an  hour  or  two  they  can  build  an 
igloo,  as  the  Eskimo  snow  huts  are  called. 

Figure  6  is  a  picture  of  one  of  these 
igloos.     It  is  about  forty  feet  around  the 


FOOD^   CLOTHING,   AND   SHELTER 


:;  outside,  and  is  made  of  bloclcs  of  snow 
I  piled  one  on  another,  till  it  is  high 
(  How  these  enough  on  the  inside  to  allow 
(  huts  are  built  a  man  to  stand  up.  The  en- 
trance is  through  a  snow  tunnel  about 
ten  feet  long,  and  so  low  that  the  Eski- 
mos have  to  crawl  through  it  on  their 
hands  and  knees.  The  purpose  of  this 
tunnel  is  to  keep  the  cold  winds  out  of 
the  hut.  When  all  the  persons  are 
inside,  the  tunnel  is  tightly  closed,  so 
that  no  draught  can  enter. 

A  stand  is  made  of  snow  for  the  lamp, 
which  gives  both  light  and  heat.  Low 
benches  of  snow,  covered  with  furs,  are 
used  for  beds.  A  whole  family,  and 
sometimes  two  families,  live  in  a  single 
hut  that  is  no  more  than  ten  or  fifteen 
feet  across. 

You  might  think  that  a  snow  hut 
would  not  be  very  warm  ;  but  the  snow 
The  warmth  keeps  out  the  cold,  and  even 
in  such  huts  when  it  is  stinging  cold  out- 
side, the  Eskimos  in  the  igloo  can  keep 
warm.  The  heat  of  their  bodies,  and 
of  the  small  blubber  lamp,  warms  the 
air  in  the  igloo,  so  that  it  is  often  too 
warm  for  comfort.  Of  course,  with  so 
many  people  in  a  single  small  room,  the 
air  becomes  very  close. 

If  a  family  decides  to  remain  in  one 
place  a  second  winter,  a  new  hut  has 
to  be  built,  because  the  old  one  melts 
down  during  the  summer.  No  wonder 
that  the  huts  are  small ! 

The  Negroes  of  Central  Africa  have 
little  work  to  do  at  any  season  to  find 
food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  But  the 
Eskimos  must  work  hard  for  these  things 
even  in  summer ;  and  in  winter  all  the 
people  of  a  village  may  starve  to  death. 
Are  people  in  our  own  country  better 
or  worse  off  than  the  Eskimos  ? 


4.    Among   the   People    of    the 
Desert 

While  parts  of  Central  Africa  are  hot 
and  wet,  northern  Africa  is  somewhat 
cooler,    and    very    dry.     In  The  desert  of 
fact  so  little  rain  falls  there  northern 
that    very    few    plants    can  ^^"*^* 
grow.     On  that  account    it  is  a  desert 
land,  called  the  Desert  of  Sahara. 

One  might  travel  hundreds  of  miles 
in  that  desert  without  seeing  a  tree,  or 
a  house,  or  even  a  patch  The  vegetation 
of  green  grass.  In  such  a  found  there 
journey,  perhaps  nothing  but  sand  and 
rock  and  a  few  half-starved  plants 
would  be  seen  (Fig.  7). 

A  little  rain  falls  now  and  then  even 
in  the  driest  part  of  the  desert,  and 
grass  and  flowers  quickly  spring  up 
whenever  that  happens.  To  be  sure, 
these  soon  wither  for  want  of  more  rain. 
But  a  few  kinds  of  plants,  like  the  acacia, 
are  able  to  live  a  long  time  even  in  such 
a  place.  Whenever  it  rains,  these  store 
up  water  in  their  roots,  or  leaves,  or 
stems,  and  this  keeps  them  alive  till 
the  next  rain  comes. 

Here  and  there  one  finds  trees  and 
green  grass.  For  in  some  places  streams 
flow  from  the  mountains  out  into  the 
desert,  and  in  other  places  springs  occur. 
These  springs  and  streams  water  the 
desert  soil  near  by,  so  that  grass  can 
grow ;  and  if  the  supply  of  water  lasts 
throughout  the  year,  trees  like  the  date 
palm  can  thrive.  Such  green  places  in 
the  desert  are  called  oases,  and  on  them 
are  found  gardens  and  villages.  The 
oases  are  like  beautiful  islands,  many 
miles  apart,  in  a  great  ocean  of  sand 
and  barren  rock. 

People  live  on  the   oases  year   after 


8 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


year.  Indeed,  good-sized  towns  have 
been  built  upon  some  of  them.  The 
fruit  that  these  families  most  commonly 

The  food  of  ^^^  ^®  ^^^  date,  from  the 
people  on  date   palm    tree  ;    they  also 

the  oases  xda^%  figs  and  wheat,  and 
keep  cattle,  camels,  sheep,  and  goats. 

Some  people  who  live  in  the  desert, 
however,  have  no  fixed  homes.  They 
The  nomads  spend  their  time  in  tending 
of  the  desert  herds  of  cattle,  sheep,  and 
goats.     As  soon  as  these  animals  have 


ket,  in  goatskins.     In  some  places  the 
people  drink  the  melted  butter. 

The  nomads  can  get  other  food  from 
the  people  who  live  on  the  oases.  Can 
you  name  something  that  they  could 
obtain  from  them  ?  What  food  might 
the  nomads  give  in  exchange? 

Food  can  also  be  brought  from  other 
countries.     Although   there  How  food  is 
are  no  railroads  across  that  ^^ught  from 

other  coun- 
desert,  and   no  rivers   large  tries 

enough    for   boats,    there   is  a  way  of 


Fig.  7.  —  A  barren  desert,  and  some  nomads  with  the  tents  in  which  they  live. 


eaten  the  grass  in  one  place,  they  must 
be  driven  to  another.  Thus  these 
herders,  like  the  Eskimos,  must  move 
about  and  take  their  families  with  them. 
They  spend  their  lives  wandering  about 
with  their  herds.  For  this  reason  they 
are  called  nomads,  or  wanderers  (Fig. 
7). 

For  food,  these  nomads  of  the  desert 
have  plenty  of  meat  and  milk  from 
their  camels,  cattle,  and 
goats.  They  make  butter, 
too  ;  but  it  is  so  warm  in  the  desert 
that  the  butter  is  sent,  melted,  to  mar- 


The  food  of 
the  nomads 


carrying  goods  from  place  to  place. 
This  is  by  means  of  the  camel  (Fig  8). 

This  animal,  often  called  "  the  ship  of 
the  desert,"  can  carry  a  heavy  load  on 
its  back,  and  can  travel  a  long  distance 
without  drinking.  Indeed,  the  camel 
has  in  his  body  a  sack  which  is  filled 
when  he  drinks,  and  which  holds  enough 
water  to  last  for  several  days.  The 
camels  are  driven  across  the  desert  in 
droves,  called  caravans. 

The  dress  of  the  people  of  the  desert, 
as  we  might  expect,  is  very  different 
from  that  of  the  Negroes.     The  days 


Fig.  8.  —  a  nomad  of  the  desert. 


FOOD,    CLOTHING,  AND   SHELTER 


are  very  warm,  for  the  sky  is  almost 
always  clear,  and  the  sun  shines  brightly. 
The  clothing  Figure  9  shows  the  kind  of 
of  the  people  clothing  that  is  worn.  The 
strange  covering  for  the  head  is  called 
a  turban.  It  protects  the  head  against 
the  sun  and  the  fine  sand  that  is  driven 
about  by  the  winds. 

Although  the  weather  is  hot  during 
the  day,  it  rapidly  becomes  cool  as  soon 


are  not  suited  to  the  nomads.     It  would 
not  be  worth  while  to  build  such  houses, 
when  they    might   be   used  ^j^   ^j^^ 
only  a  few  days.     Like  the  nomads  live 
Eskimos  in  summer,  there-  '^  ^^^^^ 
fore,  the  nomads  live  in  tents  (Fig.  7) 
that  can  easily  be  taken  down,  carried 
about,  and  set  up  again.     The  skins  of 
animals,  or  the  blankets  that  the  nomads 
weave,  are  used  as  covering  for  the  tents. 


Fig.  9. —  A  street  in  a  town  on  an  oasis  in  Nortliern  Africa.     Notice  the  house  made  of  suu-drit-d  clay. 


PS  the  sun  has  set,  and  the  nights  are 
quite  chilly.  Because  of  the  cool  nights 
these  people  need  much  more  clothing 
than  the  Negroes,  and  they  must  sleep 
under  heavy  blankets.  Their  herds 
supply  plenty  of  wool  for  cloth;  and 
other  materials  for  clothing  are  brought 
by  the  caravans. 

The  people  living  on  the  oases  remain 
in  one  place,  building  houses  of  sun-dried 
mud  or  clay  (Fig.  9).      But  mud  huts 


We  have  now  learned  some  facts 
about  the  Negroes  in  Central  Africa,  the 
Eskimos,  the  people  of  the  _^  ,,    , 

'  r      r  What  food, 

desert,  and  ourselves,  r  rom  clothing,  and 
what  has  been  said  it  is  plain  shelter  depend 
that  people  do  not  have  their 
own  way  fully  in  choosing  what  they 
shall  eat  and  wear,  and  the  kind  of 
houses  they  shall  have.  These  depend 
very  much  upon  the  amount  of  heat  and 
rain. 


10 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


About  how 
to  study 


In  studying  this  book  it  is  a  good  plan  to 

read  first  a  number  of  pages  without  stopping, 

just  as  you  would  read  any  story. 

For  instance,  the  first  3  pages  — 

up  to  the  part  telling  about  the 

Negroes  —  might  first  be  read  without  pause,  for 

the  purpose  of  finding  out  what  it  is  all  about. 

Then  you  might  read  the  same  part  through  a 

second  and  a  third  time,  watching  each  heading 

that  is  printed  near  the  margin  to  see  if  you  are 

getting  its  answer.     When  the  part  about  our 

country  has  been  studied  in  this  way,  the  part 

telling   about   the   Negroes  of  Central   Africa 

should  be  studied  in  a  similar  way ;  and  so  on 

through  the  book. 

1.   Name  some  of  the  things  that  farmers 

and  gardeners  do.     2.   How  is  their  work  im- 

.  portant?    3.    Give  examples  of 

-^       .y  other   kinds   of  work    that    are 

Questions  .  .     , 

necessary  m  preparing  our  food. 

4.    Out  of  what  materials  is  our  clothing  made  ? 

Where  do  such  materials  come  from  ?     5.   Tell 

about  the  work  necessary  to  change  these  raw 

materials   into   clothing.      6.    Why   is   shelter 

necessary  ?     7.    What  materials  are   used   for 

shelter  in  our  country  ?     8.    Where   do   these 

materials  come  from  ?     9.    What  can  you  tell 

about  the   heat  and   rain  in  Central  Africa  ? 

10.  What   sort   of   vegetation    grows    there  ? 

11.  What  do  the  people,  who  live  there,  eat  and 
wear  ?  12.  What  kind  of  shelter  have  they  ? 
13.  What  about  the  cold  and  snow  in  the  Far 
North  ?     14.    What   plants   and    animals    are 


found  there  ?  15.  What  is  the  food  of  the 
Eskimos  ?  16.  What  other  uses  do  they  make 
of  animals  ?     17.   What  do  the  Eskimos  wear  ? 

18.  Why    do     they    build     huts     of    snow  ? 

19.  How  are  such  huts  built  ?  20.  Why  is  it  not 
cold  in  the  igloos  ?  21.  What  about  heat  and 
rain  in  the  Desert  of  Sahara?  22.  Describe 
the  vegetation  there.  23.  What  is  the  food  of 
the  people  ?  24.  What  are  the  oases  ?  Who 
live  on  them  ?     What  kind  of  houses  have  they  ? 

25.  What  is  meant  by  the  nomads  of  the  desert  ? 

26.  What  food  do  they  eat?  27.  How  is 
food  brought  to  them  from  other  countries  ? 
28.  What  kind  of  clothing  is  worn  by  the  people 
of  the  desert  ?  29.  Why  do  the  nomads  live  in 
tents?  30.  Why  is  there  so  little  plant  and 
animal  life  in  the  Far  North,  and  in  the  Sahara 
Desert,  while  there  is  so  much  of  each  in  Central 
Africa?  31.  Why  do  the  Eskimos  have  so  few 
kinds  of  food,  clothing,  and  shelter,  while  we 
have  so  many  ? 

1.    If  you  have  visited  some  garden,  or  farm, 

in  the  spring,  tell  how  the  ground  is  prepared 

for  planting.     2.   What  kinds  of 

work  are  done  later  in  the  season  ?   Suggestions 

3.    Make  a  list  of  products  that  ^°^  study  at 

J  n  ^  home  and 

some  gardener  or  farmer  near  you   ^^^  ^^  ^^^^^ 

is  raising.     4.   What  things  that 

your  grocer  sells  have  come  from  some  garden 

or  farm  ?     5.    Make  a  list  of  the  many  kinds  of 

work  that  you  have  seen  men  doing,  and  find 

how  many  on  the  list  have  to  do  with    food, 

clothing,  and  shelter. 


SECTION   II.     LAND,   WATER,   AND   AIR 


1.   The   Land 
1.   Soil 

Heat  and  rain  are  very  important,  as 
we  have  seen.  But  they  are  not  suffi- 
cient alone  to  provide  people  with  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter.  Something  else  is 
needed  also,  and  that  is  the  soil,  or  dirt,  in 
which  plants  grow. 

As  soon  as  the  warm  spring  weather 
comes,  thousands  and  thousandsof  men  in 
our  own  country  begin  to  work  the  soil,  in 


gardens  and  on  farms  (Fig.  10).     Indeed, 
more  than  one  third  of  all   the   people 
in    the    United    States    live  jhevaiueof 
on  farms.    They  spend  their  the  soil  in 
lives  in  raising  plants,  and  °^  country 
animals  that  feed  on  plants,  such  as  cows, 
sheep,  hogs,  and  chickens.    What  they  do 
not  need  for  themselves  they  sell  to  other 
people.     Our  flour,  potatoes,  and  sugar, 
the  cotton  for  our   clothing,   and    hun- 


dreds of   other 
soil. 


things   come    from   the 


LAND,    WATEJi.  AND   AIR 


11 


Fig.  10.  —  Men  plowing  a  field  iu  which  wheat  is  to  be  .sown. 


The  dense  forests  of  Central  Africa, 
and  the  fruits  and  vegetables  of  that 
Its  value  in  land,  all  spring  from  its 
other  places  goil,  warmed  by  the  hot  sun 
and  kept  moist  by  the  rains.  It  is  the 
warm  soil  again,  watered  by  streams 
and  springs,  that  makes  life  on  the 
oases  of  the  desert  possible. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is  the  cold  in 
the  land  of  the  Eskimos  that  freezes  the 
soil  and  prevents  the  growth  of  trees 
and  crops.  It  is  the  frozen  soil  that 
drives  the  Eskimos  to  the  sea  for  food. 

The  dirt  under  your  feet  may  seem 
hardly  worth  thinking  about ;  but  it  is 
Why  soil  is  really  one  of  the  most  im- 
of  so  great  portant  things  in  the  world, 
importance  jf  there  were  no  soil,  there 
could  be  no  grass,  no  flowers,  no  trees. 
Without  grass  and  grain  there  could  be 
no  cattle,  horses,  or  sheep ;  in  fact,  few 
animals,  such  as  are  found  upon  the  land, 
could  live ;  for  what  would  they  eat  ? 
What,  then,  would  you  yourself  find  to 
eat?  There  would  be  no  fruits  or  vege- 
tables, no  bread  or  butter,  milk,  or  meat. 
We  ourselves  could  not  live  if  there 
were  no  soil. 

Since  the  soil  is  so  important,  it  is 
worth  while  to  study  about  it.     How  it 


has  been  formed,  how  plants  make  use 
of  it,  and  what  men  do  to  increase  its 
value  to  plants,  —  these  are  all  very  in- 
teresting questions  that  every  one  should 
be  able  to  answer. 

If  you  have  ever  made  mud  pies,  or 
played  in  the  dirt  in  other  ways,  per- 
haps you  have  sometimes  what  the  soil 
wondered  what  the  soil  is  is  made  of 
made  of.  It  has  not  always  been  dirt 
or  mud.  You  know  that  the  wood  in 
your  desk  has  not  always  been  a  part 
of  the  desk  ;  it  used  to  be  a  part  of  a 
tree,  and  has  a  long  story  to  tell  abput 
itself  before  it  was  brought  to  your 
school.  So,  also,  the  soil  has  a  long 
story  to  tell  about  itself.  Let  us  see 
what  that  story  is. 

When  mud  dries  upon  your  hands, 
and  you  rub  them  together,  you  notice 
an  unpleasant,  gritty  feeling.  This  is 
caused  by  hard  bits  of  something  in 
the  soil.  If  you  rub  some  of  this  dirt 
upon  a  smooth  piece  of  glass,  you  can 
perhaps  hear  it  scratch  the  glass.  This 
shows  that  these  little  bits  must  be  very 
hard  ;  for  if  they  were  not,  they  could 
not  scratch  anything  as  hard  as  glass. 
They  must  be  even  harder  than  a  pin, 
for  you  cannot  scratch  glass  with  a  pin. 


12 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


It  will  help  you   to 
these   bits    are,   if   you 


find    out  what 
examine    some 


Fui.  11.  —  A  stump  of  a  tree  decaying,  or  rotting. 

sand.  The  grains  of  sand  are 
tiny  bits  of  rock,  large  enough  to 
be  clearly  seen.  When  they  are 
rubbed  against  glass,  they  scratch 
it,  because  they  are  very  hard  and 
sharp. 

Sand  is  made  of  rock  that  has 
been  broken  up  into  fine  pieces. 
Soil  is  made  of  rock  also  ;  but  the 
pieces  are  still  finer  than  sand. 
The  soil  that  you  have  seen,  such 
as  that  in  the  school  yard,  or  by 
the  side  of  the  walk,  or  in  a  flower- 
pot, came  mostly  from  hard  rock. 

Soil  has  been  made  in  several 
ways,  which  you  may  learn  about 
How  soU  is  later ;  but  most  of  it 
made  from  rock  hag  j^een  formed  by 
the  decay  of  rock.  You  know  that 
the  stumps  of  trees  and  the  boards 
in  sidewalks,  after  a  long  time, 
become  so  soft  that  they  fall  to 
pieces.  Perhaps  you  have  called 
it  "rotting,"  but  that  means  the 
same  as  decaying.  The  picture 
(Fig.  11)  shows  such  a  stump. 

Other  things,  even  harder  than 
wood,  decay  in  much  the  same  way, 
although    perhaps    more    slowly. 


Bright  and  shiny  nails  decay  until  they 
become  a  soft  yellow  rust.  Tin  cans 
and  iron  pipes  rust  until  holes  appear  in 
them  and  they  leak. 

You  may  not  have  thought  that  stones 
also  decay,  but  they  do.  The  headstones 
in  old  graveyards  are  often  so  crumbled 
that  the  letters  can  scarcely  be  read, 
and  sometimes  the  stones  have  fallen  to 
pieces.  The  decay  of  rock  may  also  be 
seen  in  old  stone  buildings,  bowlders,  and 
rock  cliffs.     Have  you  ever  noticed  this? 

There  are  several  causes  for  this  decay. 
All  rocks  have  cracks  in  them  (Fig.  12). 


Fig.  1'2. —  A  rock  cliff  showing  the  cracks  that  extend  through 
the  rock ;  also,  at  the  base  of  the  cliff,  a  large  pile  of  rock  frag- 
ments that  have  bee!i  loosened  by  frost,  and  have  fallen  down 
the  steep  slope. 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


13 


Usually  some  of  these  cracks  are  so 
large  that  they  can  be  plainly  seen ;  but 
„.,  ^  there    are    many   others    so 

What  causes  -^ 

the  decay  small  that  they  cannot  be 
of  rock  gggjj  without  a  magnifying 

glass.  When  it  rains,  the  water  steals 
into  the  cracks,  and  by  eating  into  and 


Fig.  13.  —  A  cut  into  the  earth.     In  this  figure  notice  the  soil  on  top 
partly  decayed  rock  lower  down,  and  solid  rock  below  that. 


rotting  the  rock,  this  water  very  slowly 
changes  it  into  a  powder. 

The  water  may  also  freeze  in  the 
cracks  and  pry  the  stone  apart.  Per- 
haps you  have  seen  iron  pipes  or  water 
pitchers  that  have  been  burst  by  water 
freezing  in  them.  This  shows  that 
water,  when  freezing,  expands ;  it  can 
even  break  rocks  apart.  Some  of  the 
pieces  of  rock  broken  off  in  this  way 
are  very  small,  others  are  quite  large 
(Fig.  12). 

Plants  help  the  water  to  break  up  the  rock. 
Their  Kairlike  roots  push  into  the  cracks,  and 
remain  there  until  they  grow  so  large  that  they 
pry  off  pieces. 

The  earthworms  that  one  often  sees  on  a  lawn 
after  a  heavy  rain  also  help  in  breaking  up  the 
rock.  In  order  to  get  food,  they  take  soil  into 
their  bodies  and  grind  the  coarse  bits  together 
until  these  become  very  fine. 

Rock  changes  to  soil  most  rapidly  near 
the  surface.     This  is  because  the  rain. 


roots  of  plants,  and  earthworms  can  reach 
it  there  most  easily.     For  this  reason  the 
deeper  you  dig  into  soil  that  Why  solid 
is  formed  by  the  decay  of  be'^^af"^"'^ 
rocks,  the  less  you  will  find  soil 
the    rock    changed    (Fig    13)  ;    and   no 
matter  where  you  live,  if  you  dig  deep 

enough,   you    will    come    to 

solid  rock. 

Figure  14  shows  the  soil  a  little 
less  than  two  feet  deep.  Some- 
times there  is  much 

more  than  this,  and  ^^y  ^^  ^o'l 
_  -, .      IS  of  different 

men  may  even  dig    ,     .. 

deep  wells  without 

finding  rock.     But  in  many  places 

there  are  only  a  few  inches  of  soil, 

and  in  others  there  is  not  enough 

even  to  hide  the  rock. 

One  reason  why  the  soil  is  deeper 

in  some  places  than  in  others  is 

that   some   kinds   of   rock   decay 

much  more  easily  than  other  kinds.     Another 

reason  is  that  in  some  places  the  rain  washes 

the  bits  away  as  fast  as  the  rocks  crumble.    This 

may  leave  the  rock  quite  bare  in  one  place, 

and  make  very  deep  soil  in  the  places  where 

the  broken  bits  have  been  brought  together 


Fig.  14.  —  A  cul  in  the  barili,  sliuwiii 
the  solid  rock. 


tile  soil  rt-Klii 


14 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Having  learned  how  the  soil  is  formed, 
let  us  see  how  plants  make  use  of  it. 

An  acorn  planted  in  the  soil  sprouts 
and  sends  up  a  tiny  stem.  This  grows 
taller    and    taller,    and   sends    out   one 


Fig.  15.  —  A  photograph  of  four  weeds,  showing  the  great 
number  of  long,  hairlike  roots. 

branch  after  another  until  the  little 
The  use  that  ^^^®  becomes  a  mighty  oak. 
plants  make  What  a  lot  of  material  has 
of  the  soil  been  usecf  to  make  such  a 
tree  !     Where  has  it  all  come  from  ? 

Some  of  it  has  been  taken  out  of  the 
air  by  the  leaves,  but  most  of  it  has 
been  taken  from  the  soil -by  the  roots. 
While  the  stem,  branches,  and  leaves 
have  been  growing  above  ground,  the 


the  hairlike 
roots 


roots  have  been  growing  underground, 
where  we  cannot  see  them.  These  roots 
have  spread  out  in  all  directions  (Fig.  15) 
and  have  extended  deep  into  the  soil,  in 
search  of  things  needed  by  the  tree. 
Dig  up  a  weed  in  order  to  see  how 
its  roots  have  pushed  their  way  in 
and  out  through  the  soil. 

Eoots  have   no   eyes,  to  be  sure ;   but 
they  burrow  about,  and  in  their  own  way 
find  what  they  need.     It  is 
not  the  large  or  old  roots,   The  value  of 
however,  that   do   this.      It 
is    the   work   of  the   young 
roots,  many  of  which  are  not  much  larger 
than  hairs  (Fig.  15). 

If  you  dig  up  a  weed,  or  any  other 
plant,  very  carefully,  you  will  see  that  it 
has  a  great  many  such  hairlike  roots.  It 
is  these  that  take  the  materials  from  the 
soil,  while  the  older,  larger  roots  merely 
pass  these  material*  on  to  the  part  of  the 
plant  above  ground.  Every  tree,  every 
blade  of  grass,  every  weed  and  vegetable 
depends  upon  such  tiny  roots  for  its  life. 

One  of  the  things  that  the  roots 
of  plants  seek  in  the  soil  is  water. 
Plants    need    water    as  what  plants 
much  as  you  do ;  and  a  take  from 
plant  in  a  flower-pot  will  *®  ^°^ 
soon    wither   and  die  if  it  is  given 
no  water.      Try  it,  to  see  for  your- 
self.    That  is  the  reason   we  water 
our    lawns    during   dry  weather    in 
summer. 
Roots  take   from  the  soil  other   sub- 
stances  called  plant  food.      This   plant 
food  is  a  part  of  the  soil  itself,  and  is 
as  necessary  to  plants  as  food  is  to  you. 
It  is  carried,  in  the  sap,  to  all  parts  of 
the  plant  and  used  to  make  stems,  leaves, 
flowers,  fruit,  and  seeds,  as  the  blood  in 
your  body   is   used  to  make  bones  and 
flesh.     Every  blade  of  grass  and  every 
limb  of  a   tree  contains    some    of    this 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


15 


plant  food  that  was  once  a  part  of  the 
rocks.  When  a  piece  of  wood  is  burned, 
some  of  this  rock  material  is  left  behind 
in  the  ashes. 

Every  person,  even,  has  some  plant 
food  in  his  body ;  your  bones  and  teeth 
are  partly  made  of  it.  But  you  did  not 
take  it  directly  from  the  soil ;  the  plants 
took  it  for  you,  and  you  received  it  from 
them  in  the  bread  and  other  foods  that 
you  have  eaten. 

All  plants  do  not  need  the  same  kind 
of  food,  any  more  than  all  animals  do. 
Why  many  Horses  eat  hay  and  grain ; 
kinds  of  soil  dogs  eat  meat.  So,  also, 
are  needed  gome  plants  need  one  kind 
of  food,  others  another.  These  various 
kinds  of  plant  food  are  found  in  the 
different  kinds  of  soil. 

There  are  many  different  kinds  of  soil. 
Sometimes  the  rock  has  crumbled  into  very 
small  bits,  making  a  fine-grained 
soil ;  again  the  pieces  are  so  large 
that  the  soil  is  coarse.  In  fact, 
in  some  soils  the  pieces  of  rock 
are  so  large  that  some  of  them  are  pebbles. 
Then,  too,  there  are  many  kinds  of  rock,  such 
as  granite,  marble,  and  sandstone  ;  and  when 
they  crumble  they  make  different  kinds  of  soil. 

In  some  places  the  soil  has  plenty  of 
plant  food  in  it.  To  raise  good  crops 
in  such  soil,  men  have  to 
do  nothing  beyond  plowing, 
planting,  and  hoeing.  Central  Africa 
has  a  great  deal  of  that  kind  of  soil,  and 
so  has  the  United  States.  Soil  with 
plenty  of  plant  food  in  it  is  said  to  be 
rich,  or  fertile. 

There  is  also  much  soil  that  has  little 
plant  food  in  it,  and  that  is  said  to  be 
_,   .,      .,        poor,  or  sterile.     One  reason 

Sterile  soil  c  ^^  -i     •        i  ^ 

tor   sterile   soil   is   that  the 
rock  from  which  the  soil  has  come  may 


What  causes 
different  kinds 
of  soil 


Fertile  soil 


contain  little  plant  food.  On  that  ac- 
count one  farm  may  be  much  more 
sterile  than  another  next  to  it. 

Soil  that  was  once  fertile  may  become 
sterile,  because  plants  are  always  taking 
some  of  the  plant  food  out  HowfertUe 
of  it.     They  must  do  this  in  soil  may  be- 
order  to  grow.     When  weeds  *^**™®  stenie 
and  trees  fall  and  decay  on  the  spot  where 
they  grew,  they  pay  back  what  they  took 
away.     But  if  plants  are  carried  away 
from  the  spot  where  they  grew,  there  is 
danger  that  fertile   soil  may  be  made 
quite  sterile. 

This  often  happens.  Farmers  send 
away  their  wheat  to  make  flour,  and 
take  their  corn,  hay,  and  oats  to  market. 
Indeed,  they  have  to  do  this  in  order 
to  make  a  living.  Some  farmers  have 
sent  their  crops  away  year  after  year, 
without  putting  anything  back  in  the 
ground  to  take  the  place  of  what  was 
carried  away.  The  result  is  that  the  soil 
has  become  really  worn  -out,  or  sterile, 
and  the  farmers  are  no  longer  able  to 
support  their  families  on  such  land. 

The  wise  farmer  takes  care  to   put 
some  plant  food  back  upon  the  soil,  to 
replace  what  his  crops  have  g^^  ^j^ 
taken  from  it.     Then  he  can  danger  can 
continue  to  raise  good  crops.  ^®  avoided 
That  which  he  puts  back  upon  the  soil 
is  called  a.  fertilizer,  because  it  keeps  the 
soil  fertile.     People   in   the   city  often 
spread  fertilizers  on  their  lawns,  to  feed 
the  grass  and  thus  make  it  grow. 

Millions  of  dollars  are  spent  in  the 
United  States  every  year  for  fertilizers. 
If  this  were  not  done,  the  crops  would 
not  be  nearly  so  valuable.  Then  the 
farmers  would  suffer ;  and  since  we  all 
depend  upon  the  products  which  they 
raise,  we  would  all  suffer.     Farming  is 


16 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


the  most  important  industry  not  only  in 
our  country,  but  in  the  whole  world. 
Therefore,  what  is  important  to  the 
farmer  is  important  to  every  one. 

1.  Why  is  the  soil  in  our  country  so  valu- 
able ?  2.  What  about  its  value  in  other  places  ? 
3.  Why  is  the  soil  one  of  the 
most  important  things  in  the 
world  ?  4,  What  is  the  soil  made 
of  ?  5.  How  has  it  been  made  ?  6.  What 
causes  rock  to  crumble  ?  7.  How  does  it  hap- 
pen that  solid  rock  is  everywhere  found  be- 
neath the  soil  ?  8.  Why  is  the  soil  of  different 
depths  ?  9.  What  use  do  plants  make  of  the 
soil?     10.    What  is  the  work  done  by  the  hair- 


Review 
Questions 


2.  Plains 


If  the  soil  that  rests  on  the  rock  had 
a  smooth  and  level  surface  like  a  floor, 
it  would  be  unfit  for  farm- 
ing.     For  the  water,  after  a  sloping  land 
heavy  rain,  would  then  stand  is  the  best 
in   a    thin    sheet   upon   the    °^  ^^^^^^s 
ground.     This   would  drown  the  crops 
and  prove  unhealthful  for  both  people 
and  animals. 

Land  with  steep  slopes  is  also  unfit 
for  farming.  The  rains  wash  away 
much  of  the  dirt  on  these  slopes,  until 


Fig.  1(3.  —  Farmers  cutting  wheat  ou  the  broad  plains  of  the  West. 


like  roots  of  plants  ?  11.  Name  two  things  that 
plants  take  from  the  soil.  12.  Why  is  it  im- 
portant that  there  should  be  different  kinds 
of  soil  ?  13.  What  causes  the  different  kinds  ? 
14.  What  is  meant  by  fertile  soil  ?  15.  By 
sterile  soil  ?  16.  How  may  fertile  soil  be 
made  sterile  ?  17,  How  can  such  danger  be 
avoided  ? 

1.  Find  a  place  where  men  are  digging  a 
ditch,  or  a  cellar,  to  see  how  the  dirt  looks  be- 
low the  surface.  2.  Find  a 
bowlder,  cliff,  or  old  stone  wall, 
that  is  crumbling  away.  3.  Col- 
lect several  different  kinds  of 
soil.  4.  Find  out  what  trees  and 
vegetables  grow  best  near  your  home.  5.  Visit 
a  greenhouse  to  find  out  what  kind  of  soil  is 
used  there,  and  what  is  done  to  keep  it  fertile. 
6.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  roots  of  some  weed 
that  has  been  carefully  dug  up. 


Suggestions 
for  study  at 
home  and 
out  of  doors 


only  a  rough,  thin  soil  is  left ;  sometimes 
even  the  bare  rock  is  uncovered.  The 
crops,  too,  are  often  washed  away  from 
such  steep  slopes  by  the  heavy  rain.  It 
is  very  difficult,  also,  to  do  the  work  of 
planting,  plowing,  and  harvesting  on  a 
steep  hillside. 

Land  that  has  gentle  slopes  is  better 
for  farming.  The  water  runs  off  more 
slowl}^,  without  washing  the  soil  away 
or  injuring  the  crops.  More  of  the 
water  soaks  into  the  soil,  leaving  it 
in  a  condition  for  the  farmer  to  work,  or 
cultivate,  easily. 

Land  of  this  kind,  with  slopes  so 
gentle  that  it  is  nearly  level,  or  slightly 
rolling,  is  called  a  plain.     A  very  large 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


17 


The  extent  of 
plains  in  the 
United  States 


part  of  our  country  consists  of  such 
plains,  and  this  is  one  reason  why  the 
United  States  is  one  of  the 
finest  farming  countries  in 
the  world  (Fig.  16). 
If  you  were  to  cross  our  country  on 
the  railroad  you  might  travel  for  two  or 
three  days  over  nearly  level  plains,  with 
no  mountains,  and  not  even  any  high 
hills,  in  sight.  On  either  side  of  the 
track  you  might  see  one  farmhouse  after 
another,  each  surrounded  in  summer  by 
fields   of   waving   grain,  and  by  green 


There  are  thousands  of  swatnps  in  our 
country,  and  it  is  quite  common  for  a 
farm  to  have  one  or  more  of  them  upon 
it.  Swamp  land  cannot  be  cultivated 
until  it  is  drained;  that  is,  until  the 
water  is  made  to  run  off.  Drainage  of 
such  land,  therefore,  becomes  a  very 
important  matter. 

Swamp   soil    is    usually  very  fertile. 
For  this  reason,  when  there  is  no  natu- 
ral slope   to   carry   off   the  what  is  done 
water,  men  often  set  to  work  with  swamps 
to    make    one.     For  this  purpose   they 


Fig.  17.  —  Au  opeu  ditch  dug  through  a  swamp  iu  order  to  drain  oiT  tlie  water. 


pastures  in  which  horses,  cattle,  and 
sheep  were  feeding.  Now  and  then  the 
train  would  pass  through  a  village  or  a 
city;  but  every  where  else,  for  hundreds  of 
miles,  you  would  find  only  fertile  farms. 

In  many  places,  even  from  a  train, 
one  can  easily  see  that  there  are  slopes 
Theimpor-  on  this  great  plain,  down 
tance  of  slopes  which  the  water  runs  freely. 
But  in  parts  of  the  plain  the  slopes  are 
so  gentle  that  the  surface  seems  to  the 
eye  to  be  perfectly  flat.  Yet  the  fact 
that  the  water  runs  off,  proves  that  even 
here  the  land  has  a  slope. 

Here  and  there,  however,  the  surface 
is  so  level  that  the  water  does  not  all  run 
off,  but  makes  wet  places,  called  swamps. 


dig  ditches  with  sloping  bottoms  that 
allow  the  water  to  run  away  to  some 
lower  place. 

Sometimes  the  ditches  are  left  open, 
as  in  the  picture  (Fig.  17).  More  often 
tiles  are  laid  along  the  bottom,  forming 
a  kind  of  pipe,  and  then  the  earth  is 
thrown  back.  The  water  finds  its  way 
into  these  pipes  and  thus  flows  away. 
Such  drainage  is  expensive,  but  it  usu- 
ally pays  well,  for  it  makes  good  fertile 
farm  land  out  of  land  that  before  was 
useless. 

A  plam  is  a  nearly  level,  or 
gently  rolling,  part  of  the  land.    Definitions 

A  sioamp  is  wet  land  from 
which  the  water  does  not  run  off  freely. 


18 


HOME  GBOGRAPBY 


1.  Why  is  gently  sloping  land  the  best  kind 
for  farming?  2.  What  about  the  extent  of 
such  land  in  the  United  States  ? 
3.  Why  are  slopes  of  great  im- 
portance? 4,  Why  are  swamps 
drained  ?     5.    How  is  this  done  ? 


Review 
Questions 


Suggestions 


1.  Find  some  ground  near  your  home  that 
seems  nearly  level.  In  what  direction  does  it 
really  slope  ?  2.  Where  is  the 
longest  slope  in  your  neighbor- 
hood ?  Would  you  call  it  a  part  of  a  plain  ? 
Why  ?  3.  Find  out  whether  or  not  there  are 
any  swamps  near  you.  If  so,  tell  how  you 
might  plan  to  drain  one  of  them.  4.  Why 
should  a  farmer  use  tile  and  fill  up  a  ditch, 
rather  than  leave  it  open  ? 


No  matter  in  what  direction  you  look, 
in  a  liilly  country,  the  scenery  changes. 
The  view  from  the  top,  or  summit,  of  a 
hill  that  requires  only  a  few  minutes  to 
climb,  is  very  different  from  the  view  at 
its  base  (Fig.  18).    Can  you  explain  why? 

The  higher  hills,  which  may  require 
several  hours  to  climb,  furnish  even 
finer  views.  From  the  summit  of  such 
a  hill  one  can  see  hilltop  after  hilltop, 
with  valleys  between,  stretching  out  for 
miles  in  the  distance.  The  valleys  wind 
in  and  out  among  the  hills,  with  perhaps 
a  rugged  cliff  too  steep  to  climb  on  one 


Fig.  18.  —  A  view  in  a  liilly  country,  with  a  lake  in  the  valley.     Here  some  of  the  slopes  are  too  steep  for  farms, 

and  are,  therefore,  still  covered  by  forests. 


3.    Hills  and  Valleys 

Plains  are  usually  so  level  that  one 
can  see  for  miles  upon  them  in  every 
The  beauty  of  direction.  The  surface  is  so 
a  huiy  country  flat  that,  no  matter  where 
one  looks,  one  sees  the  same  kind  of 
scenery. 

It  is  very  different  in  a  region  where 
the  slopes  are  steeper.  The  higher  parts 
are  called  hills,  and  the  lower  parts,  be- 
tween the  hills,  are  called  valleys. 


side,  and  a  long  wooded  slope  on  the 
other.  In  the  bottom  of  the  valley  one 
can  possibly  see  a  brook  or  a  river  wind- 
ing about.  If  you  live  among  hills,  de- 
scribe some  of  the  walks  and  views  that 
you  have  enjoyed. 

The  soil  on  hills   may  be  deep  and 
fertile;      and     then,     even  uses  made 
though  it  is  not  so  easy  to  o*  ^^s 
cultivate    the    ground,    the    hilly   land, 
like  the  plains,  is  used  for  farms. 

Many  people  build  their  houses  upon 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


19 


hills  in  order  to  enjoy  the  beautiful 
views  and  the  cool,  fresh  air  there  in 
summer.  Do  you  know  of  any  such 
house  near  you  ? 

Another  and  even  more  important 
reason  is  that  it  is  more  healthful  to 
live  on  high  ground.  Where  the  land  is 
low,  the  slope  is  often  so  gentle  that  the 
water  cannot  flow  off  readily.  Houses 
in  such  places  often  have 
cellars  that  are  damp,  and 
the  people  living  in  such 
houses  are  in  danger  of 
fever,  and  of  other  kinds 
of  sickness,  caused  by  this 
dampness.  But  from  a 
hillside,  the  water  runs 
away  quickly,  so  that  the 
ground  there  soon  be- 
comes dry  even  after  a 
heavy  rain. 

In  large  cities,  where 
land  is  very  expensive, 
people  build  almost  every- 
where. The  low  places 
are  carefully  drained  like 
swamps  on  farms;  drain 
pipes,  or  sewers,  being 
used  to  carry  off  the 
water. 


The  bottoms  of  valleys,  uniike  hills, 
usually  have  gentle  slopes.  This  fact 
has  had  a  great  influence  xheuseofval- 
upon    the    roads    of    every  leys  for  roads 

country    (Fig.    20).        For    it   and  railways 

is  easier  to  travel  in  a  valley  than  to 
go  up  and  down  across  the  hills.  On 
that  account,  when  white  men  first  came 
to  this  country,  and  settled  among  the 


Fig.  lit.  —  The  ruiii.s  of  castles,  built  on  the  crests  ot  steep  hills  in  the  Rhine 
Valley  in  Germany. 


In  times  past,  when  war  was  more  common 
than  now,  men  built  great  castles,  with  thick 
walls,  on  the  summits,  or  crests,  of  hills  (Fig.  19). 
From  these  they  could  look  out  over  the  coun- 
try for  a  long  distance,  and  spy  approaching 
enemies  in  time  to  prepare  for  them.  Besides 
this,  the  steep  sides  of  the  hills  were  difficult 
for  the  enemy  to  climb. 

Some  of  the  Indians  used  to  build  their  towns 
upon  the  tops  of  steep  hills,  in  order  to  be  safe 
from  other  Indians.  For  the  same  reason  the 
early  settlers  in  New  England  placed  their 
churches  and  villages  upon  the  hilltops.  At 
present,  hills  are  little  needed  for  protection 
against  enemies. 


main    roads   in 
same    thing   is   still 


hills,    they   built   their 
the   valleys.     The 
done. 

Railroads  have  also  been  built  in  the 
valleys.  Trains  cannot  be  drawn  up 
steep  slopes,  and  therefore  the  railroads 
must  either  cut  through  the  hills  or  else 
follow  the  valleys.  The  latter  is  much 
the  cheaper  plan,  so  that  in  a  hilly 
country  railroads  wind  in  and  out,  often 
making  sharp  curves  in  order  to  follow 
the  valleys  (Fig.  20). 


20 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  20.  —  A  road  and  a  railway  winding  up  a  mountain  valley 

Where  the  country  is  more  nearly 
level,  as  upon  a  plain,  it  is  easier  to 
travel  in  a  straight  line.  But  even 
there  both  the  wagon  roads  and  the 
railways  are  often  built  round 
small  hills,  rather  than  over 
them. 

While  many  people  build 
their  houses  upon  hills,  many 
The  use  of  ^^^^^^  live  in  the 
valleys  for  Valleys.  Farmers 
homes  Qf^gj^  ge^^]e  ^^  ^^Q 

valleys,  because  the  best  soil 
is  usually  found  there.  The 
soil  is  washed  into  the  val- 
leys by  the  rains,  and  is 
therefore  deeper  than  on  the 
hill  slopes.  There  is  also 
more  moisture  in  the  valleys, 
so  that  the  crops  grow  better 
there. 

Another  important  reason 
why  people  live  in  valleys  is 


often  built  there.  Rivers 
large  enough  for  boats  are 
also  found  in  many  of  the 
larger  valleys.  Can  you 
give  reasons  why  people 
choose  to  live  along  such 
highways  of  travel  ? 

It  is  because  valleys  are 
such   important   highways 
that   many  of  our  towns 
and  cities  have  grown  up 
in   them.      Some    of    the 
largest  "cities    are    found 
where  two  or  more  valleys 
come   together.      In    such 
places  roads  and  railways, 
coming  from  different  direc- 
tions, meet,  and  thus  make 
good  centers  where   people  may  trade, 
and  from  which  and  to  which  they  may 
ship  goods  (Fig.  21). 

When  we  think  of  a  valley,  we  usually 


Roads 
Jiait  roads 


the  fact  just  mentioned,  that 

the  roads  MTuI   railwavs  arP  «n      ^"'"-  -i-— Notice  how  the  roads  and  railways,  following  the  valleys,  meet 
uue  xudUS  auu  laiiways  are  so         at  a  central  point.    Because  this  is  a  center,  a  city  has  grown  up  here. 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


21 


have  in  mind  a  small  one,  across  which 
a  person  can  easily  see,  for  the  valleys 
The  size  that  one  commonl}'^  sees  are 

of  valleys         both  narrow  and  short. 

But   valleys  are  of  all  sizes.      Many 
are  so  narrow  that  a  person  can  easily 


Fig.  22.  — Trace  the  divide  on  the  roof  of  this  house. 

toss  a  stone  across  them.  Probably  there 
are  some  of  this  kind  near  your  home, 
and  if  you  search  you  may  find  one. 

Other  valleys  are  several  miles  across, 
and  some  are  far  larger.  Indeed,  there 
are  some  so  great  that  one  could  not 
travel  their  whole  length  or  width,  even 
if  he  were  to  spend  all  day  and  all  night 
upon  a  fast  train.  There  is  one  such  in 
our  country,  called  the  Mississippi  Valley, 
which  is  more  than  three  thousand  miles 
long,  and  nearly  as  wide. 

Valleys  as  large  as  this,  of  course, 
have  very  gentle  slopes.  On  that  ac- 
The  Missis-  count  many  people  living 
sippi  Valley  in  the  Mississippi  Valley 
scarcely  realize  that  they  are  in  a  valley. 
The  Mississippi  River  flows  through  the 
lowest  part,  and  the  homes  of  many 
people  are  so  far  from  that  river  that 
they  may  never  have  seen  it.     The  land 


all  about  them  is  so  level  that  it  does 
not  seem  to  form  a  part  of  any  slope.  It 
is,  in  fact,  a  vast  plain.  Yet,  when  the 
rain  falls  there,  it  flows  on  and  on,  in 
brooks  and  rivers,  till  it  reaches  the 
great  river,  thus  proving  that  the  plain 
is  a  part  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 

The  slopes  of  this  valley  are  not  all 
smooth  and  even.  There  are  smaller 
valleys  of  many  different  sizes  within 
this  great  valley,  and  some  of  them  are 
hundreds   of  miles    long. 

The   more    important    valleys    have 
names,  just  as  people  have  :  How  one 
for  instance,  there  are 
Mississippi  Valley,  the  Hud-  another 
son  Valley,  and  the  Connecticut  Valley. 

Can  you  name  others?  It  is  impor- 
tant to  have  some  way  of  fixing  the 
boundaries  of  such  a  valley,  so  that  one 
can  know  where  it  begins  and  ends,  and 
how  much  land  is  included  within  it. 
Usually  this  is  easily  done. 

When  the  rain  falls  upon  the  roof  of 
a  house  (Fig.  22),  the  water  is  divided 
along   the    highest  part,    some    flowing 


.1        valley  is  sepa- 
^"^    rated  from 


.^ 


C    E   A    N 


>■ 


Fig.  23.- 


■  A  map  to  show  the  divides  bulwceu  valleys. 
Trace  the  divides. 


down  one  side,  some  down  the  other. 
Water  falling  upon  the  highest  land 
between  two  valleys  is  divided  in  a 
similar     manner.      Because  the    water 


22 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


parts,  or  divides,  at  the  highest  place 
between  two  valleys,  this  place  is  called 
a  divide,  or  water  parting,  or  sometimes 
a  loatershed.  The  dotted  lines  in  the 
picture  (Fig.  23)  show  some  divides. 
Notice  how  irregular  the  lines  are. 

A  divide  sometimes  stands  out  as 
sharply  as  on  the  roof  of  a  house.  In 
other  places  it  is  difficult  to  find,  because 
the  land  is  so  nearly  level.  Can  you 
point  out  such  a  place  in  Figure  23  ? 

Since  the  divides  are  the  boundaries 
of  the  valleys,  it  is  easy  to   determine 


slowly  made.  Let  us  see  how  this  has 
been  done. 

When  it  rains  slightly,  the  water 
soaks  into  the  soil  and  disappears ;  but 
when  there  is  a  heavy  rain,  not  all 
of  the  water  sinks  into  the  ground. 
Some  begins  to  flow  away.  One  little 
stream,  perhaps  less  than  an  inch  wide, 
begins  at  one  point ;  another  joins  it ; 
soon  several  of  them  unite ;  and  after  a 
little  while  a  good-sized  brook  or  creek 
is  formed. 

Have  you  not  seen  this  flowing  water 


Fig.  24.  — Little  valleys  cut  in  the  soil  by  the  rains. 


how  far  it  is  across  any  valley.  How 
would  you  do  it  ? 

The  divides  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
Mississippi  Valley  are  many  hundreds 
of  miles  apart.  But  there  are,  no  doubt, 
some  valleys  near  your  home  whose 
divides  are  not  one  hundred  feet  apart. 
See  whether  you  can  find  one  ;  and  if 
you  do,  try  to  trace  its  divides. 

People  sometimes  speak  of  the  "  ever- 
lasting hills,"  but  they  are  not  everlast- 
How  hills  and  ^^S-  ^he  hills  and  valleys 
valleys  have  that  you  have  seen  were  not 
been  made  always  there,  and  will  not 
remain  forever.      They  have   all    been 


in  the  school  yard,  in  the  roads,  or 
on  the  sides  of  hills  ?  If  you  have, 
you  have  surely  noticed  that  the  water 
did  not  flow  off  without  taking  some- 
thing with  it.  It  was  muddy.  This 
means  that  soil  had  become  mixed  with 
the  water  and  was  being  borne  away  by 
it.  Every  heavy  rain  bears  along  much 
soil,  cutting  little  channels,  washing  out 
roads,  and  perhaps  even  destroying  the 
beds  of  railways,  so  that  trains  must 
stop  running  for  a  time. 

During  such  a  rain  little  channels,  or 
valleys,  are  carved  in  the  soil,  leaving 
tiny  hills  and  ridges  between  (Fig.  24). 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


23 


No  doubt  you  have  seen  these  formed 
many  times.  If  not,  you  can  easily 
make  them  by  pouring  water  from  a 
sprinkler  upon  a  pile  of  loose  dirt. 

In  most  places  there  are  many  heavy 
rains  every  year,  and  in  a  lifetime  their 
number  is  very  large.  During  many 
hundreds  of  years,  then,  the  water  could 
wash  away  an  enormous  amount  of  soil 
and  rock.  This  soil  the  large  streams 
and  rivers  carry  away  to  the  sea.  It  is 
by  such  very  simple  means  that  even  deep 
valleys  have  been  formed,  with-  the  hills 
between  them.  It  has  all  been  done  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  rain  water 
cuts  the  tiny  channels  in  the  soil  of  the 
school  yard. 

What  a  change  water  must  have  made 
in  the  surface  of  the  earth  during  the 
thousands  of  years  that  have  passed ! 
No  doubt  there  were  hills  and  valleys 
in  the  very  beginning;  but  every  year 
these  have  been  slowly  changing,  so  that 
they  are  now  very  different  from  what 
they  once  were.  After  many  more 
years  they  will  be  very  different  from 
what  they  are  now,  for  they  are  even 
now  slowly  changing. 

This  is  the  way  in  which  most  hills  and 

valleys  have  been  formed.     Some  of  the  very 

largest  valleys,  however,  like  the  Mississippi, 

have  not  been  made  entirely  by  running  water. 

They  have  been  partly  caused  by  the  sinking  or 

the  rising  of  the  land.     We  shall  learn  more 

about  this  when  we  study  about  mountains. 

_,-...  A   valley   is  the  low  land  be- 

Dennitions         ,  ,  .   ,        ,      ,  ,    , 

tween  higher  lands,   as  between 

hills  or  mountains. 

A  divide  (also  called  water-parting  or  water- 
shed) is  the  place  between  two  valleys  where 
the  rain  water  parts,  or  divides,  that  on  one 
side  flowing  into  one  valley,  that  on  the  other 
flowing  into  the  neighboring  valley. 

1.  Why  does  a  hilly  country  look  more  at- 
tractive than  a  plain  ?  2.  Of  what  use  are 
hills  ?     3.    Show  how  valleys  are  of  use   for 


roads  and  railways.     4.    Why  are  they  of  use 
for     homes  ?      5.   What    about    the    size    of 
valleys  ?     6.  Tell  about  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley.     7.    How  is  one      ®^®y 
valley  separated  from   another? 

8.  How  have  hills  and  valleys  been  made? 
1.  Where  is  the  highest  hill  near  your  home  ? 

2.  What   views   do  you   most  enjoy  in   your 
neighborhood  ?      Describe  them. 

3.  Find  pictures  of  castles,  show-  Suggestions 
ing  their  location  on  hills.  4.  Find  the  divide, 
or  watershed,  of  some  valley  near  you.  Trace 
it  as  far  as  you  can.  5.  Watch  the  water  carry- 
ing off  soil  after  a  rain.  6.  Find  a  washout 
after  a  heavy  rain.  7.  Show  that  streets  and 
roads  are  so  made  that  they  have  a  watershed. 
Why  is  that  done  ?  8.  Do  you  know  any 
roads  or  railways  that  follow  valleys  and  wind 
about  among  the  hills  ?     If  so,  tell  about  them. 

9.  Make  a  drawing  showing  the  appearance  of 
a  hilly  country. 


4.   Mountains 

Hills  are  seldom  more  than  a  few 
hundred  feet  high  ;  but  in  some  parts 
of  the  world  the  slopes  rise  thousands  of 
feet.  Such  high  places  are  called  moun- 
tains. 

You  may  never  have  seen  mountains, 
but  you  have  certainly  seen  something 

that   looks   quite   like  them.    Appearance  of 

Often,  on  a  summer  evening,  mountains 
the  sun  sets  behind  great  banks  of  clouds 
that  reach  far  up  into  the  sky.  Some 
of  them  have  rough,  steep  sides  and 
great  rugged  peaks ;  others  have  more 
gentle  slopes  and  rounder  tops.  Often 
there  are  many  of  them  together,  and 
they  appear  so  real  that  it  seems  as  if 
one  might  climb  their  sides,  if  he  could 
only  reach  them. 

This  is  very  much  as  snow-covered 
mountains  appear  in  the  distance.  In 
fact,  in  a  mountainous  country  one  must 
often  look  carefully  to  tell  whether  he 
sees  real  mountains  or  clouds  only. 


24 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  25.  —  A  view  in  a  region  of  low  mountains,  with  forests  covering  the  lower  slopes. 


The  mountains  in  Figure  25  are  much 
like  hills,  except  that  they  are  larger. 
The  size  of  They  are  two  or  three  thou- 
mountains  gaud  feet  in  height.  Some 
mountains  are  so  low,  and  their  slopes 


^ 


a?**S^^; 


4^> 


"      ^   "^:^^--9' 


'  ''M^  ^<: 


Fig.  2(J.- 


Snow-covered  mountain  peaks  in  the  Alps,  many  thousands 
of  feet  high. 


SO  gentle,  that  one  can  easily  climb  to 
their  tops.  Such  mountains  are  often 
called  hills ;  but  many  mountains  are 
from  two  to  three  miles  in  height.  The 
tops,  or  jyeaks,   of  these   may  rise  far 

above   the   clouds,   and    are 

often  wholly  hidden  by  them. 
Usually  where  there  is  one 
mountain  peak,  there  are 
others  in  sight  (Fig.  26). 
They  often  extend  in  lines, 
forming  what  is  called  a 
mountain  chain,  or  a  moun- 
tain range,  which  may  be 
hundreds  of  miles  in  length. 
Besides  peaks,  there  are  many 
deep  valleys  and  steep  slopes 
in  such  a  mountain  chain. 

Perhaps  you  know  that  it 
is  colder  on  the  summit  of  a 
hiarh  hill  than  at  rr.,    , 

o  The  tempera- 

its   base.      When   ture  on  moun- 

going  to  the  top  ***"^ 
of    the    Washington    Monu- 
ment, which  is  five  hundred 
and   fifty  feet  high,  if  one 


LAND,    WATER,  AND  AIR 


25 


has  a  ■  thermometer  one  finds  that  it  is 
about   two   degrees    cooler   at   the  top 


Fig.  27. 


-A  mountain  on  whpse  summit  snow  has  just  fallen,  while  no 
snow  fell  at  its  hase. 


than  at  the  base.  One  might  not  notice 
any  difference  in  temperature  when 
climbing  low  hills,  but  it  is  easily 
noticed  on  high  ones.  If  your  home  is 
near  such  a  hill,  you  can  prove  this. 

People  who  live  among  high  hills 
observe  that  it  often  snows  upon  their 
summits  (Fig.  27),  while  it  rains  in  the 
valleys  below.  How  can  you  explain 
this? 

Many  mountains  rise  so  high  that  it 
is  much  colder  at  the  summit  than  at 
the  base.  In  fact,  it  is  so  cold  on  very 
high  mountains  that  the  snow  never 
quite  melts  away.  No  rain  ever  falls 
there ;  but  it  snows  instead,  in  both 
summer  and  winter,  and  it  is  far  too 
cold  for  trees  to  grow.  Such  mountains, 
therefore,  are  always  white  with  a  thick 
blanket  of  snow. 

Even  in  hot  Central  Africa  some  of 
the  mountains  rise  so  high  that  they  are 
always  covered  with  snow.  On  these 
peaks  it  is  as  cold  as  in  the  land  of  the 
Eskimos,  although  the  Negroes,  living  at 
the  base  of  the  mountains,  need  hardly 
any  clothing. 

Because  of  the  cool  climate  and  beau- 
tiful  scenery,  many  people  spend  part 


of  the  summer  among  the  mountains. 
Even  the  lower  mountains,  which  are 
covered     with  _,,  , 

The  use  of 
woods  all  the  way   mountains 

to     the    top,    and    as  summer 
,  .      resorts 

have  no  snow  m 

summer,  are  so  much  cooler 

than  the   lowland  that  they 

often    attract    thousands    of 

visitors  during  hot  weather. 

Railroads     now     lead     to 

many  of  the  mountains,  and 

sometimes    even    go    across 

them.      Following   a   valley, 

such    a    road    rises    higher 

and    higher    until    it    comes    to   what 

is   called   a  mountain   pass    (Fig.    28). 


Fig.  28.- 


•  A  railroad  train  crossing  a  pass  in  the  lofty, 
snow-covered  Alps. 


26 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


This  is  nothing  more  than  a  valley  be- 
tween two  mountain  peaks.  Then,  after 
crossing  the  pass,  the  railroad  leads 
down  a  valley  on  the  other  side.  Or, 
quite  often,  if  the  way  to  the  pass  is 
too  steep,  a  railroad  winds  about,  in 
many  curves,  until  it  can  climb  no 
higher;  then  it  tunnels  directly  through 
the  hard  mountain  rock.  Some  of  the 
tunnels  in  mountains  are  several  miles 
long,  and  have  several  thousand  feet  of 
rock  directly  overhead. 

There  are  often  good  roads  in  the 
mountains,  and  some  of  the  visitors 
amuse  themselves  by  driving.  There 
are  also  paths  in  different  directions, 
leading  to  points  of  interest ;  and  many 
people  spend  a  part  of  their  time  in 
mountain  climbing. 

This  sport,  however,  is  often  difficult 
Whymoun-  and  sometimes  dangerous, 
tain  climbing  It  may  not  seem  hard  to 
and  even  '  climb  to  the  top  of  a  moun- 
dangerous        tain,  but  it  usually  is. 

In  the  first  place,  a  long  distance 
must  be  traveled.  Most  mountains  are 
so  steep  that  one  would  grow  very  tired 
climbing  directly  up  their  slopes;  there- 
fore, a  much  longer,  zigzag  path  is  fol- 
lowed. In  addition  to  this,  there  may 
be  some  steep  cliffs,  or  precipices  (Fig. 
29),  that  could  not  be  climbed  even  if  one 
wished  to  do  so;  and  it  is  necessary  to 
travel  round  these,  to  find  a  place  where 
the  slope  is  less  steep. 

For  these  reasons  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  walk  ten  miles,  or  even  more, 
climbing  uphill  all  the  time,  in  order  to 
reach  the  top  of  a  mountain  only  a  mile 
high.  One  would  need  to  stop  often  to 
rest. 

There  is  danger,  at  some  points,  in 
climbing  very    high   mountains.      Que 


may  lose  his  way,  or,  since  the  patli 
is  often  wet  and  rocky,  with  per- 
haps a  steep  precipice  close  to  it,  one's 
foot  may  slip,  causing  him  to  fall 
upon  the  rocks  far  beneath.  Or  great 
masses  of  stone  and  snow  may  suddenly 
come  crashing  down  the  mountain  side, 
destroying  everything  in  their  path. 
The  dangers  to  be  met  in  climbing  high 
mountains  are  shown  in  the  following 
description. 


Fig.  29.  —  Steep  rock  precipices,  up  whose  face  one 
cannot  climb. 

Many  people  cross  the  ocean  to  visit 
the  Alps  mountains  in  Swit-  The  climbing 
zerland.      Mont  Blanc,  one  °^i^^°°*^ 
of  the  best-known  peaks  in  Switzerland 
the  Alps,  is  nearly  three  miles  in  height. 
It  is  so  difficult  and  dangerous  to  climb 
this  mountain  that  persons  wishing  to  do 
so  must  employ  guides,  to  show  them  the 
way  and  help  them  over  the    difficult 
places. 

The  round  trip  usually  takes  two 
nights  and  three  days ;  and  as  there  is 
no  place  to  obtain  food^  it  is  necessary 


LAND,    WATEli,  AND  AIR 


27 


to  carry  it.  Overcoats  and  blankets 
also  are  needed  ;  for  even  though  the 
journey  be  made  in  the  hottest  summer 
weather,  it  is  bitterly  cold  upon  the 
mountain  top. 

Suppose  that  we  are  making  such  a  journey. 
We  start  early  in  the  morning,  so  as  to  have 
a  long  day.  Each  of  us  carries  a  few  light 
articles,  but  the  guides  and  jjorters  take  most, 
for  they  are  strong  and  used  to  climbing.  At 
first  we  walk  along  a  pleasant  path  in  a 
beautiful  wood;  a  house  is  now  and  then 
passed,  and  a  green  field  perhaps;  but  soon 
there  are  no  more  houses  and  fields,  and  we 
meet  no  people.  The  trees  be- 
come smaller  and  smaller,  until 
the  line  is  reached  above  which 
it  is  so  cold  that  no  trees  can 
grow.  This  is  called  the  tree  line, 
or  timber  line. 

From  this  point  on,  no  plants 
larger  than  bushes  are  seen,  and 
after  a  while  even  these  disappear. 
Meantime  the  soil  and  grass  have 
become  more  scarce,  while  here 
and  there  banks  of  snow  are  found 
in  the  shady  hollows.  Soon  we 
have  climbed  to  the  snow  line. 
This  is  the  line  above  which  snow 
is  found  all  the  year  round.  Now, 
no  matter  in  what  direction  we 
look,  rocks  and  snow  are  every- 
where to  be  seen,  and  the  snow  is 
often  hundreds  of  feet  deep. 

What  a  wonderful  view  is  before  us !  It  re- 
pays us  for  all  the  hard  climb.  We  look  down 
upon  the  woods  through  which  we  have  just 
passed,  and  over  them  to  the  deep  valleys, 
with  green  fields,  pretty  houses,  and  villages 
far  below  us.  Beyond  are  seen  other  steep 
mountains  upon  the  opposite  side  of  the 
valley. 

A  guide  takes  his  place  in  front  of  us,  and 
often  tells  us  to  stop  while  he  goes  ahead  to 
examine  the  way.  It  may  be  that  the  snow 
has  bridged  over  and  hidden  a  deep  and  narrow 
chasm,  and  if  we  were  to  step  upon  this  snow 
bridge,  we  might  break  through  and  fall  a 
hundred  feet  or  more. 

Sometimes  the  guides  lift  us  over  a  danger- 
ous   place ;  and  when  it  is  steep  or  slippery, 


they  fasten  all  the  members  of  the  party  to- 
gether with  ropes,  so  that  if  one  falls,  the 
others  may  hold  him  (Fig.  30). 

As  we  advance  higher  and  higher,  it  is 
often  necessary  to  take  a  narrow  path  on 
the  steep  side  of  the  mountain.  On  the 
right  we  can  look  hundreds  of  feet  almost 
straight  downward ;  on  the  left  are  huge' 
stones  and  masses  of  snow  almost  directly 
overhead. 

The  snow  sometimes  slips,  forming  snow 
slides,  or  avalanches,  which  are  very  dangerous. 
They  come  tearing  down  the  sides  of  the  moun- 
tains with  a  terrible  roar,  at  times  burying 
whole  villages  beneath  them.  You  have  seen 
the  same  thing,  on  a  much  smaller  scale,  when 


Fig.  30.- 


Mouutain  climbers,  fastened  together  by  ropes,  on  the  way 
to  the  top  of  Mont  Blanc. 

snow  has  slid  from  the  roofs  of  houses  on 
warm  winter  days. 

After  one  night  spent  in  a  little  house  about 
halfway  up  the  mountain  side  (Fig.  31),  and 
after  much  hard  work  on  the  next  day,  we 
reach  the  summit.  Here,  in  spite  of  our 
heavy  wraps,  we  are  all  shivering;  for  upon 
high  mountain  tops  there  are  fierce  winds 
which  seem  to  go  through  even  the  thickest 
clothing. 

On  this  barren  mountain  top  there  are  no 
birds,  no  trees,  no  grass,  —  nothing  but  snow 
and  rock  (Fig.  32).  But  if  it  is  a  clear  day  and 
there  are  no  clouds  clinging  to  the  mountain 
sides  below  us,  we  may  be  able  to  look  down 
into  the  beautiful  green  valleys  only  a  few 
miles  away.     There  the  birds  are  singing,  flow- 


28 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  31.  —  Rest  house  on  the  slopes  of  Mont  Bhinc,  above  the  snow  line. 

ers   are  blossoming,  and  men   working  in  the 
fields  find  it  too  warm. 

Perhaps  you  already  know  that  the 
other  uses  rocks  inside  the  mountains 
of  mountains  sometimes  contain  gold  and 
silver.  Iron,  lead,  and  other  metals 
are  also  obtained  there.     The  metal  in 


rings,  watches,  and  silver 
coins,  and  even  the  iron 
parts  of  your  school  desk, 
may  have  come  from  the 
rocks  of  some  mountain. 

Rock   that  contains 
metal  is  called  ore;   and 
it  may  look  so  much  like 
common    rock    that    you 
might  not  note  the  differ- 
ence.    You  might  have  a 
very  valuable  gold  ore  in 
your  hand  and  not  know 
that  it  contained  any  gold. 
In  order  to  get  the  metal 
out  of  the  ore,  much  work 
is  necessary.     Many  men 
in  mountainous  countries 
are    employed   in   mining 
ore    and    in    getting   the 
metal  out  of  it  (Fig.  33). 
The  trees  in  the  mountain  forests  are 
also  valuable.     The  most  common  kinds 
are  evergreens,  such  as  the  pine,  hem- 
lock, and  spruce.     These  are  green  even 
through  the  winter,  and  can  live  on  the 
cold  mountain  sides  as  far  upas  the  timber 
line  (Fig.  34).     The  land  upon  a  moun- 


Fiu.  32.  —  The  summit  of  Mont  Bhiuc,  always  covered  with  a  deep  coat  of  snow. 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


29 


tain  side  is  usually  too  steep  and  rocky 
for  farms;  but  even  where  there  can  be 
no  farms,  trees  may  grow,  covering  the 
mountains  for  miles  and  miles  with 
dense  forests.  These  trees  may  be  cut 
down    and    sawed    into    lumber,    from 


finally  reaches  towns  and  cities  where  people 
need  it  to  drink  and  for  other  purposes.  Do 
you  know  of  any  city  that  gets  its  water  sup- 
ply from  such  a  river  ? 

You  have  learned  that  most  hills  have 
been    slowly  made   by  running   water, 
that  cuts   out  „ 

How  moun- 
V alleys     and    tains  have 
leaves   high   been  made 

places  between.  Most 
mountain  ranges  have  7iot 
been  made  in  this  way. 
They  are  really  parts  of 
the  land  that  have  been 
slowly  raised,  until  some 
portions  are  much  higher 
than  the  surrounding 
country.  When  moun- 
tains are  thus  raised,  the 


Fig.  33. — In  these  buildings  metal 
is  obtained  from  the  ore  that  is 
mined  in  the  mountain  rocks  far 
below  the  surface. 

which  all  sorts  of  wooden 
articles  are  made.  Pos- 
sibly the  very  seat  in 
which  you  are  sitting  was 
once  part  of  a  tree  that 
grew  on  the  side  of  a 
mountain. 

Mountains  are  of  further 
use  because  of  the  water  they 
supply.  We  have  already 
seen  that  there  is  much  ice 
and  snow  upon  some  of  them ; 
and  that  upon  the  higher 
mountains  there  is  so  much 
that  it  never  melts  away, 
no  matter  how  hot  the  summer  may  be. 

During  hot  weather,  many  streams  in  the 
plains  dry  up ;  but  at  such  times  the  ice  and 
snow  of  the  mountains  melt  all  the  faster.  Then 
the  streams  which  flow  forth  from  these  moun- 
tains are  even  more  swollen  than  usual.  This 
water  may  run  along  for  many  miles,  until  it 


Fig.  34.- 


The  forest-covered  slopes  of  lofty  mountains,  that  shut  in  a 
inonntain  valley.     Point  out  the  timber  line. 

rocks  are  bent,  broken,  and  folded  in  a 
very  irregular  way  (Fig.  35).  You 
can  imitate  this  folding  of  the  moun- 
tain rocks  by  bending,  or  crumpling,  a 
number  of  sheets  of  paper.  When  the 
rocks  of  mountains  are  folded,  the  crum- 


30 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


pling  extends  for  a  great  distance,  some- 
times even  for  thousands  of  miles.  Such 
a  region  of  folded  rocks,  a  hundred  miles 
or  more  wide,  and  perhaps  a  thousand 
miles  or  more  long,  is  called  a  moimtain 
system. 

Of  course  running  water  cuts  valleys 
in  a  mountain  region  as  well  as  in  a 
hilly  country.  In  fact,  most  of  the  val- 
leys and  many  of  the  peaks  and  ridges 
in  mountains  have  been  carved  out  by 
running  water.  The  land  is  slowly 
raised  by  folding,  and  then  valleys   are 


Definitions 


Fig.  35.  —  Beds  of  rock,  in  the  mountains,  that  have  been  bent  up  in  an  arch 
when  the  mountains  were  raised. 


About  how 
to  study 


cut  into  it  by  the  water  that  flows  down 
the  slopes.  *  / 

While  it  is  well,  first,  to  read  even  several 
pages  of  the  text  without  pause, 
as  before  stated,  it  is  neces- 
sary in  further  study  to  stop 
here  and  there  to  think  over  what  has  been 
read. 

For  this  purpose  some  stopping  places  are 
better  than  others.  Probably  the  best  stopping 
place,  for  every  page  or  two,  is  found  at  the  end 
of  the  answer  to  each  question  that  is  suggested 
in  the  headings  at  the  side  of  the  page.  At 
this  point,  each  time,  the  thought  turns  to  an- 
other topic,  and  it  is  therefore  a  good  place  to 
make  a  stop.  One  can  then  look  back  over 
what  he  has  just  read,  or  think  it  through  with- 
out looking  at  the  book. 


In  preparing  for  recitation  it  is  not  necessary 
to  try  to  remember  the  exact  words  of  the  book. 
In  fact,  it  is  much  better  to  tell  in  one's  own 
words  what  has  been  learned,  just  as  a  person 
does  in  writing  a  letter. 

A  mountain  is  high  land,  where  masses  of  rock 
have  been  pushed  up  above  the 
level  of  the  surrounding  country. 

A  mountain  j)eak  is  a  high  part  of  a  mountain.  / 
It  is  a  sort  of  large  hill  in  the  mountains. 

A  mountain  range  is  a  long,  rather  narrow 
belt  of  mountain  country. 

A  mountain  chain  is  a  group  of  mountain 
ranges,  one  beside  the  other,  and  often  nearly 
in  a  line. 

A  mountain  system  is  an  even  larger  group  of 
mountains,  often  including  two 
or  more  mountain  chains. 

A  precipice  is  a  steep  rock 
cliff,  often  found  in  a  moun- 
tainous country. 

An  avalanche  is  a  great  mass 
of  snow,  ice,  or  rock  falling 
down  a  mountain  side. 

The  timber  line  (or  tree  line) 
is  the  line  above  which  no  trees 
grow. 

The  snow  line  is  a  line  above 
which  snow  remains  all  the 
year  round. 

A  mountain  pass  is  a  gap, 
usually  a  valley,  across  the 
crest  of  a  mountain  range. 

1.  Describe  the  appearance 
2.    What  about  the   tempera- 


Review 
Questions 


of   mountains. 

ture  on  mountains?    3.  Why  are 

mountains    of    use    as    summer 

resorts  ?     4.    Why  is  mountain 

climbing  difficult   and   sometimes  dangerous? 

5.  Tell    about    the    climbing   of   Mont   Blanc. 

6.  State  other  uses   of  mountains.      7.    How 
have  mountains  been  made  ? 

8.  What  is  meant  by  a  plain  ?  Swamp? 
Valley  ?  Divide  ?  Mountain  ?  Mountain  peak  ? 
Mountain  range  ?  Mountain  chain  ?  Mountain 
system  ?  Precipice  ?  Avalanche  ?  Timber  line  ? 
Snow  line  ?  Mountain  pass  ? 

1.    If  you  have  made  a  visit  to  the  mountains, 
describe  to  the  class  what  you  saw.     2.   Watch 
for  clouds  that  resemble  moun- 
tains.    3.    Make   a   collection  of     "^ges  ions 
pictures  of  mountains.  Note  the  timber  line,  the 
snow  line,  and  other  points  of  interest.     4.   Rep- 


LAND,    WATER,   ANT)  AT  11 


81 


resent  a  mountain  by  the  use  of  sand,  stones, 
twigs,  and  chalk  dust.  Show  the  forests  and 
the  timber  line ;  the  snow  line ;  precipices. 
5.  Ask  some  one  who  has  climbed  a  mountain  to 
tell  you  about  it.  6.  Write  a  story  relating 
the  adventures  you  might  expect  in  climbing  a 
mountain.  7.  Describe  some  of  the  views  you 
would  expect  to  enjoy. 


2.   Water 
1.  Rivers 

We  have  seen  how  very  important 
valleys  are;  and  we  have  also  learned 
that  they  have  been  formed  by  the  work 
of  running  water.  We  shall  next  study 
the  running  water  that  has  carved  out 
the  valleys,  and  that  makes  the  rivers. 

Every  heavy  rain  causes  the  water  to 
collect  here  and  there,  and  to  flow  down 
How  rivers  fhe  slopes.  At  first  only 
begin  tiny    rills    are  formed,  but 

these  unite  to  make  little  streams  and 
brooks.  The  brooks  and  small  streams, 
in  turn,  unite  to  form  rivers.  Thus 
rain  alone  may  cause  a  river ;  but  as 
soon  as  all  the  rain  water  runs  off,  such  a 
river  would  become  quite  dry  if  there 
were  not  water  from  some  other  source. 

Rivers  usually  have  a  more  regular 
supply  of  water.  Some  of  them,  as  we 
have  seen,  start  in  the  high  mountains, 
where  the  snows  never  entirely  melt 
away.  Others  have  their  beginnings,  or 
sources,  in  lakes  and  swamps. 

It  should  be  remembered,  too,  that 
there  is  a  great  deal  of  water  in  the 
ground,  for  some  of  it  sinks  into  the  earth 
during  every  rain.  It  is  this  water  that 
men  find  when  they  dig  wells.  The 
underground  water  trickles  slowly 
through  the  soil,  and  through  crevices 
in  the  rocks  (Fig.  36),  often  bubbling 
forth   as  a  spring,  weeks  after   it   has 


fallen  as  rain  somewhere  else.  Many 
rivers  have  their  sources  in  such  springs, 
and  most  large  rivers  receive  water  along 
their  courses  from  hundreds  and  even 
thousands  of  them. 

Let  us  take  a  journey  from  the  source 
of  a  river  to  its  lower  end,  or  mouth,  and 


M 

1^                'i' 

P 

'-"i^^^l 

p 

'^^H^^^H 

u!r''^% 

Bill  B  J 

HL^*"^sih'«r^ 

^^EI^^^^^^^^^^9!@H 

Fig.  36.  —  Icicles  formed  in  winter  where  water  from 
underground  slowly  oozes  out  from  cracks  in  the  rock. 

see  how  it  changes.     Our  river  has  its 
source  in  a  small  spring  in  How  a  river 
the   mountains,   where    the  changes  and 
clear,   cold    water    bubbles  IZZ^^eV^ 
out  of   the    ground    at  the  i.  its  upper 
base  of  a  rock  cliff.     For  a  p^ 
short  distance  it  flows  through  a  grassy 
meadow  (Fig.  37),  and  is  so  narrow  that 
you  can  easily  step  across  it.     The  water 
is  so  clear  that  you  can  see  the  speckled 
trout  swimming  about  in  a  deep  hole 
near    one    side,   or    hank.      A    smaller 
branch,  or   tributary,  enters   the   brook 
from  another  small  valley,  and  makes 
it  somewhat  larger  and  deeper. 


^^ 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Soon  the  brook 
leaves  the  meadow 
and  begins  to  tumble 
down  a  steeper  slope. 
Here  it  changes 
greatly.  In  some 
places  it  is  narrow 
and  deep ;  in  others, 
broad  and  shallow ; 
here  it  flows  swiftly, 
there  slowly. 

We  put  a  toy  boat 


lear  its  smin'e. 


Fig. 


.'58.  — Here  the  water,  shut  in  by  steep 
ledge  to  ledge,  each  time  forming  a 


walls,  leaps  from 
waterfall. 


upon  the  water.  It  floats  along 
quietly  for  a  time,  and  then,  com- 
ing to  a  swift  part  of  the  current, 
called  a  rapid,  it  is  whirled  along 
roughly  and  upset.  We  rescue  it 
and  set  it  right  again,  but  soon  it 
comes  to  a  place  where  the  water 
falls  several  feet  from  the  top  of 
a  ledge  (Fig.  38).  In  tumbling 
over  this  ivaterfall  the  boat  is  again 
upset,  and  dashed  against  the  rocks. 

As  the  water  rushes  along,  beat- 
ing itself  into  foam,  it  is  here  and 
there  joined  by  other  tributaries, 
some  very  small,  others  nearly  as 
large  as  the  brook  itself.  Thus  the 
stream  gradually  grows  broader  and 
deeper. 

Often  the  water  must  rush  around, 
or  leap  over,  large  bowlders  that  lie 
directly  in  its  path ;  and  often  it 
falls  directly  downward  for  many 
feet  with  a  roar.  The  stream  is 
now  in  a  deep  gorge,  with  the 
rocky  cliffs  extending  high  on  each 
side,  and  shutting  it  in  like  walls 
(Fig.  38).  It  seems  quite  helpless, 
with  the  great,  hard  rocks  all  about 
it.  Yet  it  is  really  getting  the  bet- 
ter of  this  rock,  for  pieces  of  stone 
are  often  loosened  and  made  to  fall 


LAND,  wateh,  and  aim 


33 


Fig.  39. — The  stream,  shut  in  by  towering  cliffs.    The 
large  bowlders  in  its  bed  have  fallen  from  these  cliffs. 

from  the  steep  cliffs  into  the  water. 
Then  the  torrent  hurls 
them  against  one  an- 
other, and  grinds  them 
against  the  bottom,  or 
bed,  of  the  stream  until 
they  are  worn  into 
smooth,  round  pebbles. 
These  pebbles  are  borne 
on  downstream,  and  are 
slowly  ground  up  into 
grains  of  sand  and  bits 
of  clay. 

The  bed  of  the  stream 
and  the  rock  cliffs  by  its 
side  are  ground  away  at 
the  same  time.  It  is 
this  grinding  that  has 
made  the  gorge  so  deep 


and  caused  its  sides  to  rise  so  steep 
and  so  high.  The  scenery  here  is 
wild  and  grand,  with  towering  cliffs  on 
either  side  (Fig.  39).  Now  it  is  too 
difficult  to  follow  the  stream,  and  we 
leave  it,  to  join  it  again  many  miles 
below. 

Here  the  river  has  left  the  mountains 
and  flows  in  a  broad  valley  through  a 
hilly  country.  Some  of  the  2.  its  middle 
slopes  are  steep  and  covered  p*^ 
with  forests ;  others,  more  gentle,  are 
cleared  of  trees  and  dotted  with  farms, 
farmhouses,  and  barns. 

The  current  is  not  so  swift  now, 
although  there  are  still  some  rapids  and 
falls ;  and  instead  of  rocky  cliffs  the 
banks  are  low  (Fig.  40).  In  fact,  in 
some  places  these  are  not  much  higher 
than  the  water.  Here  and  there  a 
tributary,  itself  almost  a  river,  pours  its 
flood  into  our  stream. 

It  has  now  been  many  days  since  this 
water  left  the  mountains.  The  river 
has  become  so  deep  that  we- cannot  touch 


Fig.  40.  —  The  river  is  now  large,  and  its  banks  are  low  and  bordered  by 
farm  land. 


u 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


its  bed  with  a  long  pole,  and  so  wide 
that  bridges  are  needed  to  cross  it  (Fig. 
41).  We  can  now  drift  along  easily  in 
a  boat,  watching  the  men  at  work  in  the 
fields,  and  the  towns  and  villages  that 
we  pass. 

At  one  point,  however,  the  current 
grows  swifter,  and  finally  the  water 
tumbles  in  a  great  fall.     We  must  leave 


now  the  current  is  so  gentle  that  it  can 
carry  only  the  finest  bits  of  rock  mud. 
These  bits  are  so  tiny  that,  if  you  were 
to  place  some  of  the  muddy  water  in 
a  glass,  it  would  take  hours  for  all 
of  them  to  settle  and  leave  the  water 
clear. 

At  last  we  are  approaching  the  river 
mouth,  toward  which  the  water  has  been 


IIIIIM* 


Mr 


Fig.  41.  —  Here  the  river  is  so  broad  that  a  very  long  bridge  is  needed  to  cross  it. 


3.  Its  lower 
course 


the  river  at  this  point  and  pass  around 
the  fall.  Here  is  a  large  city  with 
many  mills  and  factories.  From  this 
point  on,  the  stream  is  so  broad  and 
deep  that  large  steamboats  can  travel 
upon  it;  it  has  now  become  a  great 
river. 

It  is  still  several  hundred  miles  to  the 
river  mouth,  and  since  other  rivers,  both 
large  and  small,  continue  to 
join  it,  it  steadily  grows 
deeper  and  broader.  The  banks  be- 
come .  lower,  and  they  are  occupied 
by  many  towns  and  cities,  with  farms 
between. 

In  this  part  of  its  course  there  are  no 
rapids  and  falls.  Indeed,  the  current 
has  greatly  changed.  In  the  mountains 
the  water  rushed  rapidly  and  noisily  on- 
ward, dragging  along  bowlders  and  peb- 
bles ;  in  its  middle  part  it  flowed  fast 
enough  to  carry  only  sand  and  mud  j  but 


steadily  flowing  for  weeks.  The  river 
is  now  a  full  mile  in  width,  and  moving 
very  slowly.  It  never  dries  up,  because 
there  is  always  a  supply  of  water  from 
its  thousands  of  springs,  and  it  drains 
so  great  a  country  that  rain  is  nearly 
always  falling  into  some  of  its  hundreds 
of  tributaries. 

Not  only  river  boats,  bat  ships  from 
the  ocean  are  now  passing  up  and  down 
the  river.  Now  the  water  divides  into 
several  streams,  each  flowing  into  the 
ocean  along  a  separate  course  (Fig.  43). 
Each  ^  of  these  pours  its  fresh  water 
into  the  salt  water  of  the  sea,  and  be- 
yond their  mouths  no  land  is  to  be  seen, 
—  nothing  but  water  everywhere  (Fig. 
42.) 

Other  rivers  may  differ  from   How  other 
this  one  in  many  ways.     Instead  rivers  differ 
of  having  their  sources  in  springs   ^^^"^  ^^'^  o°® 
among   the   mountains,  they   may  start   from 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


35 


swamps  or  lakes.  They  may  have  low,  soft 
banks  near  their  sources,  instead  of  high  rocky 
ones,  and  they  may  have  no  rapids  or  falls. 
Instead  of  emptying  directly  into  the  ocean, 
they  may  enter  other  rivers  as  tributaries,  or 


is  drained  by  a  single  main  stream  is 
called  a  river  basin.  Thus  all  the  land 
drained  by  the  Mississippi  River  and 
its    tributaries     forms    the    Mississippi 


Fig.  42.  —  Mouth  of  a  large  river  where  it  pours  its  water  into  the  ocean. 


The  meaning 
of  river  system 
and  river  basin 


they  may  pour  their  waters  into  lakes.  But, 
in  spite  of  such  differences,  other  rivers  are 
much  like  this  one  in  most  respects.  If  there 
is  a  river  near  you,  how  does  it  resemble  the 
one  described  ?     How  does  it  differ  from  it  ? 

We    have    seen    that 

from  its  source  to  its 
mouth  a 
river  may  re- 
ceive  water 

from  hundreds  of  tribu- 
taries.    Thus    the    rain 

that  falls  in  places  even 

hundreds  of  miles  apart 

may  at  last  be  brought 

together  in  a  single  main 

stream.      Such    a   main 

stream,  with   all    of   its 

tributaries,    is    called    a 

river    system    (Fig.   43). 

For  instance,  we   speak 

of  the  Mississippi  River 

System,     meaning     the 

Mississippi  River  and  all 

its  tributaries. 

All   the   country  that 


river 


basin 


IS 


your 


Fig.  43.  —  Map  of  a  river  system.  Point 
out  the  source;  the  mouth;  the  main 
stream ;  several  tributaries. 


Basin.      In    what 
home  located  ? 

Very    great    quantities    of    soil    are 
carried  away  by  rivers,  and  much  rock 

is  ground  up   what  rivers 
and    carried   do  with  their 
ofe  by  them,    sediment 

This  load  of  bils  of  rock 
that  rivers  carry  is  called 
sediment.  Some  of  it 
comes  from  the  pebbles 
that  are  rolled  about  in 
the  stream  bed,  and  some 
comes  from  the  stream 
bed  itself.  What  be- 
corties  of  it  all  ? 

If  you  have  seen  a 
sidewalk,  or  a  field, 
flooded  with 
water,  you 
perhaps  remember  that 
a  thin  layer  of  sand  or 
fine  mud  was  left  when 
the  flood  disappeared . 
The  sand  and  mud  were 


1.  Flood  plains 


36 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


borne  along  by  the  current,  until  they 
reached  a  place  where  the  water  did 
not  move  swiftly  enough  to  carry  them 
any  farther.     Then  they  slowly  settled. 


Fig.  M.  —  A  river  which  has  overflowed  its  banks  in  time  of  flood 
The  tree  is  completely  surrounded  by  the  flood. 


After  heavy  rains,  or  when  the  snow 
melts  rapidly,  rivers  often  rise  so  high 
that  they  overflow  their  banks  (Fig.  44). 
At  such  times  the  water  spreads  out  in 
a  thin,  slowly  moving  sheet,  on 
both  sides  of  the  main  current. 
Then,  as  just  described,  this 
slowly  moving  water  allows  a 
thin  layer  of  mud  to  settle. 
Each  flood  adds  another  layer, 
making  the  land  a  little  higher, 
until,  after  many  years,  it  is 
built  above  the  usual  level  of 
the  river.  Such  land  is  gener- 
ally a  level  plain ;  and,  since 
it  is  made  by  river  floods,  it  is 
called  d^  flood  plain. 

This  is  one  of  the  ways  in 
which  plains  are  made.  Near 
small  streams  such  plains  are 
generally  narrow  strips  of  land  (Fig.  45) 
between  the  stream  and  the  hills  that 
rise  at  some  distance  oh  either  side. 
But  in  large  valleys,  like  the  Mississippi, 
the  flood  plains  are  many  miles  in  width. 


Flood  plains  make  the  best  kind  of 
farm  land.  The  soil  is  very  fertile  ;  the 
surface  is  so  level  that  it  can  easily  be 
cultivated  ;  and,  being  so  near  the  water, 
it  has  plenty  of  moisture  for  the 
roots  of  plants. 

Not  all  the  sediment  that  a 
river  carries  is  used  to  build 
flood  plains  along  its 

1        1  nr      1        ^     •,     2.  Deltas 

banks.  Much  ot  it 
is  drifted  on  to  the  river  mouth, 
where  it  enters  a  lake  or  the 
ocean.  Here  the  water  is  usually 
quiet,  so  that  even  the  finest 
mud  sinks  to  the  bottom.  At 
first  only  enough  sediment  is 
collected  to  form  low,  swampy 
land.  But,  like  the  flood  plains, 
this  is  slowly  built  higher  and  higher, 
by  a  layer  of  mud  from  each  flood, 
until  it  becomes  high  enough  to  make 
dry  land. 


Fig.  45.  —  A  narrow  flood  plain  bordering  a  small  stream,  which  in 
time  of  flood  overflows  the  plain. 


Such  plains  at  the  mouths  of  rivers 
form  what  are  called  deltas  (Fig.  46). 
Many  rivers  have  deltas  so  wide  that 
one  cannot  see  across  them,  and  the 
great  quantity  of  sediment  from  which 


LAND,    WAT£:r,  AND  AIR 


they  are  made  has  come  from  fields, 
hills,  and  mountains,  perhaps  hundreds 
of  miles  away.  Such  delta  lands,  like 
flood  plains,  are  very  fertile  and  make 
excellent  farms. 


of 


While  rivers  drain  the  land,  and  thus 
keep  it  healthful,  they  also  Their  value 
bring  the  much-needed  water  for  the  water 
to  plants,  animals,  and  man.  ^^^^  supply 

We  have  already 


Rivers    are 

importance    in 

T,,       ,         other 

The  value 

of  rivers  for    W  a  y  S 

drainage         1^^^',^^^ 

carving  out  val- 
leys and  building 
flood  plains  and 
deltas.  Each 
river  is  really  a 
great  open  ditch 
for  draining  the 
surrounding  land. 

Its  work  in  drainage  is  always  of  value 
to  the  farmers  who  live  in  the  valley 
through  which  it  flows ;  but  its  impor- 
tance is  most  plainly  seen  when  heavy 
rains  fall,  or  when  the  snow  melts  rapidly. 


Fig.  40.  —  The  delta  of  a  river. 


learned,  m  our 
study  of  the  Sa- 
hara Desert,  how 
necessary  water 
is  to  plants.  In 
desert  countries 
men  lead  water 
from  the  streams 
many  miles, 
through  ditches 
or  pipes,  and  let 
it  spread  out  over 
the  thirsty  soil, 
so  that  plants  can  thrive  (Fig.  47).  This 
is  called  irrigation,  and  in  many  places, 
including  a  large  part  of  our  own  coun- 
try, no  crops  can  be  raised  without  it. 
Again,  many  animals  and  people  de- 


Ixland 


Fig.  47.  —  A  large  ditch,  in  western  United  States,  in  which  water  is  led  from  a  river  to  be  used  in 

watering  crops  by  irrigation. 


If  it  were  not  for  rivers,  this  water  could 
not  run  off  so  quickly.  People  in  towns 
and  cities  along  a  river  bank  also  owe 
a  special  debt  to  the  river,  because  it 
quickly  carries  away  all  sewage. 


pend  upon  rivers  for  water  to  drink. 
Even  whole  cities  often  obtain  their 
drinking  water  from  rivers.  Find  out 
where  your  own  water  supply  comes 
from,  if  you  do  not  already  know. 


38 


HOME   GEOGRAPIJV 


for  manufac 
turing 


Fi(i.  48.  —  All  old-fashioned  water  wheel  used  to  liirni  h 
power  for  grinding  grain  into  flour  in  a  grist  mill. 

The  water  of  rivers  is  also  used  for 
turning  water  wheels  (Fig.  48).  You 
Their  use  have,  perhaps,  noticed  how 
windmills  work.  The  wind 
turns  a  large  wheel  which 
may  be  so  connected  with  other  wheels 
that  it  can  pump  water,  or  turn  a  saw 
for  sawing  wood,  or 
grind  corn.  Steam  is 
also  used  for  power ; 
for  example,  to  turn 
the  wheels  of  a  rail- 
way engine  so  that 
it  can  drag  the  heavy 
cars  along. 

River  water  is 
made  to  do  work  in 
much  the  same  man- 
ner. Where  there  is 
a    swift    current,    or 


where  there  are  waterfalls,  such  as  the 
Niagara  Falls,  it  is  often  easy  to  run 
some  of  the  water  off  to  one  side  through 
a  ditch  or  pipe.  The  water,  racing 
rapidly  along,  or  falling  with  great 
force,  strikes  a  wheel  (Fig.  48)  and 
makes  it  whirl  round.  This  wheel, 
being  connected  with  others,  causes 
them  to  turn  also,  much  as  one  wheel 
in  a  clock  causes  others  to  move. 

Thus  machinery  is  set  in  motion  by 
which  logs  are  sawed  into  lumber,  grain 
is  ground  into  flour,  cotton  is  made  into 
cloth,  and  many  other  kinds  of  work  are 
done. 

The  power  obtained  by  such  use  of 
water  is  called  icater  power;  and  the 
buildings  in  which  such  manufacturing 
is  carried  on  are  called  factories,  or 
mills  (Fig.  49). 

The  water  in  most  rivers  does  not 
flow  fast  enough  to  strike  a  wheel  with 
much  force.  Water  power  is  foimd 
mainly  in  rivers  with  swift  currents, 
and  especially  near  rapids  and  falls. 
In  such  places  mills  have  been  built 
(Fig.  49),  and  many  cities  have  sprung 
up.  We  found  one  such  city  on  our 
journey  down  the  river,  described  on 
page  34. 


Fig.  40.  —  A  large  mill  beside  a  waterfall  that  snpplies  the  power  for  rnniiiiig  the 
machinery  in  the  mill. 


LAND,    WATER,   ANT)  AIR 


39 


There  is  one  other  way  in  which 
rivers  are  very  valuable.  It  has  always 
Their  use  for  been  difficult  to  find  an  easy 
navigation  means  for  carrying  goods 
from  one  place  to  another.  In  some 
places  there  are  no  roads,  and  even 
where  there  are  roads,  they  are  often 
hilly,  rough,  and  muddy. 

Yet  most  of  the  things  that  we  use, 
such  as  sugar,  flour,  oil,  meat,  coal, 
lumber,  and  clothing,  must  be  carried 
long  distances,  sometimes  thousands  of 
miles.  Even  if  the  roads  were  ex- 
cellent, it  would  take  a  great  deal  of 


distance  into  a  country.  For  example, 
one  can  travel  by  boat  for  thousands 
of  miles  up  the  Mississippi  River  and 
its  tributaries. 

For  these  reasons,  carrying  goods  by 
boat  upon  rivers,  or  river  navigation,  is 
a  very  important  business.  Indeed,  it 
is  so  important  that  broad  ditches,  called 
cmials,  have  been  dug  in  many  places 
(Fig.  51)  so  that  boats  may  go  still 
farther.  Sometimes  these  canals  extend 
around  rapids  or  waterfalls  for  the  use 
of  river  boats.  In  other  places  canals 
have  been  built  many  miles  across  the 


Fig.  50.  —  A  large  steamboat  on  the  Mississippi  River. 


time,  and  cost  much  money,  to  haul 
these  materials  in  wagons.  To  ship 
them  by  railway  takes  less  time,  but 
is  expensive.  ' 

A  broad,  deep  river  is  really  one  of 
the  finest  highways  in  the  world.  To 
be  sure,  no  wagons  or  cars  can  be  drawn 
over  it,  but  boats  are  easily  moved  upon 
it.  A'  large  river  boat  can  carry  as 
much  as  scores  of  wagons  or  cars 
(Fig.  50),  and  many  boats  can  go  up 
and  down  at  the  same  time,  so  that  a 
large  river  is  equal  to  several  railroads. 
Besides,  such  a  river  may  lead  a  long 


land,  so  as  to  connect  one  river  with 
another. 

Before  the  time  of  railways,  —  which 
is  no  longer  ago  than  when  your  great- 
grandfathers were  boys,  —  goods  were 
carried  by  boat  more  commonly  than 
now.  Even  to-day,  when  there  are  so 
many  good  wagon  roads  and  railways, 
it  is  cheaper  to  carry  many  things  on 
boats  than  in  cars. 

It  is  easy  to  see,  then,  why  many 
people  have  chosen  to  build  their  homes 
near  rivers.  A  farmer  prefers  to  live 
near  a  good  wagon    road,   or  near  the 


40 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


railway  station,  so  that  he  may  easily 
send  his  crops  to  market;  and  for  the 
same  reason,  people  have  always  liked 
to   live    near  a  river,  which    is  a  good 


The  mouth  of  a  river  is  its  lowet'  end. 
It  is  usually  the  part  where  its  waters  empty 
into  a  larger  body  of  water,  such  as  another 
river,  a  lake,  or  the  ocean. 

A  flood  plain  is  the  plain  along  the  banks  of 


Fig.  51 


highway,  or  ivaterw'ay.  It  is  partly  on 
this  account  that  many  of  the  large 
cities  of  the  world  stand  on  the  banks 
of  large  rivers.  Do  you  know  of  any 
such  cities  ? 


Definitions 


A  river  source,  is  the  place 
where  a  river  starts. 

A  spring  is  water  flowing  forth  from  the 
ground. 

A  river  hank  is  the  land  that  borders  a 
river.    Each  river  has  two  banks. 

A  river  channel  is  the  part  of  a  valley  that  a 
river  occupies. 

A  river  bed  is  the  bottom  of  the  channel 
over  which  the  water  flows. 

A  rajyid  is  a  part  of  a  river  where  the  water 
flows  very  swiftly. 

A  waterfall  is  a  part  of  a  river  where  the 
slope  of  the  bed  is  so  steep  that  the  water  falls 
nearly  straight  down. 

A  river  system  is  a  main  stream  with  all  its 
tributaries. 

A  river  basin  is  the  land  drained  by  a  river 
and  its  tributaries.  The  divide  surrounding  it 
forms  its  boundary. 

A  tributanj  to  a  river  is  another  stream  that 
flows  into  it, 


around  rapid.s  in  a  river. 


a  river  that  has  been  built  up  by  the  sediment 
that  settles  during  floods. 

A  delta  is  the  plain  formed  at  the  mouth  of 
a  river  by  sediment  that  the  current  can  carry 
no  farther. 

1.  How  do  rivers  begin  ?  2.  Describe  the 
upper  part  of  a  river.  3.  Describe  its  middle 
'  part.  4.  What  is  the  condition 
in  its  lower  course  ?  5.  How 
may  other  rivers  differ  from  the 
one  described  ?  6.  What  is  meant  by  a  river 
system?  By  a  river  basin?  7.  Where  are 
flood  plains  found,  and  how  are  they  formed  ? 
8.  Where  and  how  are  the  deltas  of  rivers 
formed?  9.  How  are  rivers  important  for 
drainage?  10.  How  are  they  of  value  for 
supplying  water?  11.  For  manufacturing? 
12.   For  navigation  ? 


Review 
Questions 


13.    What   is   a   river   source 
River   bank  ?     lliver 
Rapid  ?     Waterfall  ? 
basin?      Tributary?       River 
plain?'    Delta? 


A    spring  ? 

channel  ?     River    bed  ? 

River    system  ?     River 

mouth  ?      Flood 


1.  Why  are  the  rocks  in 
ally  smooth  and  round  ?  2 
by  "  up  a  river  "  ?  By  "  down  a 
river  "  ?  By  «  right  bank  "  ?  By 
"left  bank"?     3.   Find  a  spring 


river   beds   usu- 
What  is  meant 


Suggestions 
Why  is  its 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


41 


water  cool  ?  4  Find  a  flood  plain.  5.  What 
are  the  causes  of  river  floods  ?  6.  Do  you 
know  of  a  city  that  gets  its  water  from  a  river 
or  a  lake?  If  so,  how  is  the  water  brought 
to  the  city  and  distributed  to  the  houses  ? 
7.  Make  a  water  wheel,  and  arrange  for  a  stream 
of  water  to  turn  it.  8.  Make  a  collection  of 
pictures  of  rivers,  and  notice  as  many  facts  as 
you  can  about  them.  9.  Make  a  drawing  of  a 
river,  showing  its  source,  mouth,  tributaries, 
and  flood  plains. 

2.   Ponds  and  Lakes 


If  you  build  a  dam  of  sticks  and  mud  _^^p 
across  a  small   brook,  the   water   soon 
fills  the  little  basin  that  you 
make.     In  this  way  you  can 
make  a  small  pond  (Fig.  52). 
order   to   make    ponds   or   small 


manufacturing,  often  become  too  low  to 
furnish  the  amount  of  water  needed. 
By  means  of  the  dam  a  large  basin  is 


How  ponds 
and  lakes 
are  formed 


In 


lakes,  men  often  build  dams  of   earth, 
wood,    or    stone,    across    much     larger 


Fig.  52. 


•  A  boy  making  a  small  pond  by  building  a  dam 
in  a  roadside  gutter. 


formed ;    and  when  the  river  is  high, 
enough  water  may  be  collected  in  it  to 


Fig.  So.  —  A  dam  built  across  a  stream  in  order  to  make  a  laki-  lor  storini;  water. 


streams  (Fig.  53).  They  do  this  because 
the  rivers  that  supply  towns  and  cities 
with  drinking  water^  or  with  power  for 


last  through  a  dry  season.  If  you  have 
seen  such  a  pond  or  lake,  describe  it  to 
the  class, 


42 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Many  ponds  and  lakes  have  been 
formed  in  a  similar  way.  That  is,  the 
water  has  collected  behind  dams  that 
have  been  formed  across  streams.  This 
is  true  even  of  the  large  lakes,  some  of 
which  are  two  or  three  hundred  miles 
long  and  fifty  miles  or  more  wide.  Usu- 
ally, however,  these  dams  have  not  been 
built  by  men. 

Some  of  the  dams  have  been  made  by  beavers 
(Fig.  54).  There  used  to  be  a  great  many  bea- 
vers in  our  country,  and  some  are  left  still. 
Since  they  prefer  quiet,  shallow  ponds  in  which 


been  widened  by  the  forming  of  a  dam. 
The  stream  flows  into  this  Names  for 
body  of  water  at  one  end.  pa^s  of  a  lake 
This  end  is  really  a  little  higher  than 
the  other,  and  is  called  the  head  of 
the  lake.  The  water  flows  out  at  the 
lower  end,  which  is  called  the  foot  of 
the  lake.  The  stream  that  flows  into  a 
lake  is  called  the  i7ilet,  and  that  which 
flows  out  is  called  the  outlet. 

Some  lakes  have  no  outlet,  because  there  is 
so  little  water  flowing  in  that  the  basin  cannot 
fill  and  overflow.     The  water  in  such  lakes  be- 


FiG.  54.  —  A  clam  of  sticks  placed  by  beavers  in  a  swift  stream,  in  order  to  make  tlie  pond  in  wliicli  they  live. 


to  live,  they  gnaw  down  small  trees  and  make 
dams  with  the  sticks.  Then  they  build  their 
houses  in  the  ponds  thus  formed. 

In  other  places,  as  among  mountains,  where 
the  sides  of  the  river  valleys  are  steep,  great 
avalanches  of  rock  and  earth  have  fallen,  and 
blocked,  or  dammed  up,  a  stream. 

These  are  some  of  the  simplest  ways  in  which 
dams  have  been  made  across  valleys,  to  form 
ponds  and  lakes.  In  your  later  study  of 
geography  you  will  learn  about  other  ways 
in  Avhich  ponds  and  lakes  have  been  made. 

From  what  has  been  said,  it  is  clear 
that  a  pond  or  lake  is  usually  nothing 
more  than   part  of  a   stream   that  has 


comes  salt.  Perhaps  you  have  heard  of  the  Great 
Salt   Lake,  in    Utah.     Its  water  why  some 
is  so  salt  that  no  one  could  drink  lakes  become 
it,  even  if  he  were  dying  of  thirst,  salt 

The  reason  why  such  lakes  become  salt  is  as 
follows.  There  is  some  salt  in  all  water,  even  in 
that  which  we  drink,  although  so  little  that  we 
do  not  notice  it.  When  water  flows  into  a  lake, 
the  salt  is  carried  with  it.  If  there  is  no  outlet, 
the  water  cannot  flow  out,  but  it  escapes,  be- 
cause every  day  some  of  it  dries  away  ;  that  is, 
it  is  changed  into  vapor  and  carried  away  in 
the  air.  The  Salt  cannot  pass  off  in  this  manner. 
It  remains,  therefore,  and  slowly  collects,  un- 
til the  water  of  the  lake  becomes  salt. 

You  have  heard  of  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  and 
of  the  Dead  Sea ;  both  of  them  are  in  Palestine. 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


43 


The  Sea  of  Galilee  is  a  fresh-water  lake,  with 
the  Jordan  River  for  its  outlet.  This  fresh- 
water river  finally  empties  into  the  Dead  Sea, 
a  lake  that  has  no  outlet.  The  air  in  that 
desert  country  is  -^o  dry  that  fully  as  much 
water  passes  off  from  this  lake  in  vapor  as  enters 
from  the  river.  On  that  account  the  Dead 
Sea  cannot  overflow,  and  it  has  become  one  of 
the  saltest  lakes  on  the  earth.  It  is  so  salt 
that  fishes  cannot  live  in  it,  and  that  is  the 
reason  it  is  called  the  Dead  Sea. 


tant  waterways.  Upon  the  Great  Lakes, 
in  the  northern  part  of  the  Upited  States, 
hundreds  of  vessels  are  engaged  in  carry- 
ing passengers,  and  also  grain,  coal,  lum- 
ber, and  countless  other  products.  For 
these  reasons  many  people  have  settled 
on  the  shores  of  large  lakes,  and  as  a 
result  many  towns  and  cities  have  been 
built  there.     Do  you  know  of  any  such  ? 


Fig.  53.  —  The  result  of  a  morning's  fishing  from  a  canoe  in  a  lalte  in  Canada. 


Like  rivers,  ponds  and  lakes  are  of 
use  to  men  in  many  ways.  They  help 
The  uses  of  ^^  keep  the  ground  moist 
ponds  and  near  their  shores  ;  they  fur- 
lakes  j^-gj^  water  to  cities,  to  fac- 
tories, and  to  farmers  for  irrigation. 
Besides  this,  many  valuable  food  fish 
are  caught  in  lakes ;  and  in  cold  coun- 
tries much  ice,  for  use  in  summer,  is  cut 
from  their  surfaces. 

Again,  lakes,  like  rivers,  are  impor- 


Another  reason  why  lakes  are  impor- 
tant is  because  their  shores  are  often 
very  beautiful ;  and  the  air  near  them 
is  usually  cool  in  summer.  Because  of 
this,  many  persons  go  to  lakes  as  they 
do  to  mountains,  to  spend  their  summer 
vacations.  There  they  can  enjoy  hunt- 
ing, fishing  (Fig.  55),  canoeing,  and 
bathing,  as  well  as  walks  along  the 
beaches  and  in  the  woods  along  the 
shores. 


44 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


1.  How  are  ponds  and  lakes  formed  ? 
2.  Give  names  for  the  parts  of  a 
lake.  3.  Why  do  some  lakes  be- 
come salt?     4.    What  are  some 

of  the  uses  of  ponds  and  lakes  ? 

1.   Find  a  pond  or  small  lake  and  examine 

the  dam  that  caused  it.  2.  What  dangers  do 
you  see  from  lakes,  when  the 
dams  made   by    men    have    not 

been   well   built  ?     3.   Find    out    more    about 

beavers.     4.     What  is  meant  by  ''  up  a  lake  "  ? 

By  "  down  a  lake  "  ? 


Review 
Questions 


you   go   far   enough,  you  will   come  to 
the  ocean. 

If  you  wished  to  go  to  the  home  of 
the  nomads  of  the  desert,  or  of  the  Ne- 
groes of  Central  Africa,  you  would  have 
to  travel  across  the  ocean ;  and  even  if 
you  went  on  a  fast  steamer,  it  would 
be  many  days  before  you  arrived  there. 
Most  of  the  time  you  would  be  out  of 
sight  of  land,  with  nothing  but  the  level 


Fig.  5(i. — The  vast  uceaii,  with  uo  laud  in  sight.     Tlic  sailboats  are  tishing  vessels. 


3.   The  Ocean 

The  great  rivers,  starting  as  tiny 
brooks,  grow  into  larger  and  still  larger 
The  size  of  streams,  until,  after  days 
the  ocean  and  perhaps  weeks,  they 
discharge  their  waters  into  the  sea  or 
ocean.  No  doubt  much  of  the  rain  that 
falls  near  your  home  finally  reaches  the 
sea  in  this  way,  and  if  you  could  float 
along  upon  it  in  a  boat,  you,  too,  would 
in  time  reach  the  ocean. 

We  can  see  across  most  lakes,  and 
can  sail  across  even  the  largest  in  a 
day  or  two ;  but  the  ocean  is  far  larger. 
One  can  sail  upon  it,  in  the  same  di- 
rection, for  many  days  w^ithout  com- 
ing to  land  (Fig.  56).  In,deed,  the  ocean 
is  so  large  that  it  surrounds  all  the 
land  on  which  people  live,  and  no 
matter  in  what  direction  you  travel,  if 


ocean  about  you.  Every  day  would  be 
somewhat  warmer  than  the  day  before, 
until  finally  you  reached  the  hot  country 
of  Africa. 

To  reach  the  land  of  the  Eskimos  you 
would  also  go  by  ship  on  the  ocean,  and 
travel  for  days  upon  it.  On  this  jour- 
ney every  day  would  be  a  little  cooler 
than  the  day  before,  and  finally  you 
would  come  to  a  region  where  it  is  so 
cold  that  there  is  ice  on  the  sea  even  in 
summer. 

If  your  home  is  not  near  the  ocean, 
you  might  have  to  make  a  journey  of 
one  or  two,  or  even  three  or  four,  days 
to  reach  it.  It  might  be  necessary  to 
go  up  hills  and  across  valleys,  to  pass 
around  lakes,  and  possibly  even  to  cross 
great  ranges  of  mountains.  You  would 
be  surprised  to  find  how  much  land 
there  is,  and  how  many  farms,  villages. 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


45 


towns,  and  cities  there  are.  Find  out 
how  long  it  would  take  to  reach  the 
ocean  from  your  home 

Although  there  is  so  much  land,  there 
is    far    more    water.     In    fact,  there  is 


all  must  have  water,  the  ocean  is  of  value 
to  all  living  things  on  the  land.  It  is 
in  supplying  water  for  rain  that  the 
ocean  is  of  greatest  importance. 

There  are  other  ways  in  which  the 


Fig.  57.  —  A  mackerel.    They  are  usually  from  one  to  one  and  a  half  feet  long. 


nearly  three  times  as  much  water  as 
land.  The  ocean  is  so  immense  that 
the  great  rivers  in  all  parts  of  the  earth 
pour  their  water  into  it.  Their  mouths 
may  be  thousands  of  miles  apart,  yet  the 
sea  stretches  far  enough  to  reach  them 
all. 

The  water  of  the  ocean  is  too  salt  to  drink, 
but  river  water  is  fresh.  Since  there  are  many 
thousands  of  rivers  entering. the  sea,  you  might 
suppose  that  their  water  would  make  the  ocean 
less  salt.  It  does  do  so  near  the  mouths  of 
great  rivers,  but  soon  the  fresh  water  becomes 
mixed  with  and  swallowed  up  in  the  salt  water; 
for  the  ocean  is  so  large  that  all  the  river  water 
that  enters  it  is  not  enough  to  make  it  fresh. 

Plants,  animals,  and  men  all  owe 
much  to  the  ocean,  for  without  it  very 
,,  ,       .^,        little  rain  would  fall.     Mois- 

Value  of  the  .  ... 

ocean  in  fur-  ture  IS  always  rising  into  the 
nishing  water  ^[j,  f  j-qhi  the  ocean,  and  being 
carried  about  by  the  winds. 
When  it  falls  from  the  clouds,  we  have 
rain.  Even  rain  that  falls  thousands  of 
miles  inland  comes  largely  from  the 
ocean.     Since  plants,  animals,  and  men 


ocean  is  of  value.  One  of  these  is  in 
supplying  food.     You  know  yaiue  of  the 

(p.    5)    that    almost    all    the   ocean  as  a 

food  that  the  Eskimos  eat,  ^?"'"'^  °^  ^"^'^ 
such  as  seal,  walrus,  and  fish,  comes 
from  the  sea.  Fish  from  the  ocean,  or 
saltwater  fish,  as  they  are  called,  are  a 
very  important  food  for  others  besides 
the  Eskimos ;  and  many  men  make  their 
living  by  going  out  in  boats  and  catch- 
ing them.  Great  numbers  of  fish  are 
sometimes  found  close  to  the  land ;  but 
often  they  are  caught  far  out  in  the 
sea,  so  that  the  fishermen  must  remain 
out  of  sight  of  the  land  for  days  at  a 
time  (Fig.  56). 

Besides  hooks  and  lines,  long  nets 
are  often  used,  and  so  many  fish  are 
sometimes  caught  in  these  nets  that 
the  boats  are  filled  with  them.  No 
doubt  some  of  the  mackerel  (Fig.  57)  or 
herring  that  you  have  eaten  have  been 
caught  in  this  way  Halibut  also  come 
from  the  sea,  and  so  do  codfish  (Fig.  58), 
which  may  be  seen  in  almost  any  grocery 


46 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


store.     Picture  56  shows  a  fishing  vessel 
that  is  used  in  catching  salt-water  fish. 


makes  the  seashore  a  pleasant  place  to 
spend  the  summer. 


Fig.  58.  —A  codfish.     They  are  often  three  or  four  feet  long 

The  ocean  water  is  cooler  than  the 
Value  of  the  ocean    land  in  summer,  and  for 


as  a  pleasure  resort  that  reason  the  breezes 
that  blow  from  the  ocean  are  cool      This 


The  views  at  the  seashore  also  attract  people. 
The  silvery  sheet  of  water,  stretching  out  as  far 
as  the  eye  can  reach,  is  often  dotted  with  white 
sails.  .  Sometimes  its  color  is  green,  again  it  is 
blue ;  when  the  clouds  hang  over  it,  it  is  dark 


Fig.  5<J.  —  The  ocean  waves  dashing  into  foam  on  the  rocky  coast  of  New  England. 


LAND,    WATEB,   AND  AIR 


47 


and.  gloomy.  There  are  beautiful  sunrises  and 
sunsets  to  watch,  and  one  can  see  the  storms 
come  and  go,  with  the  waves  dashing  into  the 
whitest  of  foam  against  the  rocks  (Fig.  59),  or 
rolling  high  upon  a  sandy  beach. 

In  fact,  the  water,  the  sky,  and  the  coast  are 
always  changing  in  appearance.  This  is  true  of 
the  lake  shores,  too;  but  the  ocean  is  so  much 
larger  than  the  greatest  lake,  that  the  scenery 
on  the  seashore  is  far  grander  than  that  on  the 
lake  shore. 

For  these  reasons  many  people  go  to  the  sea- 
shore in  summei',  just  as  others  go  to  the  moun- 
tains or  to  the  lakes.     Thei'e  they  spend  their 


known.  Coney  Island  and  AsburyPark  are  two 
such  resorts  near  New  York  City,  and  Atlantic 
City  is  another  near  Philadelphia.  Can  you  tell 
anything  about  any  one  of  them  ? 

Where  the  winters  are  warm,  as  in  the  South, 
the  seacoast  is  a  winter  resort.  Many  persons 
spend  a  part  of  the  winter  on  the  warm  south- 
ern coasts,  or  on  small  islands  in  the  sea.  Some 
of  these,  like  Bermuda,  lie  far  out  in  the  ocean. 
At  these  winter  resorts  there  is  no  frost  or  snow. 
Flowers  blossom  all  winter,  and  people  dress  in 
light  clothing,  enjoying  themselves  out  of  doors, 
while  at  their  own  homes  the  ground  is  covered 
with  snow  and  the  weather  is  bitterly  cold. 


Fig.  60.  —  Hundreds  of  people  batliing  on  the  sandy  beach  at  Atlantic  City,  New  Jersey. 


time  climbing  over  the^  rocks,  walking  upon  the 
clean  sandy  beach,  bathing  in  the  cool  salt  water 
(Fig.  60),  and  watching  the  scenery. 

Many  houses,  and  even  cities,  have 
been  built  at  the  most  attractive  places 
along  the  seashore.  There  are  large 
hotels  for  visitors,  which  are  often 
crowded  in  summer ;  but  few  people 
are  found  at  these  places  during  the 
winter. 

Resorts  of  this  kind  are  very  common  near 
large  cities,  and  some  of  them  have  become  well 


Different  parts  of  the  ocean  have  dif- 
ferent names.     For  instance,  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean  is  the  part  lying  value  of  the 
between   the  United  States  ocean  for 
and  Uurope,  the  land  where  ^^^^^^^^^^ 
the  English,  Irish,  Germans,  and  other 
peoples    live.      We    buy   many    articles 
from    these    countries,    such    as     linen 
and  woolen  cloth,  sugar,  silk,  oranges, 
and  olives ;  and  they  likewise  purchase 
articles  from  us,  such  as  cotton,  wheat, 
meat,  iron  and  steel  goods,  and  leather. 


48 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars'  worth 
of  these  articles  are  sent  across  the  ocean 
every  year.  Thousands  of  passengers 
also  cross  the  ocean  every  year,  some 
coming  to  this  country  to  live,  others 


important  business,  and  thousands  of 
men  are  engaged  in  it.  A  single  large 
steamship  may  employ  five  or  six  hun- 
dred men,  and  carry  as  many  as  three 
thousand  passengers.     Many  of  the  ships 


Fig.  61. —  A  section  through   one  of    the  large   ocean  steamers  —  the  Kuiserin  Aur/uste   Victoria  of   the  Hamburg 
American  Line.    Note  the  position  of  the  engines,  wliere  the  coal  is  stored,  the  places  for  the  cargo,  passengers,  etc. 


going  to  Europe  to  travel,  or  to  visit 
friends.  The  fastest  steamers  need  only 
five  or  six  days  for  the  voyage. 

All  parts  of  the  ocean  are  a  great, 
highway,  and  thousands  of  ships  are  al- 
ways traveling  upon  it  in  all  directions, 
carrying  people,  and  also  fruit,  iron,  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  machines,  mail,  and  many 
other  things  (Fig.  61).     Although  there 


^'im^^'mj;m.^^>simj$~$>^?$?^moK  .,sx>.>sx-^s.  .  .-.\  .^\n-»-^s^x-:? 


Fig.  62. 


•  A  picture  to  show  how  deep  a  large  steamer  sinks 
into  the  water. 


are  so  many  ships,  the  ocean  is  so  large 
that  a  person  upon  one  of  them  may  sail 
for  days  without  even  seeing  another 
ship. 

Ocean  navigation  is,  therefore,  a  very 


are  great  steamers,  costing  several  mil- 
lions of  dollars.  Some  of  these  travel 
at  the  rate  of  twenty  miles  or  more  an 
hour;  others  are  sailing  vessels  pushed 
along  by  the  wind,  going  fast  when  the 
wind  blows  hard,  and  hardly  moving  at 
all  when  it  is  calm.  Many  of  the  ships 
used  on  the  ocean  are  far  larger  than 
vessels  upon  lakes,  and  they  sink  deeper 
into  the  water.  The  largest,  when 
loaded,  reach  down  thirty  feet  or 
more  below  the  surface. 

One  of  the  difficulties  that  ships 
meet  is  in  loading  and  unloading 
the    goods    that    they  Difficulties 
carry.     ^^  agons  can  be  and  dangers 
driven  alongside  a  rail-  ^°^  vessels 
way  car  and   be   quickly   filled  or 
emptied.     But   a   large  ship  sinks 
down  into  the  water  so  many  feet 
(Fig.  62)  that  it  is  difficult  for  it  to 
find  a  place  where  it  can  come  close  to 
shore.     If  it  should  strike  the  bottom, 
it  might  be  wrecked.      Besides  this,  a 
boat  cannot  load  and  unload  where  there 
are  large  waves. 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


49 


Fig.  63.  —  The  greai  storm  waves  on  the  open  ocean. 


Again,  upon  both  lakes  and  the  ocean, 
vessels  meet  with  dangers  of  many  kinds. 
Storms  are  often  severe,  and  the  waves 
are  so  high  that  sometimes  they  sweep 
over,  and  for  a  moment  almost  cover  up, 
even  the  very  large  vessels  (Fig.  63) . 
When  far  out  from  land,  large,  well- 
built  ships  are  not  in  serious  danger  in 
such  weather,  but  smaller  vessels,  es- 
pecially those  that  are  old  or  poorly 
built,  may  be  destroyed. 

When  approaching  land,  however, 
sailors  of  all  vessels  must  be  careful. 
The  shores  of  large  lakes  and  the  ocean 
are  often  quite  irregular,  and  the  depth 
of  the  water  may  change  in  a  very 
short  space.     In  some  places  there  are 


dangerous  shallows,  in  others  hidden 
rocks,  or  reefs,  that  lie  near  the  surface 
(Fig.  64). 

There  are  also  currents  that  may  float 
a  vessel  out  of  its  course ;  and  fogs  are 
often  so  dense  that  a  person  can  see  only 
a  short  distance  ahead.  In  a  fog  it  is 
very  easy  to  lose  one's  way  at  sea.  In 
addition  to  all  this,  strong  winds  and 
high  waves  may  drive  a  ship  in  the 
wrong  direction,  in  spite  of  all  that  can 
be  done  to  prevent  it. 

Not  all  these  difficulties  and  dangers 
can  be  overcome,  but  much  How  such 
is   done    to    make    shipping  ^^'^anjers 
both  easy  and  safe.     The  ir-  are  met 
regular  shape  of  the   coast   itself    lielps 


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■ 

mn^- 

^..         . 

.-  ^-4 

Fig.  (!4.  —  The  wreck  of  an  ocean  steamer  that  ran  aground  in  shallow  water  during  a  storm. 


60 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


toward  this  end.  Very  often  the  land 
partly  surrounds  a  body  of  water,  as  in 
Fig.  68,  forming  what  is 
called  a  hay.  Some  of  these 
bays  are  very  large,  being  even  hundreds 
of  miles  long,  but  many  ignore  are  quite 
small.     Many  of  the  small  bays  have  an 


the  vessels.  Thus  a  convenient  and  safe 
way  is  found  for  handling  goods  that 
are  carried  on  ships. 

Harbors  are  so  important  that  men  some- 
times make  them  on  coasts  where  there  are 
no  good  natural  ones.  This  is  very  expen- 
sive work,  but  it  pays.  Walls  of  rock  are 
built  in  such  a  way  as  nearly 
to  inclose  a  body  of  water, 
much  as  the  water  of  a  bay 
is  inclosed  by  land.  Such  a 
wall  is  called  a  breakwater 
(Fig.  66),  because  it  breaks 
the  force  of  the  waves  and 
prevents  them  from  entering 
the  space  behind.  It  often 
happens  that  harbors  are  not  as 
deep  as  they  need  to  be.  The 
vessels  now  used  are  much  larger 
and  sink  deeper  into  the  water 
than  those  formerly  used.  On 
that  account  many  harbors  that 
were  once  deep  enough  are  now 
too  shallow.  All  the  time,  too, 
the  waves  and  tides  are  bringing 


Fig.  65. — Rio  Janeiro  harbor. 

opening  large  enough  for 
vessels  to  enter  easily,  but 
small  enough  to  shut  out 
most  of  the  fierce  waves. 
If  the  water  is  deep,  as  is 
often  the  case,  such  a  small 
bay  makes  a  fine  harbor 
(Fig.  65) ;  that  is,  a  place 
where  vessels  may  be  pro- 
tected from  storms  and 
waves. 

For  the  purpose  of  load- 
ing and  unloading  ships,  piers  of  wood 
or  stone,  called  wharves,  are  built  from 
the  shores  of  the  harbor  out  into  the 
deep  water.  Even  large  vessels  can  be 
firmly  fastened,  or  moored,  to.  these 
wharves,  and  wagons  or  cars  can  be 
drawn  out  on  them  close  to  the  side  of 


Fig.  66.  —  Breakwaters  built  at  Chicago  to  form  a  harbor  where  ships  may 
be  safe  from  the  waves. 


sediment  that  settles   in   the   harbors,  slowly 
filling  them  up. 

Vast  sums  of  money  have  to  be  spent,  there- 
fore, in  deepening  harbors.  The  loose  sand 
and  mud  are  scraped  out  by  dredges  ;  but  when 
the  bottom  is  solid  rock,  it  has  to  be  blasted 
out.  This  work  is  of  so  great  importance  to  so 
many  people,  that  the  United  States  govern- 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


51 


111  a  Milan 


if  a  cape. 


ment  spends  millions  of  dollars  every  year  in 
doing  it. 

So  long  as  a  ship  lies  in  a  good 
harbor,  it  is  safe  from  most  dangers. 
2.  Lighthouses  ^'^^  when  it  is  outside,  on 
and  lightships  itg  ^yaj  from  one  harbor  to 
another,  dangers  are  ever  present.  Did 
you  ever  stop  to  think  how  a  vessel 
finds  its  way  on  the  great  ocean  ? 

While  a  ship  is  out  of  sight  of  land, 
its  officers  must  guide  it  by  the  position 
of  the  sun  or  of  certain  stars,  using  the 
compass  and  other  instruments.  But 
during  storms  and  foggy  weather,  the 
winds  and  currents  may  cause  even  a 
large  steamship  to  drift  far  out  of  its 
course.  Then  as  a  ship 
approaches  land,  the  chief 
help  is  from  the  ligJit- 
Jiouses  (Fig.  67),  which 
are  built  in  many  places 
along  the  coast. 

Often  the  land  ex- 
tends out  into  the  water, 
forming  what  is  called  a 
poi7it  or  a  cajje;  or  if 
large  and  almost  sur- 
rounded by  water,  a  pen- 
insula  (Fig.  68).  Light- 
houses are  placed  far  out 
on  such   points  or  capes 


or  peninsulas,  or  on  islands  near  the 
mainland,  so  that  their  lights  may  be 
seen  a  long  distance  over  the  water. 
They  are  also  built  in  other  places, 
wherever  the  danger  requires. 

In  some  places  there  are  dangerous 
shallows,  or  shoals,  where  it  is  impossible 
to  build  a  lighthouse.  In  that  case, 
ships  with  lights  on  their  masts,  called 
lightships  (Fig.  69),  are  securely  anchored 
near  by  to  give  warning  to  sailors. 

When  the  captain  sees  the  light  of  a 
lighthouse  or  lightship,  he  knows  that 
he  is  nearing  land  and  must  be  very 
careful.  How  can  he  tell  which  light 
he  sees  when  there  are  so  many  light- 


Fig.  68.  —  Find  here  and  describe  a  liarbor :  a  bay ;  a  point ;  a  cape  ;  a  i)eniusula ; 
an  island  ;  an  isthmus;  a  strait. 


52 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


houses?  That  is  not  difficult,  for  the 
lights  are  not  all  alike.  Some  are  white, 
others  red  ;  some  give  a  steady  light, 
others  turn  round  and,  as  they  turn, 
send  out  flash  after  flash.  There  are 
many  different  kinds  of  lights,  and  the 
maps,  or  charts,  that  every  ship  carries, 
tells  the  captain  where  each  is  placed. 
He  also  knows  the  special  kind  of  light- 
house to  be  found  at  the  entrance  to  the 
harbor  for  which  he  is  bound. 

In  case  of  heavy  fog,  when  the  lights  can- 
not be  seen,  powerful  horns  and  whistles  are 


Fig.  69.  —  A  lightship  on  which  men  live,  keeping  the  light  on  the  mast 
burning  at  night,  and  the  fog  whistle  blowing  in  foggy  weather. 


blown  for  a  warning.  The  lighthouses  and 
lightships  are  well  provided  with  these,  and 
they  are  blown  every  few  seconds,  or  minutes, 
according  to  the  need.  When  sailors  approach 
the  coast  during  foggy  weather,  they  always 
listen  for  the  sound  of  the  foghorn. 

By  such  helps  as  these  a  vessel  finds  its  way 
to  the  entrance  of  its  own  port.  What  a  lone- 
some life  those  people  who  live  in  the  light- 
houses and  lightships  must  lead,  attending  to 
the  lamps  and  giving  warning  in  the  fogs ! 

But  how  important  their  work  is  in  saving 
ships  from  destruction  on  the  wave-beaten 
coasts ! 

The  entrance,  or  channel,  to  a  harbor 
is  often  narrow,  and  some- 
times on  each  side  there   are 
reefs    and    shoals    on    which    a     vessel 


3.    Buoys 


might  be  wrecked.  It  is  necessary, 
therefore,  that  the  channel  be  clearly 
marked.  This  is  done  by  placing  hol- 
low iron  buoys  here  and  there.  These 
float  on  the  surface,  but  are  anchored 
firmly  in  their  places.  They  are  guide- 
posts  to  the  sailor,  pointing  out  the  way. 
Dangerous  rocks  and  shoals  are  also 
marked  by  buoys;  and  many  of  these 
are  so  made  that  they  send  out  a  shrill 
whistle,  or  ring  a  bell  every  time  they 
are  moved  by  the  waves.  On  this 
account  they  are  called  whistling  Imoys 
or    hell    huoys.      Have    you 

ever   seen   any   of   these   on 

the  water? 

It  is  so  important  that  no  mis- 
take be  made  in  entering  a  har- 
bor that  men,  called 
pilots,  make  a  busi- 
ness of  guiding,  or  piloting,  ships 
into  harbors.  They  go  out  in 
small  boats,  often  out  of  sight  of 
land,  to  watch  for  an  approaching 
vessel.  And  when  they  see  one, 
they  sail  toward  it  as  fast  as  they 
can.  In  stormy  weather  it  is  ex- 
citing to  see  a  pilot  come  up  in 
his  little  boat,  tossed  about  by  the 
huge  waves,  and  clamber  up  the  side  of  the  ship. 
It  seems  a  wonder  that  he  is  not  washed  into 
the  sea,  and  that  his  small  boat  is  not  dashed 
to  pieces  against  the  side  of  the  big  vessel. 

In  spite  of  all  the  care  that  is  taken  to  guide 
ships  safely  into  harbors,  now  and  then  one  is 


4.    Pilots 


wrecked  on  the  coast,  especially 


5.    Life-saving 


in  foggy  and  stormy  weather  (Fig.  stations' 
64).  Then,  of  course,  the  lives  of 
sailors  and  passengers  are  in  danger.  Hence 
it  is  important  that  some  means  be  provided 
for  saving  shipwrecked  people.  This  is  done 
through  life-saviiig  stations.  Here  and  there 
along  the  coast  such  stations  are  found,  where 
several  men  keep  a  sharp  lookout  for  ship- 
wrecks, and  when  one  occurs,  go  to  the  rescue. 
At  such  times  they  boldly  launch  their  life- 
boats through  the  surf  and  perform  many  acts 
of  bravery. 


Land,  water,  and  air 


53 


Fig.  70.  — Ships  at  the  wharves  iu  New  York  harbor. 


A  harbor  is  also  called  a  port,  and  a 
city  on  an  ocean  harbor  is  called  a  sea- 

Why  seaports  P^^^^'  Seaports  often  grow 
often  become  to  be  great  cities.  New  York 
large  cities        Q-^y  j^  ^^  example  ;  it  is  the 

largest  in  North  America,  and  the  second 
in  size  in  the  world.  Philadelphia  is  an- 
other example  ;  Boston  and  San  Fran- 
cisco are  also  seaports.  Can  you  name 
any  others? 

The  fact  that  each  of  these  great 
cities  is  located  on  a  good  harbor  is  one 
important  reason  for  its  size.  The  ocean 
connects  a  good  harbor  with  all  parts  of 
the  world,  and  if  the  country  back  of  the 
seaport  is  fertile  and  thickly  settled  with 
people,  the  port  becomes  a  gateway  for 
travel   and   for  the  shipping  of    goods. 


To  such  a  port  vessels  may  come  by 
hundreds  (Fig.  70),  bringing  goods  that 
are  wanted,  taking  others  away,  and 
carrying  passengers  back  and  forth. 
Hundreds  of  vessels  may  be  seen  in 
New  York  harbor  at  all  times,  and 
every  year  many  thousands  of  them 
enter  that  port  alone. 

When  studying  the  lesson,  it  is  important  to 
know  that  the  sentences  in  the  text  are  not  all 
to  be  remembered  alike,  for  they 
are  not  all  of  the  same  value. 
Neither  are  the  paragraphs  all  of 
the  same  value,  nor  the  pages.  On  the  con- 
trary, in  any  text  there  are  always  some  sen- 
tences, paragraphs,  and  pages  that  are  far  more 
important  than  others,  and  one  of  the  princi- 
pal things  to  do  in  studying  a  lesson  is  to  dis- 
cover what  the  most  important  parts  are. 

For  instance,  on  pages  44  and  45,  telling  about 


About  how 
to  study 


54 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Definitions 


the  size  of  the  ocean,  there  are  more  than  a  score 
of  sentences,  and  seven  different  paragraphs. 
What  are  the  most  valnable  parts  ?  They  are 
not  the  first  paragraph,  nor  the  last,  for  both  of 
these  could  be  omitted  and  the  main  thought 
would  remain  fairly  clear.  But  look  at  the  sec- 
ond and  the  sixth  paragraphs.  These  two  con- 
tain the  principal  fact.  Read  them  to  see  what 
it  is.  The  other  paragraphs  are  less  important, 
aiming  merely  to  help  make  this  main  thought 
plain.  They  can  be  remembered  most  easily, 
too,  by  thinking  of  the  most  important  fact. 

In  all  study  of  the  text,  it  is  best  to  find  the 
most  important  statement  as  quickly  as  possi- 
ble, and  then  think  of  the  others  along  with  it, 
in  order  to  hold  it  the  more  firmly.  To  test 
this,  pick  out  the  one  or  two  main  sentences  in 
the  paragraph  about  the  value  of  the  ocean  in 
furnishing  water  for  raing.  Do  the  same  with 
other  parts  of  the  text. 

An  island  is  a  body  of  land 
entirely  surrounded  by  water. 

A  peninsula  is  a  body  of  land  almost  sur- 
rounded by  water ;  the  word  means  "  almost  an 
island." 

A  cape  is  a  small  body  of  land  extending  out 
into  the  water. 

A  hay  is  a  large  body  of  water  partly  inclosed 
by  land. 

A  harbor  is  a  small  body  of  water  so  shut  in 
by  land,  or  by  breakwaters,  that  vessels  enter- 
ing it  are  protected  from  winds  and  waves. 

1.  Give  proofs  that  the  ocean  is  very  large. 
2.  How  is  the  ocean  of  value  in  furnishing 
water  for  rains  ?  3.  Of  what 
Review  value   is    it  in  furnishing  food  ? 

^       '  4.   What  is  its  value  as  a  pleasure 

resort  ?  5.  How  is  it  valuable  for  navigation  ? 
6.  What  difficulties  and  dangers  do  vessels 
meet  on  the  ocean  ?  7.  State  the  main  facts 
about  harbors.  8.  About  lighthouses  and  light- 
ships. 9.  About  buoys.  10.  Pilots.  11.  Life- 
saving  stations.  12.  Why  do  seaports  often 
become  large  cities  ?  13.  What  is  an  island  ? 
A  peninsula  ?     A  cape  ?     A  bay  ?     A  harbor  ? 

1.  What  might  be  the  effect,  if  there  were 
much  less  ocean  and  much  more  land  ?  2.  Ex- 
amine pictures  of  bluefish,  her- 
ring, and  halibut  in  the  dictionary, 
and  make  a  drawing  of  each.  Find  the  real 
fish  at  some  fish  market  or  elsewhere.  3.  In 
what  direction  would  you  go  to  reach  the  ocean 


Suggestions 


at  the  nearest  point  ?  Find  out  how  far  it  is. 
4.  Have  some  one  tell  you  about  a  voyage  across 
the  ocean.  5.  Have  some  one  tell  you  about 
a   visit  to   a   summer  resort  on  the  seashore. 

6.  Read  the  description  of  the  storms  on  the 
ocean,  found  in  the  story  of  Robinson  Crusoe. 

7.  Do  you  know  of  any  views  that  are  made 
more  beautiful  by  the  presence  of  water  ?  If 
so,  where  are  they  ?  Describe  them,  8.  Which 
is  probably  the  most  important  use  of  the 
ocean  ?  Why  ?  9.  Which  is  probably  its  least 
important  use  ?  Why  ?  10.  Make  a  draw- 
ing illusti'ating  island,  peninsula,  cape,  bay, 
and  harbor. 

3.   The  Air 

Resting  upon  the  solid  earth  is  the 
air,  or,  as  it  is  often  called,  the  atynos- 
phere.      It     surrounds    the  Extent  of  the 
earth   completely,   much  as  atmosphere 
a  cover  surrounds  a  ball,  and  it  extends 
upwards  many  miles  above  our  heads. 

This  air  cannot  be  seen,  though  we 
can  see  birds,  and  sometimes  balloons, 
floating  about  in  it,  much  as  fish  float 
in  water.  We  know  that  air  is  all  about 
us,  because  we  can  feel  it  striking  against 
our  faces  and  hands  whenever  the  wind 
blows  ;  and  when  it  blows  very  hard,  the 
air  may  move  with  force  enough  to  over- 
turn trees  and  even  houses. 

The  air  is  of  the  greatest  importance  to 
all  plants,  animals,  and  people.    It  is  even 
more  important  than  the  heat  xj^gj^^  q^.. 
and  the  soil,  about  which  we  tance  of 
have  already  learned.    Plants  ^'"  *°  ^^® 
and  animals  cannot  live  without  it ;  and 
we   ourselves  cannot  live  more  than  a 
few  minutes,  if  we   do   not  have  it  to 
breathe.     Drowning  means  nothing  more 
than  sinking   under   the   water,  where 
there  is  no  air  to  breathe. 

The  air  is  of  great  use  to  us  in  still 
another  way.  Without  it  there  could 
be  no  fire  ;  for  wood,  coal,  and  gas  can- 


LAND,    WATER,   AND  AIR 


55 


not  burn  without  air.  So  without  the  air 
we  could  have  no  light  from  oil  or  gas, 
no  fire  for  cooking  or  heating,  and  no 
steam  for  running  factories  and  engines. 


Fig.  71.  —  A  sailing  vessel  driven  through  the  water  by  the 
wind  blowing  against  the  sails. 

The  movements  of  the  air,  which  we 
call  winds,  are  of  great  importance,  for 
The  work  of  ^^6  winds  do  work  of  many 
the  winds  kinds.  For  example,  they 
drive  sailing  vessels  through  the  water 
(Fig.  71),  and  they  turn  windmills,  which 
are  often  used  to  pump  water  from  wells. 
They  also  remove  smoke,  dust,  and  foul 
air  from  crowded  cities. 

Far  more  important  than  this  is  the 
work  the  winds  do  in  carrying  water 
from  place  to  place  over  the  earth.  The 
air  takes  up  water  from  the  ocean  in  the 
form  of  vapor,  which  we  cannot  see,  and 
the  winds  bear  it  about,  sometimes  a  few 
miles,  sometimes  hundreds  and  even 
thousands  of  miles.  The  winds  carry 
the  vapor  in  all  directions,  and  often 
hold  it  for  many  days  before  letting  it 
fall. 

It  requires  an  enormous  amount  of 
water  to  keep  the  soil  damp,  the  lakes 
full,  and  the  rivers  flowing ;  far,  far 
more  is  needed  than  all  the  wasrons, 
boats,  and  trains  in  the  whole  world  could 


haul.  But  the  winds  do  that  vast  work 
very  easily,  and  much  of  the  time  very 
quietly.  Thus  it  is  by  the  help  of  the 
winds  that  the  rocks  are  made  wet  and 
changed  to  soil,  that  plants  are  able 
to  grow,  and  that  animals  and  people 
are  furnished  with  water  to  drink. 

What  causes  the  air  to  move,  and 
do  such  a  mighty  work  ?  Heat  has 
much  to  do  with  it.  If  The  cause 
you  watch  smoke  in  a  of  winds 
room  where  there  is  a  lighted  lamp, 
you  will  see  that  it  moves  toward 
the  lamp,  and  then,  being  heated, 
rises  abote  it  (Fig.  72). 

In  the  same  manner  the  air  in  a 
room  moves  toward  a  hot  stove,  and 
then,  being  heated,  rises  above  it. 
This  is  why  in  winter,  when  there  is  a 
hot  fire,  the  air  near  the  ceiling  of  a  room 
is  much  warmer  than  that  near  the  floor 
and  at  some  distance  from  the  stove. 


«>- 


Fig.  72.  —  Smoke  of  a  burning  match  rising  above  a 
lighted  lamp. 

The  reason  for  this  upward  movement  of  the 
air  is  first,  that  air  is  made  lighter  when  it  is 
warmed;   and   second,  that  the  cokier  air  all 


56 


HOME  GEOGRAPIfY 


around,  being  heavier,  crowds  in  and  pushes  the 
warm,  lighter  air  upward.  The  warm  air  is 
forced  upward  just  as  a  light  cork  that  is  sunk 
in  water  is  forced  to  the  surface  by  the  heavier 
water  all  about  it. 

The  movements  of  the  atmosphere 
that  surrounds  the  earth  are  quite  like 
those  of  the  air  of  the  heated  room.  If 
the  atmosphere  is  warmed  in  one  place, 
cool,  heavier  air  "  blows  "  in  and  pushes 
it  up.  That  causes  wind,  first  toward 
the  warmer  place,  and  then  upward. 

For  example,  people  on  the  seashore 
often  enjoy  a  cool  sea  breeze  on  hot  sum- 
mer days.  This  is  because  the  hot  sun 
warms  the  land  more  than  the  water ; 
then  the  cooler  air  from  over  the  sea 
blows  in  toward  this  warmer  place.  It 
is  these  cool  sea  breezes  that  greatly 
help  to  make  the  seashore  a  pleasant 
summer  resort. 

Such  differences  in  the  warmth  of  the 
air  are  the  main  cause  of  winds  every- 
where. Winds  that  blow  even  hundreds 
of  miles  in  one  direction  are  caused  in 
much  the  same  way  as  the  very  gentle 
draughts  about  a  lamp  or  a  stove.  What 
wonderful  results  follow  from  the  fadt 
that  there  are  always  some  places  warmer 
than  others  ! 

Water  is  always  rising  from  the  ocean's 
surface,  as  well  as  from  rivers  and  lakes. 
How  the  air  ^^  isbct,  enough  water  to  fill 
is  able  to  thousands  and  thousands  of 

take  up  water    b^rj-eig  jg  leaving  the  ocean 

every  minute  and  floating  away  in  the 
atmosphere  ;  and  at  all  times  there  is 
enough  water  in  the  air  to  fill  many 
large  lakes.  What  causes  so  much 
water  to  rise  into  the  air  ?  And  why 
can  we  not  see  it  there  ? 

You  have  no  doubt  watched  a  kettle 
of  water  boil,  and  have  seen  that  "steam" 


rises  from  it.  Perhaps  you  know,  too, 
that  if  it  boils  long  enough,  all  the 
water  will  boil  away,  leaving  the  kettle 
quite  dry.  All  the  water  in  the  kettle 
has  then  passed  into  the  air,  where  it 
cannot  be  seen. 

The  reason  for  this  is  that  heat  has 
changed  the  water,  which  is  a  liquid, 
into  a  gas,  which,  like  air,  has  no  color 
and  cannot  be  seen.  This  gas  is  called 
ivater  vapor,  and  it  is  so  light  that  it 
floats  about  in  the  air.  That  explains 
how  the  air  is  able  to  "  take  up  "  water 
and  carry  it  about  without  our  being 
able  to*  see  it. 

It  is  not  necessary,  however,  to  boil 
water  in  order  to  change  it  to  vapor. 
All  over  the  earth,  wherever  there  is 
water,  vapor  is  rising  into  the  air  every 
minute.  You  can  prove  this  for  your- 
self by  noticing  that  muddy  streets  and 
wet  clothes  soon  become  dry,  even  in 
winter.  Or  you  can  place  a  shallow  pan 
of  water  on  a  table  and  observe,  after 
some  days,  how  much  of  it  is  gone. 

People  say  that  the  water  has  evapo- 
rated, which  means  simply  that  it  has 
changed  to  vapor.     It  is  in  „,^  ^ 

.     °  .      ^  What  causes 

this   way   that  so  vast   an  the  air  to 
amount  of  water  is  always  gi^^  back 

f  ,1  .    ,       this  water 

rismg  irom  the  ocean   mto 

the   atmosphere.      Perhaps  after  many 

days,    and  after  traveling   hundreds  ot" 

miles  from  the  ocean,  the  air  gives  back 

some  of  its  water  vapor  in  the  form  of 

rain.     What  causes  it  to  do  this  ? 

Have  you  ever  noticed  a  glass,  or  a 

pitcher  of  ice  water,  "  sweat  "  (Fig.  73) 

on  a  hot  summer  day  ?     The  water  that 

collects  on  the  outside  of  a  glass  of  cold 

water  has  not  leaked  through,  for  there 

are  no  holes  in   the  glass.     What   has 

really  happened  is  that  the  air  around 


LAND,    WATER,    AND  AIR 


57 


the  cold  glass  has  been 
cooled  by  it,  and  this  has 
caused  the  vapor  in  the  air 
to  collect  in  drops  on  the 
cold  surface  of  the  glass. 
Drops  would  gather,  or  con- 
dense, just  the  same  on  any 
cold  glass,  even  if  no  water 
were  in  it. 

The  windowpanes  of  a 
kitchen  are  often  covered 
with  drops  of  water  from 
vapor,  which  rises  from  the 
kettles  and  is  condensed  into 
a  liquid  again  on  coming 
close  to  the  cold  glass.  The 
vapor  in  your  breath  will 
be  condensed  in  the  same  way  when  you 
breathe  against  a  cold  windowpane. 

From  these  facts  you  see  that  when 
air  loaded  with  vapor  is  cooled,  some  of 
the  vapor  gas  is  changed  back  to  liquid 


Fig.  73. — Drops  of  water  that 
have  gathered  ou  the  outside 
of  a  cold  glass  on  a  hot  sum- 
mer day. 


winds  that  blow  against  moun- 
tains are  often  chilled  so  that 
the  vapor  is  condensed,  forming 
clouds  (Fig.  74)  and  rain.  This 
proves  clearly  that  mountains 
are  an  important  help  in  caus- 
ing rain.  Indeed,  the  mountains 
are  usually  the  rainiest  parts  of 
a  country. 

Vapor  may  also  be  condensed 
into  clouds  and  rain  when  a  cold 
wind  blows  against  a  warm,  damp 
one.  Again,  on  hot  summer 
days,  the  warm  air  near  the 
earth  often  becomes  so  light  that 
it  rises  high  above  the  earth  to 
a  place  where  the  air  is  cold; 
and  then  the  vapor  is  condensed 
into  raindrops.  The  summer 
thundershowers,  which  often 
come  on  hot  afternoons,  are 
caused  in  this  way.  Such  days  are  usually 
sultry,  and  "  muggy "  air  is  really  air  with 
much  water  vapor  in  it. 

There  are  several  different  forms  that 
the    vapor    in    the    air    takes    when    it 


Fig.  74.  —  Clouds  that  have  formed  on  the  mountain  sides  as  the  damp  winds  are  chilled  by  the  cold  mountains. 

water.  Heat  will  cause  water  to  change 
into  vapor,  and  cold  will  change  it  back 
again. 


There  are  several  ways  in  which  winds  may 
be  cooled.  You  know  that  mountains  are 
colder  than  the  lower  lands  (p.  25).    Therefore, 


changes  to  water.     For  example,  when 
you  breathe  into  the  air  on  a  cold,  frosty 
morning,  your  breath  forms  The  forms  into 
a  little  cloud,  or  fog.     The  which  vapor 
cold  air  has  made  the. vapor  ^s  condensed 
in  your  breath  change  to  tiny  drops  of 


68 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


water,  so  small  that  you  cannot  see  a 
single  one,  though  hundreds  of  them  to- 
gether make  a  thin  mist.  You  have,  no 
doubt,  seen  fogs  in  valleys,  on  lakes,  or 
over  the  ocean.     These  are  always  made 


We  have  learned  that  water  may  be  either  a 
liquid  or  a  gas.  We  know,  too,  that  it  may 
also  be  a  solid,  for  ice  is  the  solid  form  of 
water.  When  vapor  condenses  at  a  tempera- 
ture below  32°,  or  the  freezing  point,  it  takes 
the  solid  form.     Then  either  snoiv  or  hail  is 


Fig.  75.  —  A  view  from  a  niouutaiii  top,  looking  down  on  tlie  clouds. 


of  tiny  drops  of  water  condensed  from 
vapor  in  the  air. 

Most  clouds  are  also  made  of  tiny  fog 
and  mist  particles.  These  particles,  too, 
are  caused  by  the  cooling  of  the  air, 
as  when  winds  blow  against  mountain 
slopes.  When  climbing  a  mountain  one 
may  pass  through  such  a  cloud,  and  it 
then  seems  to  be  no  more  than  a  fog  or 
a  mist.  Viewed  from  below,  however, 
it  is  seen  to  be  a  cloud ;  and  if  you  go 
high  enough,  you  may  even  climb  above 
it.  Then,  looking  down  on  its  upper 
surface,  you  can  see  clearly  that  it  is  a 
cloud  (Fig.  75). 

The  raindrop  which  falls  from  the 
clouds  is  another  form  of  condensed  vapor. 
Raindrops  commence  as  tiny  mist  or  fog 
particles,  but  as  they  grow  in  size,  they 
become  so  heavy  that  they  can  no  longer 
float.     They  must  then  fall  to  the  earth. 


formed,  instead  of  rain.  Have  you  ever  ex- 
amined the  beautiful  snow  crystals,  or  snoiv- 
Jlakes,  as  we  call  them  (Fig.  76)  ? 

Drops  of  water  often  collect  at  night  on  the 
cold  ground,  on  grass,  and  on  leaves.  This  we 
call  flew.     The  dew  gathers  because  the  ground 


Fig.  70.  —  Photograph  of  snow  crystals,  showing  their 
beautiful,  starlike  forms. 

and  plants  cool  quickly  after  the  sun  sets. 
These  in  turn  chill  the  air  next  to  them,  until 
some  of  the  vapor  in  it  changes  to  liquid  water. 
If  the  temperature  is  below  the  freezing  point, 
frost  is  formed  instead  of  dew. 

Our  weather  depends  very  much  upon  our 


INDUSTBV,    COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


59 


winds.  Winds  from  certain  directions,  as 
from  the  ocean,  are  likely  to  bring  rain,  while 
others  bring  none.  You  would 
Meaning  of  ^jj^j  ^^  interesting  to  observe  this 
weather  rec-  ^^^,  yourself.  If  you  should  keep 
to  keep  one  ^  record,  every  day,  of  the  direc- 
tion of  the  wind  and  the  kind  of 
weather  it  brings,  you  would  soon  learn  which 
of  your  winds  cause  rain,  and  which  cause  fair 
weather.  You  might  also  notice  the  clouds, 
and  look  at  the  thermometer  each  day,  to  see 
what  the  temperature  is.  By  this  means  you 
can  learn  something  about  the  weather  near 
your  home.  A  record  of  this  kind,  which  is 
called  a  weather  record,  might  be  kept  some- 
what as  follows :  ^  — 


Date 

Time  of 

DAY 

DiEKCTION   OF 
WIND 

Kind  op 

WEATHER 

Tempeu- 

ATURE 

March  10 

8  A.M. 

Southeast 

Cloudy 

5.5° 

March  10 

G  P.M. 

Calm 

Gentle  rain 

60° 

March  11 

8  A.M. 

Strong  west 
wind 

Clear 

30° 

^  Some  teachers  may  consider  it  profitable  to  in- 
troduce at  this  point  an  elementary  stiidy  of  the 
daily  weather  maps,  at  least  to  the  extent  of  read- 
ing the  predictions,  and  noticing  how  nearly  correct 
they  are. 


1.  What  is  the  extent  of  the  atmosphere  ? 
How  do  we  know  that  there  is  air  all  about 
us  ?  2.  Of  what  importance  is 
air  to  life  ?     3.    What  work   do 


Review 
Questions 


the  winds  do?  4.  State  the 
cause  of  winds.  5.  How  is  the  air  able  to 
take  up  water  ?  6.  What  causes  the  air  to 
give  this  water  back  ?  7.  Into  what  forms  is 
the  vapor  in  the  air  condensed  ?  8.  What  do 
you  understand  by  a  weather  record  ?  How 
would  you  keep  one  ?  9.  Tell  what  happens 
to  a  raindrop  from  the  time  it  leaves  the  ocean 
to  the  time  it  returns  to  it. 


Suggestions 


1.  Name  other  ways,  besides  those  mentioned 
in  the  text,  in  which  air  is  important.  2.  Why 
does  smoke  go  up  chimneys  ? 
3.  Make  a  drawing,  showing  how  a 
hot  stove  causes  a  movement,  or  circulation,  of 
air  in  a  room.  4.  How  many  examples  of  evapo- 
ration can  you  observe  about  you  ?  5.  What 
examples  of  the  condensing  of  vapor  can  you 
find?  6.  Why  do  clouds  often  surround 
mountain  tops  ?  7.  What  winds  usually  bring 
your  rain  ?  8.  Where  have  they  probably  ob- 
tained their  vapor  ?  How  far  is  that  from 
you  ?  9.  Prove  that  air  is  a  real  substance  by 
thrusting  an  open  bottle  upside  down  into  a  pail 
of  water. 


SECTION   III.     INDUSTRY,   COMMERCE,  AND   GOVERNMENT 


1.    Industry  and  Commerce 

In  your  study  about  the  Eskimos  you 
found  that  they  live  in  a  very  simple 
How  the  Es-  Way.  If  an  Eskimo  needs 
kimo  supplies  a  house,  he'builds  it.  If  he 
his  wants  wants  food,  he  catches  a  fish 
or  kills  a  seal.  If  he  needs  clothing,  he 
takes  a  sealskin  and  makes  it.  If  he 
wishes  to  have  a  sledge,  or  a  boat,  he 
makes  that.  Thus,  he  depends  entirely 
upon  himself  for  his  food,  clothing,  and 
shelter. 

The  Eskimo  does  not  think  of  going 
to  a  store  to  buy  anything,  for  such  a 


thing    as   a  store   is  unknown  to  him. 

He  has  no  money,  because  he  has  no 

use  for  it ;  there  is  nothing  he  can  buy 

with  it.     He  has  never  seen  a  horse  and 

wagon,  nor  a  railroad  train,  nor  a  city ; 

nor  does  he  know  anything  about  post 

offices  or  the  telephone  or  the  telegraph. 

Not  many  hundred   years  ago  there 

were  no  stores  in  this  coun-  „ 

, .  rn,  How  our  early 

try  where  w^e   live.     I  hen,  settlers  sup- 
like the  Eskimo,  every  man  plied  their 
had    to    depend   largely    or 
wholly  upon  himself  for  his  food,  cloth- 
ing, and  shelter. 

Our   first   white    settlers    came   from 


60 


BOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Europe,  and  they  made  their  homes 
along  the  eastern  coast,  because  that 
1.  Location  was  the  first  land  they  came 
of  homes  ^q  after  crossing  the  Atlantic 

Ocean.  Soon  people,  called  j)ioneers, 
began  to  push  into  the  wild  country 
farther  west.  Often  several  families 
settled  together,  many  miles  away  from 
other  people ;  but  sometimes  a  family 
went  off  alone  and  made  a  home,  ten  or 
fifteen  miles  from  the  nearest  neighbor. 


Fig.  77.  —  The  log  liouse  of  a  pioneer. 

Most  of  the  United  States  was  first 
settled  by  such  families  as  these. 

Usually  the  first  thing  they  had  to  do 
was  to  cut  down  trees  in  order  to  make 

2.  House  and  TOOm  for  a  hoUSC  and  gar- 
furniture  den.  The  house  was  built 
of  logs,  and  mud  was  used  to  stop  up  the 
cracks  (Fig.  77).  The  house  often  had 
no  floor  except  the  earth,  and  only  a 
single  room.  The  beds  were  made  of 
posts  driven  into  the  ground  and  joined 
together  with  crosspieces.  The  chairs 
were  three-legged  stools,  and  the  table  was 
part  of  a  log  supported  upon  four  legs. 


Wheat  was  raised  for  bread ;  and  corn, 
which  often  took  the  place  of  wheat, 
was  made  into  corn  bread.  3.  Food 
Tea  was  often  made  from  roots  found  in 
the  forest,  and  most  of  the  meat  was 
obtained  by  shooting  wild  game.  " 

Many  families  kept  sheep,  and  the 
wool  was  made  into  yarn,  blankets,  and 
cloth.  If  a  boy  needed  a  *•  clothing 
new  suit  of  clothes,  his  mother  might 
weave  the  cloth,  cut  it  out,  and  sew  the 
parts  together.  Such  a 
suit  was  called  homespun. 
Or,  if  there  were  no  sheep, 
the  clothing  might  be  made 
out  of  the  skins  of  animals. 
Many  boys  wore  trousers 
made  from  deerskin,  and 
used  moccasins  for  shoes, 
when  they  did  not  go 
barefoot. 

There  were  no  schools, 
and  whatever  the  children 
learned  from  5.  schools 
books  was  gen-  *°**  ^^^^ 
erally  taught  by  the 
mother.  There  was  little 
time  for  reading  during  the 
day,  and  the  only  light 
at  night  was  that  which  came  from  the 
burning  wood  in  the  great  fireplace. 
Ink  was  made  from  some  colored  root, 
such  as  brier  root,  and  pens  were  cut 
from  quills.  There  were  few  books, 
however,  and  there  was  little  time  for 
reading  or  writing. 

As  a  rule,  ^ach  man  raised  more  of   some 
things,   such  as  wool,   wheat,  or 
hogs,  than  his  own  family  needed,     ^^^^l^l^^"^ 
There  were  other  articles  that  he 
had  to  buy,  such  as  powder,  sugar,  salt,  pepper, 
and  coffee. 

Sometimes   a  pioneer   stayed  at   home   and 
bought  nothing,  or  he  waited  till  some  trader 


INDUSTRY,    COMMERCE,    AND   GOVERNMENT 


61 


came  along  and  then  exchanged  skins  for  the 
things  that  he  wanted.  More  likely,  however, 
he  made  a  journey,  once  or  twice  a  year,  to  the 
nearest  town,  which  was  perhaps  a  hundred 
miles  distant.  He  then  took  with  him  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  farm  and  exchanged  them  for  such 
articles  as  he  needed. 

These  trips  had  to  be  few,  not  only  on  account 
of  the  distance,  but  because  the  roads    were 
rough  and  muddy.     It  might  take  two  weeks 
to  haul  a  load  of  grain  to  town  and 
bring  back  the  things  he  wanted. 
The  journey  sometimes  was  danger- 
ous also,  for  in  those  days  savage 
Indians  often  lurked  in  the  forest. 

The  lives  that  such  pioneers 
lived  were,  in  many  ways,  as 

7.  independ-    independent      as 

ence  of  such  life    that- of  the  SwisS 

Family  Robinson,  or  of  Robin- 
son Crusoe.  Of  course,  when 
a  man  started  out  into  the 
wilderness,  he  took  some 
articles  with  him,  such  as  a 
gun,  with  powder  and  bullets, 
some  clothing,  and  some 
blankets.  But  when  he 
reached  his  new  home,  he 
found  himself  with  no  one 
but  his  own  family  to  look 
to  for  help.  Then,  like 
Crusoe,  he  was  forced  to  rely 
upon  himself.  In  spite  of 
the  trips  to  the  cities,  most 
of  the  things  that  a  family 
used  had  to  be  obtained  by  the  family 
itself,  and  each  member  had  many  kinds 
of  work  to  do.  In  some  parts  of  the 
world,  where  there  are  few  settlers, 
people  still  live  in  this  manner. 

Our  country   was  settled    so    rapidly 
that  each  family  soon  had  neighbors.     A 

8.  Dependence  number  of  people  would 
on  others,  later  ^yuM  their  hoLises  near 
together,  so  as  to  form  a  little  village. 


and  one  of  them  would  start  a  general 
store.  Then  the  families  living  some 
distance  away  would  come  to  this  center 
to  trade,  bringing  their  farm  products 
and  the  skins  of  animals,  and  taking 
back  other  articles. 

As  the  number  of   people    in  such  a 
place  grew  larger,  each  man  did  fewer 


Ininan's  "  Tlie  Old  Santa  Fp  Trail,"  by  courtesy  of  tliu  publishers,  Crane  &  Company. 

Fig.  78.  —  A  pioneer  and  his  pony. 

kinds  of  work.  Perhaps  one  of  them 
built  a  sawmill,  and  sawed  lumber  for 
the  others  when  they  needed  it.  An- 
other spent  part  of  his  time  at  car- 
pentry work  for  his  neighbors.  A  third 
built  a  gristmill,  and  ground  grain  into 
flour.  A  fourth  made  shoes  a  part  of 
the  time,  or  served  as  a  doctor,  or  taught 
school,  along  with  other  work. 

A  few  of   the  men   might  spend   all 


62 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


their  time  at  one  kind  of  work.  For 
'example,  the  blacksmith  might  be  kept 
busy  shoeing  horses,  and  repairing 
wagons,  while  tlie  storekeeper  did  noth- 
ing but  buy  and  sell  goods.  Now  and 
then  the  storekeeper  would  make  trips 
to  the  nearest  city,  to  buy  such  supplies 
as  he  thought  his  neighbors  would  re- 
quire, like  matches,  boots,  shovels,  axes, 
calico,  and  drugs.  These  he  would  keep 
in  his  store  for  sale.  Sometimes  he 
received  money  for  them,  but  more  often 
he  took  eggs,  meat,  wool,  and  grain  for 
his  pay.  These  he  would  send  to  the 
nearest  large  city  for  sale. 

Hence  it  was  no  longer  necessary 
for  each  farmer  himself  to  go  to  a  dis- 
tant town  or  city,  for  he  could  usually 
get  what  he  wanted  from  the  store.  He 
could  also  sell  his  products  to  the  store- 
keeper, and  with  the  money  received  pay 
the  blacksmith,  or  doctor,  or  teacher. 
Thus  each  man  came  to  do  fewer  things 
for  himself,  and  to  depend  more  and 
more  upon  others  for  many  things. 

Each  year  more  people  came  to  this 
country,  and  the  villages  grew  to  be 
Howourwants  towns  and  cities  with  many 
are  suppUed  mills  and  factories.  Then 
people  began  to  live  as  we  now  do. 
That  is,  not  a  few  men  only,  but  every 
man  began  to  do  only  one,  or  at  most, 
very  few  kinds  of  work. 

At  present  some  men  do  nothing  but 
farm ;  others,  nothing  but  dig  coal  or 
iron  ore  from  the  mines.  Some  spend  all 
their  time  at  fishing  ;  others  spend  it  in 
making  cloth,  or  needles,  or  shoes.  The 
work  that  one  man  does  may  be  of  a 
very  simple  kind.  For  example,  he  may 
only  drive  a  team,  or  make  screws,  or 
saw  shingles,  or  tie  up  sacks  of  flour, 
or  put  in  the  heads  of  barrels. 


With  the  money  received  for  such 
work  he  buys  the  many  things  he  wants, 
and  these  articles  have  been  made  by 
hundreds,  perhaps  thousands,  of  other 
people.  Think  how  many  men  have  had 
a  share  in  the  work  of  preparing  the  food 
that  you  have  on  your  table  each  day, 
or  the  shoes  that  you  wear,  or  the  house 
in  which  you  live  !  How  different  our 
ways  are  from  those  of  the  pioneers ! 

As  a  rule,  each  town  or  city  is  espe- 
cially interested  in  one,  or,   at  most,  a 

few  kinds  of  business.     For   ^     

,        Special  kinds 

example,  a   town  near   the  of  work  for 
forest  is    likely  to  have  an  each  town 
important  lumber  industry.   °^  "  ^ 
Another,    in   the    midst    of  mountains, 
may  have  mining  for  its  special  work. 
A  third,  near  great  wheat   fields,  may 
have  immense  flour  mills. 

The  articles  that  these  cities  produce 
are  sent  away  in  all  directions ;  and 
other  things,  that  the  people  need,  are 
brought  to  them  from  the  hundreds  of 
places  in  which  they  are  produced.  In 
what  kinds  of  w^ork  is  your  town  chiefly 
interested  ?  What  are  some  of  the  arti- 
cles that  are  brought  to  it  ? 

When  each  man  does  only  one  kind 
of  work,  and   depends  upon  others  for 
most  of  the  things  that  he  Highways 
needs,    good    roadways,    or  i.   xheirim- 
highicays,    become   of   very  portance 
great    importance.     This    is   especially 
true  when  goods  have  to  be  carried  long 
distances,  as  in  a  large  country  like  ours. 
If   we   live   in  the  East,  and   the  best 
wheat  is  raised  more  than  a  thousand 
miles  away,  in  Dakota,  it  is  of  little  use 
to  us  unless  it  can  be  brought  to  us.     If 
■  the  best  shoes  are  made  in  New  England, 
they  are  of  little  value  to  the  people  of 
the   South,   unless   they   can   be  easily 


INDUSTRY,    COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


68 


Fig.  79.  —  A  pack  traiu  carrying  supplies  up  a 
mountain  trail  in  western  United  States. 

shipped  there.  It  is  of  the 
highest  importance,  therefore, 
that  we  have  good  highways 
leading  in  all  directions. 

When  a  country  has  not  advanced 

very  far,  the   highways    are   usually 

poor.    For  example,  the 
2.    Trails  ,  n  .  i  • 

routes  of  travel  m  some 

of  the  regions  of  Africa  are  merely 
paths  that  have  been  made  by  goats 
and  barefooted  people,  and  are  less 
than  a  foot  wide. 

The  Indians  in  this  country,  like- 
wise, had  only  narrow  paths,  or  trails. 
often  used  the  trails  made  by  the 
Wagons  could  not  be  drawn  over  these,  and 
goods  could  be  carried  only  on  the  backs  of 
men,  or  of  horses.  A  number  of  horses  carry- 
ing packs  formed  a  pack  train  and  these  trains 
may  still  be  seen  in  some  places  (Fig.  79). 

The  pioneers  at  first  had  only  trails, 
and  one  of  their  hardest  tasks  was  to 
cut  roads  through  the  dense 
forests.  Trees  had  to  be 
cut  down,  stumps  and  stones  removed, 
steep  places  leveled,  and  swampy  places 


filled  in.  Streams  had  to  be 
crossed  by  wading  across,  or 
fording  (I*ig.  80)  them  in  places 
where  the  water  was  shallow. 
This  was  often  difficult,  and  even 
dangerous,  especially  when  the 
streams  were  swollen  after  heavy 
rains ;  and  bridges  were  built  as 
soon  as  the  people  were  able. 

Many  of  our  country  roads  are 
still  very  poor.  They  are  rough 
or   steep   in   places, 

,       ,  ^  4.    Our  roads 

and  at  some  seasons 
of  the  year  the  mud  is  so  deep  that 
it  is  difficult  for  a  team  of  horses 
to  draw  even  an  empty  wagon. 


Fig.  80.  —  Horses  and  wagon  fording  a  swift  mountain  stream. 


They 
bison. 


3.    Roads  of 
pioneers 


Our  roads  are  being  rapidly  im- 
proved, however,  and  some  of  the 
states  are  spending  large  sums  of  money 
each  year  in  making  them  smooth,  hard, 
and  level.  Perhaps  you  have  seen  some 
of  this  work  and  can  tell  how  it  is  done. 

In  cities  there  is  so  much  hauling  of  heavy 
loads  that  the  streets  must  be  paved.  For  this 
purpose  bricks  are  often  used,  or  paving  stones, 
which  are  larger  than  bricks ;  and  sometimes 
asphalt,  or  blocks  of  wood  are  used.  But  the 
most  common  pavement,  especially  in  the  coun- 
try, is  called   macadam,  after  the  Scotchman 


64 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


who  invented  it.  It  consists  of  broken  stones, 
scattered  to  a  depth  of  from  six  to  ten  inches, 
and  pressed  together  as  closely  as  possible. 
What  kinds  of  pavement,  if  any,  are  to  be 
found  in  your  neighborhood  ? 

You  have  already  learned  that  lakes 
and  rivers  are  important  for  travel  and 
,    „.  for    the    transportation     of 

5.    Rivers,  ^ 

lakes,  and  goods.      When  the  pioneers 

canals  ^^^^^^  settling  the  Mississippi 

Valley,  it  was  the  custom  to  carry  many 
of  their  goods  down  the  Ohio  and  Mis- 


FiG.  81.- 


■Freight  yard  of  a  railway,  showing  a  large  number  of  freight  cars* 
loaded  with  foal  and  other  freight. 


sissippi  rivers,  a  thousand  miles  or  more, 
to  New  Orleans  for  sale.  In  many 
parts  of  our  country  the  rivers  were 
at  that  time  the  best  routes  of  travel. 
These  icaterways  are  still  generally  the 
cheapest,  and  every  year  the  government 
spends  great  sums  of  money  in  keeping 
them  clear  of  logs,  stones,  and  mud,  so 
that  they  may  be  in  good  condition  for 
boats. 

Where  there  are  waterfalls  or  rapids 
in  rivers,  canals  have  sometimes  been 
built  so  that  boats  may  pass  around 
them.     Canals  have  also  been  made  to 


connect  lakes  and  rivers  with  one  an- 
other. Much  money  has  thus  been  spent 
in  improving  the  natural  waterways  of 
the  United  S'tates. 

In  our  country  railroad  trains  have 
largely  taken  the  place  of  wagons,  and 
also  of  river  boats,  as  carriers 
for  long  distances.  This  is 
because  trains  are  so  much  faster  than 
wagons  or  boats.  Even  on  the  finest  of 
roads,  wagons  can  seldom  be  drawn  more 
than  forty  miles  a  day.  Boats  can  travel 
somewhat  faster;  but 
trains  can  go  from  five 
hundred  to  one  thousand 
miles  per  day.  Moreover, 
they  carry  both  passengers 
and  freight  far  more 
cheaply  than  these  could 
be  taken  in  wagons. 

As  we  ourselves  travel 
on  passenger  trains,  we 
are  apt  to  think  that  the 
chief  business  of  railways 
is  to  carry  people ;  but 
that  is  not  usually  the 
case.  Their  main  busi- 
ness is  to  carry  freight, 
such  as  grain,  cattle, 
groceries,  coal,  oil,  and  machinery  (Fig. 
81).  For  this  reason  on  most  rail- 
ways there  are  many  more  freight 
trains  than  passenger  trains ;  and  there 
are  many  more  cars  in  each  freight 
train. 

The  fast  passenger  trains  also  carry 
express  packages,  newspapers,  and  let- 
ters. Before  railways  were  built,  the 
mail  was  carried  in  stage  coaches,  or 
on  horseback.  Now  many  passenger 
trains  have  one  or  two  cars  that  are 
used  for  this  purpose  alone;  and  most 
of  our  mail  is  carried  in  this  way. 


INDUSTBy^,    COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


65 


7.    The  ocean 


The  ocean  is  the  greatest  highway  of 
all,  connecting  us  with  the  most  distant 
countries,  as  well  as  joining 
different  parts  of  our  own 
land  (Fig.  82).  Before  the  invention 
of  the  steam  engine,  the  ocean  was  so 
difficult  to  cross  that  it  kept  the  people 
of  different  countries  apart.  Sailing 
vessels  were  then  the  only  ships  in  use, 
and  they  are  very  slow.  The  inven- 
tion of  the  steam  engine  made  steam- 
ships, as  well  as  locomotives,  possible. 
Now  thousands  of  steam- 
ships carry  passengers, 
freight,  and  mail  rapidly 
by  water,  just  as  trains  do 
by  land. 

Thus  people  have  im- 
proved upon  the  trail,  the 
stagecoach,  and  the  sail- 
ing vessel,  until  all  parts 
of  the  civilized  world  are 
brought  into  close  touch 
with  one  another. 

The  people  of  the 
United    States    are    busy 

The  great  producing 

occupations  many  things, 
and  sending  them  from  place  to  place. 
Although  each  man  does  only  one  kind, 
or,  at  most,  very  few  kinds  of  work, 
there  are  scores  of  different  kinds  all 
together.  Most  of  these,  however,  are 
included  under  seven  great  occupations. 
They  are  (1)  agriculture,  including  farm- 
ing, gardening,  and  the  grazing  of  cattle, 
sheep,  and  horses;  {2)  fishing ;  (3)  lum- 
bering  ;  (4)  mining  ;  (5)  manufacturing  ; 
(6)  trade,  or  buying  and  selling;  and  (7) 
transportation,  or  the  carrying  of  goods. 
1.  The  first  The  greatest  of  these  in- 

five  of  these       dustHes  is  agriculture,  about 
which  you  have  already  studied  in  the 


first  and  second  sections  of  this  book. 
One  man  out  of  every  three  in  the 
United  States  is  engaged  in  agriculture 
of  some  kind. 

Fishing  is  far  less  important.  Still, 
along  the  shores  of  the  lakes  and  the 
ocean,  there  are  thousands  of  men  who 
spend  all  their  time  at  this  work. 

Lumbering  is  not  carried  on  in  as 
many  places  as  it  used  to  be,  because 
many  of  the  forests  have  been  cut  down. 
Yet,  every  house  you  see  is  built  partly 


Fig.  82 


of  wood  on  the  inside,  and  many  are 
made  of  wood  on  the  outside  as  well. 
Besides  this,  wood  is  used  for  many 
other  purposes,  as  for  making  furniture 
and  paper.  From  this  you  can  under- 
stand that  great  numbers  of  men  must 
be  engaged  in  cutting  down  trees  and 
sawing  them  into  lumber. 

Mining  is  a  great  industry,  employing 
hundreds  of  thousands  of  men.  There 
are  many  kinds  of  mines,  the  most  im- 
portant of  which  are  coal,  iron,  copper, 
gold,  silver,  and  lead  mines.  Quarrying, 
or  taking  ont  stone  from  the  earth,  may 
be  considered  a  part  of  mining. 


66 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Manufacturing  is  a  still  more  impor- 
tant industry  than  mining.  Note  how 
many  things  about  you  have  been  care- 
fully made  somewhere.  This  book  that 
you  are  reading  is  one  example.  The 
desk,  at  which  you  sit  in  school,  much 
of  your  food,  and  your  clothes  are  other 
examples. 

These  Jive  occupations  serve  mainly 
to  supply  food,  clothing,  and  shelter. 
They  are  often  called  the  five  great  in- 
dustries, and  you  will  again  and  again 
find  them  mentioned  in  your  later  study 
of  geography.  These  five,  however, 
merely  produce  articles.  The  first  four 
produce  the  raw  materials,  or  raw  prod- 
ucts ;  the  fifth  changes,  or  manufac- 
tures, these  raw  products  into  articles 
ready  for  use. 

There  are  thousands  of  people  en- 
gaged in  shipping  the  raw  products  and 
2  The  other  iQanuf  acturcd  articles,  as  we 
two  great  have  just  sccu  in  our  study 

occupations  £  u"    t,  Ti!  j.i 

01  highways,  it  there  were 
not,  these  articles  would  be  of  little  use. 
Nor  would  they  be  of  much  use  if  there 
were  not  other  thousands  of  people  buy- 
ing and  selling  them  in  stores,  so  that 
we  can  get  them  when  we  wish. 

There  are,  therefore,  the  two  other 
occupations  of  (1)  trade,  or  buying  and 
selling ;  and  (2)  transportation.  These 
two  together  are  called  commerce. 

The  commerce  within  our  country  is 
called  home,  or  domestic  commerce.  The 
commerce  between  the  United  States  and 
other  countries  is  called  foreign  com- 
merce. In  your  study  of  geography, 
you  will  find  that  domestic  and  foreign 
commerce  are  very  important. 

No  doubt  you  can  think  of  some  occupations, 
such  as  teaching,  that  do  not  belong  either  under 
commerce,  or  under  any  one  of  the  five  great  in- 


dustries. However,  the  seven  great  occupations 
cover  the  kinds  of  work  that  most  men  do ;  and 
they  are  the  chief  kinds  that  need  to  be  stud- 
ied iu  geography. 

It  takes  much  practice  to  discover  the  most 
important    thought    of     a   page   About  how 
quickly.     Yet,    one   can  get  his  to  study 
lessons   more   easily   by  learning  to   do   that. 

Here  is  an  example.  The  first  page  of  this 
chapter  tells  how  the  Eskimo  supplies  his  wants. 
The  main  thought  here  is  found  at  the  end  of 
the  first  paragraph,  in  the  words,  "  He  depends 
entirely  upon  himself  for  his  food,  clothing,  and 
shelter."  The  rest  of  the  two  paragraphs  merely 
makes  this  central  thought  clear  by  giving  ex- 
amples, as  follows  :  he  builds  his  own  house, 
finds  his  own  food,  makes  his  own  clothing; 
there  are  no  stores  where  he  can  buy  anything ; 
he  has  no  money  to  buy  things  with,  for  he  has 
no  use  for  money  ;  he  has  never  seen  a  city ; 
nor  even  a  horse  and  wagon,  nor  a  train ;  and 
he  knows  nothing  about  telephoning,  or  tele- 
graphing, or  writing  for  what  he  wants. 

Here  are  man}"-  facts,  and  it  is  difficult  to 
remember  them  until  one  finds  the  leading 
thought  that  binds  all  the  others  together. 
Then  it  becomes  easy  to  remember  most  of 
them.  Since  lessons  are  more  easily  mastered 
by  getting  the  leading  fact  quickly,  stop  often, 
after  reading  a  paragraph,  to  see  whether  you 
can  state  its  principal  thought.  Do  this  in  a 
few  words;  if  possible,  in  a  single  sentence. 
Then  add  as  many  other  statements  as  you 
remember  which  explain  the  chief  thought. 
Practice  getting  your  lessons  in  this  way. 

1.  How  does  the  Eskimo  supply  his  wants  ? 
2.  Tell  about  the  location  of  the  homes  of  the 
early  settlers.  3.  About  their 
houses  and  furniture.  4.  Their  ^®^®Y 
food.  5.  Their  clothing.  6.  Their  '^"^^^^'^^ 
schools  and  study.  7.  Why  were  journeys  nec- 
essary ?  8.  How  was  their  life  an  independent 
one  ?  9.  State  how  people  later  became  more 
dependent.  10.  How  are  our  own  wants  sup- 
plied ?  11.  "What  about  special  kinds  of  work 
for  each  town  or  city  ?  12.  Explain  the  im- 
portance of  highways.  13.  Tell  about  trails. 
14.  The  roads  of  the  pioneers.  15.  Our  roads. 
16.  Show  the  importance  of  rivers,  lakes,  and 
canals  as  highways.  17.  Of  railroads.  18.  Of 
the   ocean.     19.   Name  the  great  occupations. 


INDUSTRY,   COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


67 


20.   Describe  the  first  Jive.     21.   Describe  the 
other  two. 

1.  What  articles  would  you  expect  to  find  in 
a  general  store  in  a  village  ?  2.  How  are  de- 
partment stores  in  large  cities 
Suggestions  uke  such  general  stores  ?  3.  The 
last  syllable  in  the  names  of  many  towns  and 
cities  is  ford,  as  Hartford,  Stamford,  Eockford. 
What  does  that  fact  suggest  to  you  ?  4.  Find 
out  more  about  the  ways  in  which  money  is 
spent  on  rivers  to  make  them  more  useful  for 
navigation.  5.  Write  a  story  describing  an 
early  pioneer's  journey  to  the  nearest  large 
town.  6.  What  men  do  you  know  who  are 
engaged  in  some  one  of  the  seven  great  occupa- 
tions? 7.  Make  a  list  of  articles  that  you  use 
which  were  brought  from  a  distance,  on  the 
railroad  or  by  water.  Which  of  these  belong  to 
domestic  commerce  ?  Which  to  foreign  com- 
merce? 8.  Is  there  any  one  of  the  seven 
great  occupations  that  we  could  somewhat 
easily  do  without?  If  so,  name  it,  and  give 
your  reasons.  9.  How  can  good  roads  and 
waterways  help  to  prevent  famine  ? 


2.   Country  and  City 

The  kinds  of  work  that  people  do 
cause  some  to  live  in  the  country, 
Kinds  of  work  o^^ers  in  the  city.  The 
in  country  farmer,  for  instance,  lives 
and  m  city  ^^  ^^^  country  because  he 
must  have  a  great  deal  of  land  in 
order  to  raise  his  crops.  The  lumber- 
man must  live  where  there  are  forests. 

Persons  engaged  in  the  five  other 
leading  occupations  usually  live  in  towns 
and  cities.  Miners,  for  example,  mnst 
have  their  homes  near  the  entrance  to 
the  mines  where  they  work  ;  and  the 
workers  in  a  single  mine,  together  with 
their  families,  often  make  a  large  town. 
Men  who  work  at  manufacturing  must 
live  near  the  factory.  A  single  factory 
may  employ  several  thousand  men ;  and 
since  there  are  often  many  large  facto- 
ries near  one  another,  many  thousands 


of  people  may  thus  be  brought  together. 

These  people,  together  with  those  engaged 

in  commerce  and  other  kinds  of  work, 

form  great  cities,  sometimes  containing 

hundreds  of  thousands  of  persons.    Cities 

are  usually  located  at  some  point  where 

the  shipping  of  goods  is  easy,  as  on  a 

river,  a  large  lake,  an  ocean  harbor,  or  a 

railway  center. 

Life  in  the  great  cities  is  so  different 

from  that  in  the  country,  that  it  will  be 

interesting  to  see  what  some 
r^.^       Tce  o'  The  country 

01  the  dinerences  are.     bmce 
life  in  the  country  is  very  simple,  and 
since  more  than  half  of  all  the  people  in 
the    United  States  live   there,  we   will 
study  country  life  first. 

A  farmer  needs  land  enough  for  a 
house,  a  barn,  and  other  buildings ;  for 
a  garden    and  an    orchard ;  ,     _,. 

&  '    1 .    The  space 

and  for  fields  in  which  vari-  needed  by 
ous   kinds  of   crops  can  be  *  "^^'^ 
raised.     This  means  that  he  must  have 
a  large  tract  of  land. 

Figure  83  shows  a  plan  of  a  farm  in 
the    state    of     Ohio.     It    includes    160 


p 

E 

D 

F 

B 

H 

G 

c 

O 

Fig.  83.  —  Plan  of  a  farm  in  Ohio. 

acres,  which  is  the  amount  of  land  in 
many  farms  in  that  section.  One  side 
of  this  farm  is  half  a  mile  long ;    and 


68 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  84.  —  A  farmer's  liou.se  and  barn. 


from  this  you  can  easily  tell  the  entire 
distance  around  it.  The  house  and 
yard,  shown  by  the  letter  IT,  are  close 
to  the  road  that  runs  along  one  side 
of  the  farm.  The  barnyard  and  barn, 
lettered  B,  are  on  the  left.  G  is  the 
garden,  and  0  is  the  orchard.  The  rest 
of  the  land  is  divided  into  fields,  D  con- 
taining corn,  JS  oats,  F  grass,  and  P 
pasture.  At  K  there  is  a  small  wood 
lot,  from  which  firewood  is  obtained. 
Can  you  tell  about  how  long  and  wide 
some  of  these  fields  are  ? 

The  house  is  of  two  stories   and    a 


Fig.  85.  —  A  farmer's  children  playing  in.  the  haylield. 


half,  and  is  built  of  wood  (Fig.  84). 
Close  to  it  is  a  woodshed  in  which  piles 
of  wood  are  kept  for  burning.  On  many 
farms,  where  wood  is  scarce,  coal  is  used 
instead. 

The  barn  is  only  a  short  distance 
from  the  house,  and  is  larger  than  the 
house.  In  it  are  kept  the  horses,  cows, 
and  other  farm  animals,  and  the  wag- 
ons, plows,  and  other  farm  imple- 
ments. Much  hay  and  grain  is  stored 
there,  to  be  sold  later,  or  to  be  fed  to 
the  animals  in  winter,  when  they  can- 
not graze  in  the  pasture. 

In  one  corner 
of  the  orchard 
(at  c)  is  a  hen- 
house in  wliich 
from  one  hundred 
to  two  hundred 
hens  are  usually 
kept ;  and  near 
the  henhouse  is 
a  pen  for  a  few 
pigs.  Besides 
these  animals, 
there  are  some 
turkeys,  ducks, 
and  geese. 

Vegetables  and 
strawberries    are 


INDUSTRY,   COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


09 


raised  in  the  garden,  and  there  are  also  small 
patches  of  raspberry,  blackberry,  currant,  and 
gooseberry  bushes.  Besides  apple  trees  in  the 
orchard,  there  are  pear,  plum,  and  peach  trees. 
All  together  make  a  good  many  kinds  of  fruit 
that  are  raised  on  the  farm. 

The  yard  about  the  house  is  large,  and  the 
grass  is  kept  closely  cut.  There  are  several 
elm  and  maple  trees  in  the  yard,  as  well  as 
some  flowering  bushes  and  flower  beds,  which 
the  farmer's  wife  cares  for  with  much  pride. 

Most  of  the  other  farms 
near  this  one  are  of  about  the 
same  size,  though  some  are 
larger  and  others  smaller. 
What  can  you  say,  therefore, 
as  to  how  far  apart  houses  in 
the  country  usually  are  ? 

Near  the  house  is  a 
well  ( W),  from  which  the 

2.  The  farm-  farmer  obtains 
er's  water,         his  Water.    On 

light,  and  heat      ^j^j^    f^^^^    ^^^ 

water  is  pumped  by  a 
windmill  into  a  tank,  from 
which  some  is  piped  to  the 
house,  and  some  to  the 
barnyard  for  the  animals ; 
but  on  many  farms  the 
water  is  pumped  by  hand. 

At  night,  light  is  sup- 
plied   by   lamps   that   burn    oil.      This 
house   is   heated    by   stoves    placed    in 
several    of    the    rooms,    though    some 
farmhouses  are  heated  by  furnaces. 

Although  there  are  not  many  children 
on  each  farm,  it  is  important  that  they 

3.  Schools  in  go  to  school.  All  the  chil- 
the  country  (jj-en  who  Hve  near  enough 
together  to  attend  one  school  may  not 
number  more  than  twenty-five  or  thirty, 
and  even  thon  some  may  have  to  walk 
several  miles.  On  fine  days  such  a 
walk  is  pleasant  enough,  but  since  there 
are  no  sidewalks,  it  is  not  so  pleasant 
in  rainy  weather,  and  the  walk  is  very 


difficult  when  there  is  much  snow.  Be- 
cause of  the  distance,  children  living  far 
away  from  the  school  usually  take  their 
lunches  along,  and  remain  at  school  all 
day. 

Since  there  are  so  few  pupils,  the  build- 
ing is  generally  small,  with  only  one  room 
(Fig.  86).  There  is  but  one  teacher,  and 
children  of  all  ages,  from  six  to  nine- 


FiG.  86. 


A  group  of  school  children  in  front  of  a  country  schoolhouse. 

teen  or  twenty  years,  study  and  recite  in 
the  same  room,  and  to  the  same  teacher. 

You  might  think  that  such  a  school 
could  not  be  very  good,  yet  some  of  our 
best-known  men  and  women  have  at- 
tended such  a  country  school.  Perhaps 
you  can  name  one  of  our  Presidents,  or 
some  other  great  man,  who  once  went 
to  a  country  school. 

In  a  great  city,  as  man}'  as  twenty 
thousand  persons  are  some-  xhe  city 
times  found  living  within  a  i.   The  space 
space   no    larger    than    the  "amtiyL\ 
single  farm   just    described,  large  city 
The    buildings,    therefore,    must    cover 


70 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


almost  all  the  ground,  leaving  little  or 
no  room  for  yards  and  lawns. 

In  some  of  the  larger  cities  the  build- 
ings have  from  four  to  fifteen  or  twenty 
stories,  and  some- 
times even  more 
than  that.  In 
such  a  building 
a  single  family 
occupies  only  a 
small  part  of  one 
floor,  called  a 
flat  or  apart- 
ment, which  has 
from  two  or  three 
to  eight  or  ten 
rooms.  Other 
families  live  in 
other  flats  on  the 
same  floor,  and 
in  the  stories 
above  and  below. 
Thus  several  hun- 
dred persons  may 
have  their  homes 
in  a  single  large 
building. 

The  factories, 
stores,  office  build- 
ings, and  other 
places  where  the 
city  people  work, 
are  also  very  large. 
Hundreds,  and  even 
thousands,  of  per- 
sons may  work  in  a 
single  one  of  them. 
Some  of  the  office 
buildings  in  New 
York  City  are  over 
thirty  stories  high 
(Fig.  87). 

There  are,  it  is  true,  houses  of  two  and  three 
stories  in  the  large  cities,  just  as  in  the  country. 
However,  since  the  land  on  which  such  a  house 
stands  is  often  worth  several  times  as  much  as 


Copyriglit,  IIXK),  liy  .Mosos  King,  New  York. 

Fig.  87.  —  The  Singer  Building  in  New  York,  one  of  Uie  highest 
buildings  In  the  world.  It  is  612  feet  high,  has  41  stories,  and 
there  are  offices  even  in  the  lofty  tower. 


a  large  farm,  not  many  families  can  afford  to 
have  such  houses.  With  land  so  costly,  a 
small  barn  for  a  horse  or  cow,  or  a  garden  and 
a  chicken  house,  are  not  to  be  thought  of.  It 
is  difficult  even  to  take  tare  of  a  pet  dog,  or  a 

cat,  in  a  crowded 
city.  Usually  there 
can  be  no  yard,  and 
the  street  is  the 
only  place  where  the 
children  may  play 
(Fig.  88). 

It  would  be  im- 
possible to   have 
wells    enough    to 
furnish   2.    water, 
water  ^^^ 

for     all    city 

the  people  in  a 
city.  Besides 
that,  the  water 
might  not  be  fit 
to  drink.  In- 
stead of  coming 
from  a  great 
number  of  wells, 
therefore,  the 
water  is  brought 
to  the  city  in 
large  pipes,  from 
some  distant 
source  such  as  a 
lake  or  a  river. 
It  is  then  led  in 
smaller  pipes 
through  each 
street  and  into 
each  house. 
When  one  wants 
water,  all  that  he 
needs  to  do  is  to 
turn  a  faucet,  and 
the  water  flows  freely ;  and  there  is 
enough  to  supply  all,  although  thou- 
sands may  want  it  at  the  same  time. 


INDUSTRY,    COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


71 


3.    Food  in 
the  city 


Lamps  for  light  cause  much  trouble  even  in 
the  country.  In  the  city,  where  there  are  so 
many  people  in  one  building,  and  where  the 
buildings  are  so  close  to  one  another,  lamps 
may  be  dangerous.  Why  ?  Gas  and  electricity 
usually  take  their  place. 

For  heat,  furnaces  are  commonly  used. 
They  burn  coal,  and  heat  the  houses  by  means 
of  either  steam,  or  hot  water,  or 
hot  air.  In  the  larger  buildings, 
furnaces  big  enough  to  heat  a 
great  number  of  rooms  at  once 
are  placed  in  the  basement,  and, 
by  means  of  pipes,  steam  is  car- 
ried to  each  room. 

The  farmer  himself  raises 
much  of  the  food  that  his 
family  needs, 
such  as  vegeta- 
bles, fruit,  meat,  and  often 
the  grain  for  flour.  Other 
things  that  he  uses  he  buys 
at  the  village  store.  In  a 
great  city,  on  the  other  hand, 
little  or  no  food  is  produced, 
so  that  the  problem  of  feed- 
ing the  hundreds  of  thou- 
sands of  people  who  live 
there  is  a  very  serious  one. 

Trains,  ships,  and  wagons, 
loaded  with  all  sorts  of  food, 
are  all  the  time  moving  to- 
ward a  large  city.  For  ex- 
ample, milk  is  brought  every 
day  in  special  milk  trains  that  start 
perhaps  one  or  two  hundred  miles  away. 
At  each  station  they  take  on  cans  filled 
with  milk  from  surrounding  farms,  and 
in  this  way  many  cars  are  filled  by  the 
time  the  city  is  reached. 

Most  of  the  city  people  buy  food  at  the 
stores  in  very  small  quantities,  because  they 
have  no  room  in  which  to  keep  large  amounts. 
For  instance,  they  may  buy  three  or  four 
pounds  of  sugar   at  a  time,  or  a  small  bag  of 


flour,  or  two  quarts  of  potatoes.  The  farmer, 
on  the  other  hand,  has  whole  barrels  of  potatoes, 
apples,  and  turnips  stored  in  his  cellar,  and 
often  buys  sugar  and  flour  by  the  barrel. 

From  all  this  you  can  see  how   the 
city  depends  upon  the  country  for  food. 


Fig.  88. 


Copyright,  lOW),  by  Detroit  Photographic  Co 

A  crowded  street  in  the  Ea.st  Side  of  New  York  City. 

If  anything  should  prevent  food  from 
reaching  a  city  for  a  few  weeks,  the 
people  would  starve.  Even  when  a 
heavy  snowstorm  blocks  the  freight 
trains  for  a  day  or  two,  there  is  suffer- 
ing in  the  larger  cities. 

The  people  are  so  crowded  in  a  great 
city  that  there  are  often  children  enough 
in   one  block  to  fill  a  large  4.   schools 
school.     Sometimes  a  thou-  in  the  city 
sand,  and  even  two  or  three   thousand 


72 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


children,  go  to  school  in  one  building. 
The  schoolhouse  may  have  from  twenty- 
five  to  seventy-five  large   rooms  in   it, 


Fig.  89.  — A  large  city  school  in  New  York. 

with  a  teacher  for  every  room.  Scores 
of  such  schools  may  be  found  in  a  single 
city  (Fig.  89). 

The  children  usually  need  to  walk 
only  a  few  minutes  to  reach 
their  school,  and  at  noon  they 
go  home  for  luncheon.  Land 
is  so  valuable  that  these 
children,  unlike  those  in  the 
country,  very  often  have  no 
school  playground.  They 
must  play  in  the  street,  dodg- 
ing horses,  wagons,  and  street 
cars  as  best  they  can. 

People  in  the  country  walk 
short  distances  to  visit  one 
Transporta-  another,  or  to 
tion  in  country  work.  They  have 

andincity  horses,     which 

they  can  use  for  hauling  goods  or 
for  driving.  The  roads  are  never 
crowded  (Fig.  90),  and  where  they  are 


well  made,  it  is  a  pleasure  to  drive  over 

them. 

Transportation  in  a  large  city  is  a  very 
different  matter.  In  spite  of 
the  fact  that  each  building 
holds  so  many  people,  many 
persons  live  too  far  from  their 
places  of  work  to  walk  there. 
Street  cars,  therefore,  carry 
many  of  them. 

In  the  largest  cities  the  dis- 
tances are  often  too  great 
even  for  riding  on  street  cars, 
for  they  go  slowly  and  cannot 
carry  half  of  the  people,  even 
though  they  run  only  a  minute 
apart.  This  is  especially  true 
in  the  mornings,  when  tens  of 
thousands  of  persons  start  for 
their  places  of  work  at  about 
•  the   same   time,  and    in    the 

evenings,  when  they  return  home. 

In  great  cities,    therefore,    like    New 

York,   Chicago,    and    Boston,    railroads 

are  built  above  the  streets.     These  are 


Fi<;  ilO.  —  Driving  on  a  country  road. 


called  elevated  railroads  (Fig.  91).  They 
carry  great  numbers  of  passengers,  the 
trains  running  every  few  minutes  ;  yet 


INDUSTRY,    COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


7h 


the  elevated  trains,  like  the 
street  cars,  are  often  greatly 
overcrowded. 

To  meet  the  needs  of  transporta- 
tion further,  in  New  York,  Boston, 
and  some  other  cities,  electric  rail- 
roads, called  subways,  have  been 
built  in  tunnels  dug  iinderground 
(Fig.  92).  They  even  run  under 
rivers,  and  they  carry  thousands  of 
passengers  every  day. 

Thus  it  happens  that  in  some 
parts  of  New  York  there  may  be 
an  electric  car  in  the  street,  a  train 
directly  overhead,  and  another 
train  directly  underground,  all 
filled  with  people,  and  rushing 
along  as  fast  as  they  can  in  the 
same  direction. 

In  the  near  future,  many  more 
tunnels  for  carrying  passengers 
and  freight  will  have  to  be  built  in  the  great 
cities.  This  will  be  necessary,  because  even 
now  some  of  the  streets  are  so  crowded  with 
street  cars,  wagons,  carriages,  and  automobiles, 
that  these  can  scarcely  move  at  all  (Fig.  93) ; 
and  foot  passengers  find  it  difficult  and  even 
dangerous  to  cross  the  streets. 

A  person  who  likes  the  trees  and  the 
green  grass,  who  loves  to  watch  the  birds, 
Attractions  of  and  wlio  linds  pleasure  in 
*^f "^t^^  ^^^  gathering  wild  flowers,  grow- 
1.  The  country  i^g   fruits     and    vegetables. 


mm 


by  Detroit  Photographic  Co. 


Fig.  92. 


Copyri),'ht,  1!KH,  by  Detroit  Photci;;raphic  Co 

An  underground  railway,  or  subway,  in  New  York. 


Fig.  91.  — An  elevated  railway  in  New  York  City. 

should  live  in  the  country,  hlo  should  any 
one  who  likes  to  skate  and  coast,  to  hunt 
and  fish,  to  keep  cats,  dogs,  and  other 
pets,  and  to  take  long  walks  in  the  quiet 
woods  and  fields.  There  is  plenty  of  room 
there  for  all  such  pleasures.  In  the  great 
cities,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are 
children  who  have  never  seen  a  bird,  ex- 
cept perhaps  the  English  sparrow,  nor  a 
cow,  nor  a  pasture,  nor  a  field  of  grain. 

It  is  true  that  life  in  the  country  seems 
lonesome  to  many.  But  it  is  much 
less  lonesome  now  than  it  used  to 
be,  since  the  postman  now  carries 
mail  to  the  farmer's  door  every 
day,  and  the  farmer  is  able  to 
have  the  telephone  in  his  house, 
just  as  people  have  in  the  city. 
Then,  too,  the  country  roads  are 
being  improved  every  year,  so 
that  it  is  now  easier  and  more 
pleasant  to  drive  over  them, 
and  to  visit  neighbors.  In  many 
parts  of  the  country,  also,  there 
are  electric  car  lines,  running 
through  the  farming  region  on 
their  way  from  one  town  to 
another. 


i 


74 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Although  families  in  the  country  live 
far  apart,  they  are  usually  much  better 
acquainted  than  those  who  live  close  to- 
gether in  the  city.  It  is  common,  in  a 
large  city,  for  families  that  have  lived 
for  years  in  the  same  building,  with  only 
a  brick  wall  a  foot  thick  between  them, 
not  to  know  one  another  by  name,  nor 
to  speak  when  they  meet.  A  farmer 
might  be  much  better  acquainted  with  a 
neighbor  living  ten  miles  away.     Many 


2.    The  city 


Fig.  93.  —  A  street  in  New  York  City,  crowded  with  carts  and  wagons. 

people  in  the  city,  as  well  as  some  in 
the  country,  lead  lonesome  lives. 

Large  cities  also  have  many  attrac- 
tions. Beautiful  parks  are  set  aside  here 
and  there,  where  children  are 
allowed  to  play,  and  where 
people  can  enjoy  the  birds,  flowers,  and 
trees,  and  watch  the  squirrels  frisking 
about.  There  are  gardens,  where  wild 
animals  from'  all  parts  of  ,  the  world  are 
kept,  and  thousands  of  children  visit 
these  gardens  each  week,  often  taking 
their  lunches  so  as  to  remain  all  day. 


There  are  great  natural  history  mu- 
seums, containing  stuffed  animals  of 
many  kinds ;  and  art  museums,  filled 
with  statues  and  pictures.  There  are 
concerts,  fine  churches,  and  large  stores. 
A  single  store  sometimes  employs  a 
thousand  clerks,  and  contains  almost 
everything  that  a  person  can  want. 

On  the  whole,  there  are  many  more 
kinds  of  pleasure  in  the  city  than  in  the 
country  ;  but  the  country  offers  greater 
attractions  to  those  who  like 
to  live  out  of  doors,  and  who 
want  quiet. 

These   facts   explain  why 

many  city  people  flock  to  the 

country  in  summer.     It  is  a 

treat  for  them  to  get  away 

from  the  noise,  the  bad  air, 

and  the  crowding  of  the  city. 

It  is  also  clear  why  country 

people  like  to  visit  the  city ; 

for  there   are   always   many 

new  and  interesting  sights  for 

them  there.     Which  do  you 

prefer  for  a  home,  and  why  ? 

Many  people  live  in  towns 

and  villages  (Fig.  94).     Here 

the    houses    are  Life  in  towns 

usually  from  one  ^^'^  villages 

to  three  stories   in   height,   placed    far 

enough  apart  to  allow  good   light   all 

around.     A  man  can  have  a  lawn  and  a 

garden  if  he  wishes  them,  and  also  a  barn 

where  he  can  keep  horses  and  cows. 

If  the  town  is  large  enough  to  require 
street  cars,  these  are  seldom  crowded,  and 
the  streets  are  wide  enough  to  meet  all 
needs.  Such  foods  as  milk,  eggs,  and 
potatoes  are  easily  obtained  from  the  sur- 
rounding farms,  and  the  open  country 
can  be  reached,  from  any  point  in  the 
town,  by  a  few  minutes'  walk  (Fig.  94). 


INDUSTRY,    COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


75 


Fig.  1)4.  —  A  village  nestled  in  ;i  valley  among  the  hills  of  New  England. 


Unless  a  town  is  quite  small,  it  sup- 
plies itself  with  water  and  light  in  the 
same  way  as  these  are  supplied  in  cities  ; 
but  in  most  respects  towns  and  villages 
resemble  the  country  more  than  they  do 
the  large  city. 

1.  Which  great  occupations  must  be  carried 
on  in  the  country  ?  2.  Which  ones  in  towns 
and  cities  ?  3.  Explain  why- 
farmers  need  a  large  amount  of 
land.  4.  How  do  they  get  their 
water,  light,  and  heat  ?  5.  Tell  about  schools 
in  the  country,  6.  What  about  the  space  used 
by  a  family  in  a  large  city  ?  7.  How  are  the 
water,  light,  and  heat  obtained  in  such  a  city  ? 
8.  What  about  food  in  the  city  ?  9.  What  do 
you  know  about  the  schools  there  ?  10.  How 
is  transportation  provided  in  country  and  in 
city  ?  11.  What  are  some  of  the  attractions 
of  the  country  ?  12.  Of  the  city  ?  13.  Tell 
about  life  in  towns  and  villages. 

1.  Boys  and  girls  living  in  the  country  usu- 
ally have  much  work  to  do  helping  their  fathers 


Review 
Questions 


and  mothers.  Make  a  list  of  things  that  they 
have  to  do.  2.  Is  it  an  advantage  or  a  disad- 
vantage for  city  children  that  they 
have  little  work  of  this  kind  to 
do  ?  3.  Make  a  drawing  of  some  farm  that 
you  know,  showing  the  buildings  upon  it,  and 
how  it  is  divided  up.  4.  Make  a  collection  of 
pictures  of  buildings  and  streets  in  the  city. 
5.  Write  a  composition  telling  whether  you  pre- 
fer to  live  in  the  city  or  country,  and  give  your 
reasons.  6.  If  your  home  is  in  a  city  or  large 
town,  find  out  about  the  lighting  system  ;  the 
transportation;  the  parks;  the  museums;  the 
protection  against  tires. 


3.    Government 

Every  boy  and   girl   has  heard  men 
talk  about  voting,  and   has  leaning  of 
noticed  how  interested  they  voting  and 
often  become  as  election  day  °^  elections 
draws   near.      Do    you    know    what    is 
meant  by  voting  and  by  election? 


76 


BOMS  GEOGRAPHY 


Suppose  that  all  the  members  of  your 
class,  or  of  your  school,  wished  to  form 
a  club,  and  to  choose  one  of  your  number 
president.    How  would  you  go  about  it  ? 

Probably  the  names  of  two  or  three 
children,  who  seemed  best  fitted  for  the 
place,  would  first  be  suggested.  Then 
each  of  you  would  write  the  name  of  the 
one  you  preferred  upon  a  slip  of  paper, 
and  drop  it  into  a  box.  After  that,  all 
the  slips,  or  votes,  would  be  counted,  and 
the  boy  or  girl  who  received  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  would  be  elected. 

In  such  a  case  you  would  be  voting, 
and  having  an  election  at  school.  When 
you  dropped  the  name  of  the  one  you 
preferred  into  the  box,  you  would  cast  a 
vote  ;  and  the  election  would  be  nothing 
more  than  the  choosing  of  some  one  for 
the  position.  Quite  possibly  some  of 
you  would  become  just  as  much  inter- 
ested in  such  an  election  as  men  do  in 
their  elections. 

Men  hold  their  elections  in  much  the 
same  way.  Ask  your  father,  or  some 
man  old  enough  to  vote,  to  tell  you 
exactly  what  he  does  when  he  votes. 

People  hold  elections  and  vote  on  all 
sorts  of  questions ;  but  usually  when  one 
Matters  that  ^W^"^^  of  noting  and  of  elec- 
elections  tions  he  means  the  choosing 
decide         ^  of  officers  for  our  government. 

We  do  not  hold  elections  to  decide 
how  a  farmer  shall  manage  his  farm, 
for  it  is  best  that  he  should  do  that  about 
as  he  pleases.  He  builds  fences,  puts  in 
certain  crops,  sells  his  grain,  or  feeds  it 
to  his  stock,  as  seems  to  him  best.  So, 
also,  the  miller  builds  a  large  or  a  small 
mill,  uses  old  or  new  machinery,  grinds 
much  or  little  corn,  and  makes  repairs 
as  he  chooses.  In  each  of  these  cases 
one  man  owns  and  uses  the  property. 


There  are  many  things,  however,  that 
no  one  person  owns,  and  in  which  a 
large  number  of  people  are  about  equally 
interested.  That  is  true,  for  instance, 
of  roads.  Many  people  drive  or  walk 
over  them,  but  no  one  person  owns  them. 
The  people  together  have  to  decide,  or 
vote,  where  and  how  they  shall  be  built 
and  repaired,  and  who  shall  do  the  work. 
That  is,  they  hold  elections  to  make  laws 
about  the  roads,  and  choose  officers  to 
carry  out  such  laws. 

The  schools,  likewise,  are  not  owned 
by  any  one  person,  but  are  of  great 
interest  to  everybody.  So  questions 
about  the  schools  are  also  voted  upon  at 
elections. 

What  shall  be  done  with  thieves  and 
disorderly  persons?  This  is  another 
question  of  great  interest  to  everybody. 
Laws  must  be  made  to  control  such  peo- 
ple, and  officers  must  be  selected  to  carry 
out  such  laws.  There  are  many  other 
questions  that  interest  large  numbers  of 
people.  Can  you  not  name  some  of 
them  ?  Ask  your  father,  or  some  friend, 
to  tell  you  some  of  the  questions  that 
will  be  voted  on  at  the  next  election. 

Elections,  therefore,  deal  with  matters 
of  general  interest.  They  provide  for 
laws  on  such  matters,  and  for  the  selec- 
tion of  officers  to  enforce  them. 

Some  of  the  matters  that  are  voted 
on  at  elections  concern  only  those  pei'- 
sons  who  live  in  a  small  sec-  Questions  to 
tion,  as  in  a  small  town  or  J^  voted  upon 

•n  T-i         •  1        "y  small 

Village,  h  or  instance,  the  groups  of 
kind  of  streets  that  you  shall  people 
have,  and  the  men  who  shall  take  care 
of  them,  are  questions  of  no  especial  in- 
terest to  people  in  other  towns  or  cities, 
but  they  interest  all  the  voters  in  your 
section. 


INDUSTET,    COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


77 


It  is  also  very  important  that  you 
have  a  good  school  building,  with  a 
large  yard,  and  good  teachers.  People 
living  at  a  distance  have  little  interest 
in  your  school,  but  those  who  live  near 
you  are  very  much  interested  in  it.  The 
])eople  to  vote  on  such  a  question,  there- 
fore, would  be  those  who  have  a  special 
interest  in  it. 

Thus  there  are  many  matters  that  are 
mainly  of  interest  to  the  persons  living 
in  one  neighborhood.  They  are  called 
local  questions,  and  are  voted  upon  only 
by  the  few  voters  in  that  section.  Ask 
some  one  to  tell  you  of  other  local  ques- 
tions. 

There  are  some  matters  that  are  of 
interest  to  the  people  in  a  much  larger 
section.  For  example,  a  rail- 
concern  the  way  company  might  charge 
people  of  a       too  much  for  passengers  and 

whole  state         r     •    i  ,        t  ^  i 

ireight.  In  such  cases,  laws 
may  need  to  be  passed,  forcing  them  to 
charge  lower  rates.  Since  a  railway  may 
be  hundreds  of  miles  long,  the  people  of 
a  single  town  or  city  could  do  very  little 
with  such  a  company.  In  that  case  it 
would  be  necessary  for  men,  living  per- 
haps hundreds  of  miles  apart,  to  unite 
in  some  way  to  make  laws. 

Again,  it  is  important  that  there  be 
buildings  in  which  blind  people  may  be 
cared  for ;  others  in  which  the  deaf  and 
dumb  may  be  educated ;  and  still  others 
in  which  insane  people  may  be  kept. 
There  must  also  be  strong  prisons  where 
criminals  may  be  sent.  There  are  not 
many  such  persons  in  any  one  small  sec- 
tion, and  it  would  prove  very  expensive 
and  difficult  to  take  proper  care  of  only 
a  few  of  each  kind.  Therefore,  all  the 
people  in  a  large  section,  called  a  state, 
unite  to  make  proper  laws,  and  provide 


buildings  and  officers  for  the  care  of 
such  people.  What  is  the  name  of  your 
state  ? 

The  voters  of  a  state  cannot,  of  course, 
all  come  together  at  one  place  to  discuss 
such   matters.     Even   if  all  „     , 

.  How  laws  are 

could  make  the  journey  at  made  and  offi- 
a  time   agreed   upon,  there  ^^rs  chosen 

for  a  state 
would  be  SO  many  thousands 

that  it  would  not  be  possible  for  all  to 

hear  those  who  spoke,  and  little  business 

could  be  done.     Besides,  new  laws  are 

needed  every  year,  and  the  voters  would 

have  to  spend  too  much  time  on  such 

work. 

For  these  reasons  it  is  the  custom  for 
one  man  to  be  elected  to  represent  many 
others  in  the  making  of  laws.  Where 
there  are  great  numbers  of  people,  he 
may  represent  many  thousands,  and 
vote  in  place  of  them  all.  Suppose,  for 
instance,  that  there  are  a  million  persons 
living  in  one  state,  and  that  one  man  is 
elected  to  represent  every  ten  thousand. 
There  will  then  be  one  hundred  such 
men  chosen,  and  it  will  be  their  duty 
to  come  together  and  make  laws  for  the 
whole  million. 

Such  men,  being  elected  to  represent 
others,  are  called  representatives ;  and 
because  they  legislate  (which  means 
"make  laws"),  the  whole  body  is  called 
the  legislature.  Find  out  who  is  the 
representative  to  the  state  legislature 
from  your  district;  also  who  is  your 
state  senator. 

The  city  where  the  legislature  meets 
is  called  the  capital  (which  means  "'  head 
city  ")  of  the  state.  The  capital  is  often 
located  near  the  center  of  the  state,  and 
it  usually  has  a  fine,  large  building, 
called  the  state  capitol.  It  is  here  that 
the  representatives  hold  their  meetings. 


78 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  95.  — The  beautiful  capitol  building  at  Washington. 


The  chief  officer  of  the  state,  who  is 
elected  to  see  that  the  state  laws  are 
carried  out,  or  enforced,  is  called  the 
governor.  Who  is  your  governor  ?  He 
is  elected  by  voters  in  all  parts  of  the 
state,  while  each  representative  is  elected 
by  a  small  section  of  tlie  state.  There 
are  also  other  state  officers,  such  as  a 
state  treasurer,  a  state  superintendent 
of  schools,  and  judges.  Some  of  these 
officers  are  elected  by  the  people ;  others 
are  appointed  by  the  governor. 

In  large  cities,  laws  are  made  through  repre- 
sentatives, just  as  in  states,  and  for  the  same 
reasons.  The  representatives 
chosen  to  make  the  laws  in  cities 
are  usually  called  aldermen  or 
councilors  ;  and  the  highest  officer, 
elected  to  carry  out,  or  execute, 
the  laws,  is  called  the  mayor.  All  these 
officers  are  chosen  by  the  voters  at  elections. 
If  your  home  is  in  a  city,  learn  the  name  of 
your  mayor  and  that  of  your  alderman  or  coun- 
cilor.    Find  out  what  some  of  their  duties  are. 


How  laws  are 
made  and  offi- 
cers selected 
for  cities 


The  building  in  which  these  representatives 
meet,  and  in  which  the  mayor  has  his  office,  is 
called  the  city  hall.  While  the  city  is  governed 
in  some  matters  by  its  own  laws  and  officers, 
the  same  as  any  small  town,  it  also  forms  part 
of  the  state  and  elects  representatives  to  the 
state  legislature. 

In  our  country  there  are  forty-six 
states,  and  there  are  some  questions  that 
no    one    state    can    decide  ^ 

.  ,  Questions  that 

alone,  because  the  others  are  concern  the 
equally  interested  in  them,  people  of  the 

T71        •      ,  •,  111  United  States 

Jbor  instance,  it  would  be  a 
great  hindrance  to  trade  and  travel  if 
each  state  made  its  own  money,  for 
different  states  might  then  have  differ- 
ent coins.  In  that  case,  every  time  a 
traveler  passed  from  one  state  to  an- 
other, he  might  be  obliged  to  take  the 
time  and  trouble  to  exchange  his  money 
for  a  new  kind. 

Again,  in  case  of  war,  the  country 
would  be  weak  if  each  state  acted  ^lone. 


INDUSTRY,    COMMERCE,   AND   GOVERNMENT 


79 


Perhaps  you  can  give  some  of  the  rea- 
sons why.     Mail  is  another  matter  that 


Fig.  9(5.  — President  Taft. 

concerns    all  the  states,   and  there  are 
others  besides.     Can  you  mention  some  ? 

So  it  is  clear  that  we  need  a  United 
States  Government  as  well  as 
state,  city,  and  town  govern- 
ments. The  reason  for  call- 
ing it  the  United  States  Gov- 
ernment is  also  plain,  for  the 
states  have  really  united,  in 
order  to  have  one  central 
government  for  many  im- 
portant matters. 

If  the  people  in  a  single 
How  laws  are  State  Cannot 
made  and  offi-  meet  in  a  body 

cers  chosen  for  ,         ,         '^ 

the  United        to  make  laws, 
States  certainly    the 

people  of  the  entire  United 


States  cannot  do  so.  Therefore,  repre- 
sentatives are  elected,  and  sent  to  one 
place,  from  all  the  states  of  the  Union. 
Here  they  consider  questions  of  interest 
to  the  whole  nation. 

The  place  where  they  meet  is  Wash- 
INGTOTS",  and  this  city  is,  on  that  account, 
the  cajntal  of  the  United  States,  or  the 
national  capital.  At  Washington  there 
is  a  magnificent  capitol  building  (Fig. 
95)  in  which  the  meetings  are  held  ;  and 
there  are  many  other  fine  government 
buildings  there. 

The  representatives  from  the  forty-six 
states  of  the  Union  form  what  is  known 
as  Congress.  This  corresponds  to  the 
legislatures  of  the  state,  for  the  congress- 
men make  laws  for  the  nation,  as  the 
legislators  do  for  the  state.  The  mem- 
bers of  Congress  are  called  senators  and 
reijresentatives. 

The  chief  executive  officer  of  the  United 
States,  corresponding  to  the  mayor  of  a 
city,  and  the  governor  of  a  state,  is  called 
the  President  (Fig.  96).  He  lives  in 
Washington,  and  his  residence  is  called 
the  Executive  Mansion,  or  White  House, 
since  it  is  white  in  color  (Fig.  97).     Who 


Fig.  97.  —  The  White  House,  where  the  President  lives. 


80 


HOME   GEOGRAPHY 


is  now  President  of  the 
United  States  ?  Who 
was  the  first  President? 
What  do  you  know  about 
each  ? 

Besides  these  officers, 
who  are  elected  by  the 
people,  there  are  a  great 
many  others  who  are 
appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent to  carry  on  the  gov- 
ernment work.  Many 
live  in  Washington,  but 
some,  such  as  post- 
masters, live  in  other 
places. 

We  have  seen  that 
our  representatives,  and 
other  officers^  are  elected  by  votes  that 
are ,  cast  for  them.  Be- 
cause the  people  thus  have 
the  power  to  make  their 
own  laws,  our  government 
is  called  a  democracy.  The 
first  part  of  this  word  means  "people," 
and  the  last  part  "government,"  so  that 


the  whole  word  means 
"government  by  the 
people."  Because  the 
people  do  not  really 
make  the  laws  them- 
selves, but  elect  repre- 
sentatives to  do  that  for 
them,  ours  is  often  called 
a  representative  govern- 
ment, or  a  republic. 

It  is  often  said  that  our 
form  of  government  makes 
us    "  free   and 


equal."  People 


Other  forms 
of  government 


Fig.  98.  — General  Geo 
President  of  the 


rge  Washington,  first 
United  States. 


Why  our  gov- 
ernment is 
called  a  democ 
racy  and  a  re- 
public 


Fig.  To.  — The  Washington  Monument,  erecud  in  Wasliingioii 
in  memory  of  our  first  President. 


are  by  no 
means  so  free  and  equal  in 
all  countries.  Under  some 
governments,  in  Europe  and 
in  Asia,  the  people  have 
very  little  to  say  about  the  laws  that  govern 
them.  Nor  do  the  laws  protect,  them  all 
equally ;  for  some  of  the  high  officers  do  quite 
freely  what  they  wish,  while  others  dare  not 
do  this.  Many  are  compelled  to  obey  their 
rulers  blindly,  just  as  little  children  are  ex- 
pected to  obey  their  parents. 

Such  a  government  is  not  a  democracy,  or  a 
republic ;  it  is  a  despotism,  or  an  absolute 
monarchy.  This  means  that  the  ruler  is  a 
despot,  or  a  monarch,  having  complete 
power  to  do  what  he  chooses.  For  in- 
stance, he  may  even  jjut  men  to  death 
without  any  trial,  a  power  that  the  laws 
of  our  country  do  not  allow. 

In  some  countries  that  have  kings,  how- 
ever, the  people  have  much  power.  For 
example,  there  is  a  king  in  England,  but 
the  English  people  are  quite  as  free  as 
we  are. 


In  studying  a  lesson  it  is  not  best  to 
spend  all  of  your  time  with  your  book  in 
hand.  After  carefully  read- 
ing the  text  through  two  or 
three  times,  you  might  se- 
lect some  topic  that  you  think  would  prove 
interesting  to  your  mother,  or  to  some  of 
your  friends,  or  that  they  could  tell  you 
more  about.  Then,  during  the  meal  hour, 
or  at  some  other  time  when  others  present 


About  how 
to  study 


MAPS 


81 


have  nothing  special  to  talk  about,  bring  np 
this  topic.  Tell  what  you  have  read,  and  ask 
the  others  some  questions  about  it. 

Talking  over  a  part  of  a  lesson  in  such  a  way- 
is  one  of  the  very  best  ways  of  studying  it,  and 
it  is  also  one  of  the  best  ways  of  pleasing  your 
parents. 

1.  What  do  you  understand  by  voting,  and 
by  elections  f  2.  What  kind  of  questions  do 
elections  decide  ?  3.  Give  ex- 
amples of  local  questions,  or 
questions  that  are  voted  upon  by 
small  groups  of  people.  4.  Give  examples  of 
questions  that  concern  the  people  of  a  whole 
state.  5.  How  are  laws  made  for  a  whole 
state,  and  who  are  some  of  the  officers  elected 
for  the  state  ?  6.  How  are  laws  made  for 
large  cities,  and  who  are  some  of  the  officers 
elected  for  cities  ? 


Review 
Questions 


7.  Give  examples  of  questions  that  concern 
the  people  of  the  United  States.  8.  How  are 
laws  made,  and  who  are  some  of  the  officers 
chosen  for  the  United  States  ?  9.  Why  is 
our  government  called  a  democracy  ?  Why  a 
republic  ?  10.  Tell  about  other  forms  of 
government. 


Suggestions 


1.  Name  some  officers  that  you  know  about, 
and  find  out  whether  they  represent  the  local, 
state,  or  national  government. 
2.  What  officers  look  after  your 
school,  and  how  are  they  chosen  ?  3.  What  is 
the  capital  of  your  state,  and  where  is  it  ?  4.  In 
what  respect  are  the  town  hall,  city  hall,  state 
capitol  building,  and  United  States  capitol 
alike  in  their  use  ?  5.  Why  should  the  capital 
of  a  state  be  near  the  center  of  the  state,  if 
possible  ?     6.    What  does  U.  S.  stand  for  ? 


SECTION  IV.     MAPS 


It  is  often  important  to  represent  a 
country  upon  a  map,  so  as  to  tell  at  a 
glance  what  its  shape  is,  and  where  its 
mountains,  rivers,  and  cities  are.  Such 
a  drawing  can  be  made  of  any  place, 
no  matter  how  large  or  small  it  may 
be. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  we  desire  to 
make  a  map,  or  drawing,  of  a  school- 
How  a  map  of  room  (Fig.  100).  The  room 
a  schoolroom     we  have  chosen  is  thirty-two 

can  be  drawn     f ^^^  ^^^^  ^^^^  thirty-two  feet 

wide.  It  would  not  be  easy  to  find  a 
piece  of  paper  as  large  as  that ;  but  it 
is  not  necessary  to  have  so  large  a  piece 
in  order  to  make  the  drawing.  A  small 
piece  will  do  just  as  well,  if  we  let  one 
inch  on  the  paper  stand  for  several  feet 
in  the  room. 

In  this  case  let  one  inch  stand  for  sixteen 
feet.  Since  the  room  is  thirty-two  feet  on 
each  side,  the  drawing  will  be  just  two  inches 
long  and  two  inches  wide.     To  place  the  desks 


and  aisles  properly,  we  shall  need  to  use  a  ruler 
with  the  inches  divided  into  sixteenths ;  for  one 
foot  in  the  room  represents  one  sixteenth  of  an 
inch  on  the  ruler. 

The  ends  of  the  room  are  on  the  north  and 
south,   and    the   sides  on   the   east   and  west. 


Fig.  100.  —  Photograph  of  a  schoolroom. 

The  teacher's  desk  is  three  and  one  half  feet 
in  front  of  the  north  wall.  There  is  a  row  of 
desks  about  four  feet  from  the  west  wall.  The 
desks  are  just  two  feet  long,  with  eight  in  a  row 
one  and  one  fourth  feet  apart.  There  are  seven 
rows,  and  the  aisles  between  them  are  each  one 
and  one  fourth  feet  wide.  The  piano  is  on  the 
west  side  of  the  teacher's  desk. 


82 


BOMS  GEOGRAPHY 


Here  is  a  map  of  the  schoolroom  (Fig.  101). 
Measure  each  part  to  see  whether  it  has  been 
drawn  correctly,  using  a  foot  rule  that  shows 
the  sixteenths  of  inches.  How  large  is  tlie 
teacher's  desk  ?     The  piano  ? 


i:zi  a  czi  □  cj  czi  czi 

[1:3  CZI  LZI  LZl  mi  CJ  □! 

z\  □□□□□□□ 
□□□□□□□ 
nzi  □  □  □  mi  □  CD 
□  mi  □  □  □  Lzi  □ 
mi  mi  mi  mi  mi  mi  mi 
mD  mjm]  mi  mi  □  □ 


SOUTH 

I    I    I    I   '    I    '    I       I 


12    14    1« 
SCALE  OF  FtET:  1  INCH--1«  FEET 
Olt/^,OF  AN  lNCH«>t  FOOT 

Fib.  101.  —  Map  of  a  schoolroom. 


When  a  person  draws  in  this  way, 
letting  a  certain  distance  on  the  paper 
stand  for  a  greater  distance, 
he  is  said  to  use  a  scale,  or 
to  make  a  map  according  to 
a  scale.  In  the  schoolroom 
just  described  (Fig.  101)  the  scale  is  one 
inch  to  sixteen  feet. 


Meaning  of 
drawing  "  ac 
cording  to  a 
scale  " 


represents  must  be  still  greater,  because  the 
yard  is  much  larger  than  the  room.  Here  one 
inch  represents  one  hundred  and  forty  feet. 
According  to  that  scale,  find  out  how  large  the 
yard  and  the  school  building  are  (Fig.  103). 


WEST 


jy-w^Ksj, 

/^ 

mjk 

5lt^ 

0  55  70         105        140 

l_J I I L 


Scale  in  feet:  I  inch  equals  14U  I'eet. 

Fig.  lO.*?.  —  Map  of  a  school  yard. 

Find  how  far  the  trees  are  from  each  other ; 
from  the  nearest  fence ;  from  the  building. 

All  maps  are  drawn  according  to  a 
scale,  just  as  these  two  are.  It  makes 
no  difference  whether  they  represent  a 
school  yard,  a  state,  the  United  States, 
or  even  the  entire  earth  ;  all  are  drawn 
to  a  scale.  In  Part  II  of  this  book  there 
is  a  map  of  North  America  (Fig.  134) ; 
to  what  scale  is  it  drawn  ?  Look  at 
some  other  maps  to  find  out  their 
scales. 

Can  you  not  make  a  map  of  your  own  school- 


Maps  that  you 


Fig. 


102.  — Picture  of  the  schoolhouse  and  yard  represented 

in  the  map  (Fig.  103). 


In  the  next  drawing,  that  of  the  school  yard 
(Fig.  102),  the  number  of  feet  which  an  inch 


room  ?    What  scale  will  you  use  ? 

You  might  put  in  your  own  desk,   "'■J'^^^  '"**'■  ^ 
14.         -i.    4-1         4-1,  A/        rnighi  draw 

but   omit  the   others.      You 

might  also  draw  a  map  of  your  school 
yard.  If  you  prefer  to  do  so,  find  its  size 
by  stepping,  or  pacing,  the  distance,  mak- 
ing each  of  your  steps  about  two  feet  long. 
Measure  the  building  in  the  same  way. 
After  having  finished  these  two  maps, 
you  might  draw  a  third  one,  including  in 
it  not  only  the  school  yard,  but  also  a  few 
of   the  streets  and  houses  near  by.     The 

scale  for  this  third  map  might  perhaps  be  one 

in,ch  for  every  five  hundred  steps. 


MAPS 


83 


Flo.  104.  —  A  small  compass. 


Maps  are  much  used  to  show  the 
locations    of    places    and   the   direction 

Ways  of  find-  ^^  ^^^  P^^^^  ^^^™  another, 
ing  directions  To  use  them  properly,  a 
out  of  doors  person  must  first  under- 
stand what  is  meant  by  north,  south, 
east,  and  west.  Probably  you  already 
know  that.  One  of  the  easiest  ways  to 
find  direction  is  by  a  compass  (Fig.  104). 

A  compass  is  a  piece  of  steel,  called  a  needle, 
which  easily  swings  around,  and  always  points 
to  the  north. 
This  needle 
is  a  magnet, 
like  the 
horseshoe 
magnets 
that  you 
have  seen. 
It  points 
northward 
because 
some    force 

within  the  earth  draws  it  in  that  direction.  No 
one  knows  certainly  just  what  this  force  is,  but 
it  is  called  magnetism. 

Another  way  to  tell  direction  is  by  the  stars. 
When  the  stars  are  shining,  one  can  tell  which 
direction  is  north  by  the  help  of  the  Great  Dip- 
per. The  two  stars  on  the  outer  side  of  the 
Dipper  point  toward  the  North  Star.  This  star 
can  easily  be  found,  and  it  is  always  north  of  us. 

One  can  also  find  direction  by  the  help  of 
the  sun.  At  noon  it  stands  exactly  south 
of  us ;  and  twice  each  year,  about  the  21st 
of  March  and  the  21st  of  September,  it  rises 
exactly  in  the  east,  and  sets  exactly  in  the 
west.  Where  does  it  rise  in  winter  ?  In 
summer?  When  you  face  the  east,  which 
direction  is  on  your  right?  Which  on  your 
left  ?  Answer  the  same  questions  when  facing 
the  west ;  the  south. 

Northeast  (N.E.)  means  halfway  between 
north  and  east;  southeast  (S.E.)  halfway  be- 
tween south  and  east.  What  do  northwest  and 
southwest  mean  ? 

Point  north,  east,  west,  south,  southwest, 
northeast,  northwest.  Walk  a  few  feet  in  each 
of  these  directions.  What  is  the  direction  from 
your  desk  to  the  teacher's  desk  ?     To  the  desk 


of  one  of  your  schoolmates  ?  To  the  door  ? 
What  direction  is  your  home  from  the  school- 
house  ?  From  certain  other  houses  ?  In  what 
directions  do  some  of  the  streets  extend  ? 

Now  let  us  tell  directions  on  the  map. 
Lay  your   drawing  of   the   schoolroom 

upon  your  desk    so   that  the    Directions 

line  representing  the  north  °^  ^  ™ap 
side  of  the  room  is  on  the  north  side. 
Also  place  yourself  so  that  you  face 
directly  north  as  you  look  at  the  map. 
North  on  the  map  now  is  also  north  in 
the  room,  and  the  other  directions  cor- 
respond with  those  in  the  room.  In 
which  direction,  on  the  map,  is  the  door 
from  your  desk  ?  From  the  teacher's 
desk  ?  Place  your  map  of  the  school 
yard  in  the  same  position,  and  give  the 
directions. 

You  see  that  the  north  side  of  this 
map  is  the  side  farthest  from  you.  The 
east  side  is  on  your  right,  the  south 
side  is  nearest  to  you,  and  the  west  side 
is  on  your  left.  When  a  map  is  lying 
before  us,  the  directions  on  it  are  usually 
the  same  as  these. 

Of  course  it  is  not  always  convenient 
to  have  a  map  lying  flat.  This  is  es- 
pecially true  in  the  schoolroom,  where 
the  large  maps  must  be  hung  up,  so  that 
the  whole  class  may  see  them. 

Let  us  hang  up  one  of  these  maps, 
taking  particular  pains  to  place  it  upon 
the  north  ivalL  Which  direction  on 
the  map  is  north  now  ?  You  see,  of 
course,  that  the  north  side  must  be 
the  upper  side,  east  is  on  the  right, 
south  is  the  lower  side,  and  west  is  on 
the  left. 

You  should  drill  yourself  on  these 
facts.  Give  directions  from  one  place  to 
another  while  the  map  is  hanging  up. 
Put  up  the  map  of  the  school  yard,  and 


84 


HOME  GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  105. —  To  illustrate  the  meaning  of  a  map.  The  left-hand  figures  show  the 
country  as  if  you  were  looking  down  upon  it ;  the  right-hand  figures  represent 
the  same  country  by  maps.    Tell  what  you  see  in  each  of  these. 


it  looks.  So,  when 
you  look  at  a  map, 
you  should  think  about 
the  country,  how  it 
looks,  and  how  far 
apart  the  places  are. 
There  is  more  than 
one    kind    of    map. 

Figure    134    Two  kinds 

(in  Part  II),  of  «iaps 
for  example,  is  a  map 
of  North  America. 
This  shows  the  shape 
of  the  continent,  the 
positions  of  the  moun- 
tains, the  large  rivers, 
and  the  principal  cities. 
It  does  not  show  the 
height  of  the  moun- 
tains, nor  of  the  hills 
and  valleys,  but  repre- 
sents the  whole  con- 
tinent as  entirely  flat. 
Such  a  map  may  be 
called  2ijiat  niaj). 

Figure  111,  however, 
is  a  different  kind  of 
map.  It  shows  how 
the  continent  might 
appear  if  you  looked 
down  upon  it  from 
some  point  far  above. 
On  this  map  the  plains 
appear  level,  as  they 
should,    while    the 


any  others  that  you  may  have,  and  tell 
the  directions  from  place  to  place. ^ 

It  is  clear  now  what  a  map  is.  It  is 
a  drawing  that  tells  certain  things  about 
a  country,  just  as  a  letter  may  be  some 
writing  telling  what  a  place  is  like. 
When  you  read  such  a  letter,  you  think 
of  the  place  and  have  some  idea  of  how 


'  After  the  children  are  quite  at  home  in  using 
the  map  when  it  is  hung  on  the  north  wall,  hang  it 
on  the  other  sides  of  the  room  and.  have  them  give 
the  directions.  This  is  very  easy  work  if  properly 
graded  ;  but  careless  work  at  this  point,  in  regard  to 
directions  on  the  map,  often  so  confuses  cliildren 
that  they  never  fully  recover  from  their  confusion. 
At  the  proper  time,  but  much  later  than  this,  show 
that  toward  the  top  of  the  map  is  not  always  north. 
See  Figure  566. 


MAPS 


mountains  stand  out  in  relief.  You 
can  easily  see  where  the  mountains, 
plains,  and  valleys  are.  Such  a  map 
as  this  is  called  a  relief  map,  because 
it  gives  you  some  idea  of  the  heiglit 
of  diiSerent  portions  of  the  land,  or  of 
the    7'elief}      In    Figure    105    you    can 

1  Some  teachers  will  find  it  useful  to  introduce 
the  study  of  contour  maps  of  the  home  region  at  this 
point.  Such  a  study  is  not  difficult,  and  will  serve 
many  useful  purposes.  A  limited  amount  of  model- 
ing in  sand  may  also  be  introduced;  but  the  most 
important  thing  to  do  at  this  stage  is  to  have  the 
children  understand  the  meaning  of  maps,  so  that 
these  may  be  properly  used  in  the  class  work.  The 
best  results  from  geography  study  cannot  be  gained 
without  a  knowledge  and  constant  use  of  maps; 
and  much  use  of  the  globe  should  be  made,  the 
moment  children  begin  the  study  of  continents  and 
countries. 


easily  see  the  difference  between  these 
two  kinds  of  maps.  There  are  other 
kinds  of  maps,  which  you  will  learn 
about  later. 

1.    How  can  a  map  of  a  schoolroom  be  drawn  ? 
2.    What  is  meant  by  drawing  "according  to  a 
scale  "  ?     3.  Tell   how  you  have 
drawn   some   map  of    our   own.    ^^^^^ 
4.  What  are  some  of  the  ways  of    ^ 
finding  directions  out  of  doors  ?     5.   What  are 
the  directions  on  a  map  ?     6.    What  two  kinds 
of  maps  do  you  know  ? 

1.  Examine  a  compass.  2.  Find  the  Great 
Dipper  and  the  North  Star.  3.  Show  how  you 
can  tell  the  north  direction  by 
your  shadow  at  12  o'clock,  noon. 
The  east  direction.  The  west.  4.  Using  sand, 
make  a  relief  map  of  some  piece  of  land  that 
has  some  slopes. 


PART  11.    WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


SECTION   I.     GENERAL   FACTS  ABOUT  THE   EARTH 


1.   FoKM  AND  Size  of  the  Earth 

Hundreds  of  years  ago,  before  Amer- 
ica was  discovered,  men  thought  that  the 
The  form  earth  was  flat.     It  cer- 

of  the  earth  tainly  seemed  flat  to 
them,  just  as  it  does  to  us.  A  few 
learned  men,  however,  beheved  that 
the  earth  was  a  round  ball,  and  that 
if  a  person  traveled  straight  on  in 
one  direction,  he  would,  in  time, 
return  to  the  place  from  which  he 
started.  You  can  see  how  this  would 
be  if  you  move  your  finger  straight 
around  on  the  outside  of  an  orange, 
until  it  comes  back  to  the  starting 
point. 

At  that  time  men  used  to  go  to  a 
land  called  India,  for  spices,  silks, 
and  jewels.  To  reach  India  from 
Spain  they  traveled  thousands  of 
miles  eastward.  Christopher  Colum- 
bus (Fig.  108)  was  one  of  the  men 
who  believed  that  the  earth  was 
round.  So  he  thought  he  could 
reach  India  just  as  well  by  going 
westward  across  the  ocean.  He  also 
thought  that  the  distance  would  be 
much  less.  He  therefore  went  to  the 
king  of  Spain  and  asked  him  for  ships 
and  men  to  make  the  journey. 

The  king  refused  the  request  of  Co- 
lumbus because  the  plan  seemed  foolish. 


but  Queen  Isabella  came  to  his  aid.  At 
last,  on  Aug.  3,  1492,  he  sailed  west- 
ward from  Spain  out  into  the  open 
Atlantic   Ocean     (Fig.     109).      Almost 


Fio.  108. — Christopher  Columbus. 

every  one  thought  that  he  was  going 
on  a  voyage  from  which  he  would  never 
return ;  but  after  a  journey  of  several 
weeks,  and  many  adventures,  he  discov- 
ered land  on  October  12  (Fig.  110). 


86 


POLE  S. 


FIG.  106. 
The  Eastern  and  Western  Hemispheres. 


UN.SV,    OF 


GENERAL    FACTS  ABOUT  THE  EARTH 


87 


Thinking  he  had  reached  India,  Colum- 
bus called  the  natives  Indians;  but,  in- 


FiG.  109.  —  A  copy  of  the  Santa  Maria,  one  of  the  ships 
that  Columbus  had  on  his  first  voyage  to  America. 

stead  of  India,  he  had  discovered  some 

islands    in    the    West 

Indies,  on  the  coast  of 

our  own  continent  of 

North   America.      He 

did  not  know  that  a 

continent  and  a  large 

ocean  still  lay  between 

him  and  India. 

After  Columbus  had 
returned  to  Europe  in 
safety,  other  men  dared 
to  explore  the  Neiv 
World,  as  it  was 
called,  to  distinguish 
it  from  the  Old  World, 
where  all  white  men 
then  lived.  One  of 
these  explorers,  named  Magellan,  started 
to  sail  entirely  around  tlie  earth.    He  was 


killed  when  he  reached  the  Philippine 
Islands,  but  his  men  went  on  with  the 
ships  and  completed  the  voyage.  This 
was  in  the  year  1520,  and  it  was  the  first 
time  that  any  one  ever  sailed  entirely 
around  the  earth,  bince  then  many 
people  have  made  the  journey,  in  various 
directions,  and  the  earth  has  been  studied 
so  carefully  that  every  one  now  knows 
that  it  is  round. 

The  great  round  earth  is  a  huge  ball, 
or  sphere,  called  the  globe.  The  reason 
why  it  does  not  appear  round  ^^^  ^^^ 

to  you  is  that  you  see  so  little    earth  does  not 

of  it  at  a  time.  If  you  see  "^^^^  ""^""^ 
very  little  of  an  orange,  for  example,  it 
will  not  look  round.  To  prove  this, 
place  a  piece  of  paper  with  a  small  hole 
in  it,  upon  an  orange,  so  that  none  of 
the  surface  of  the  orange  is  seen,  except- 
ing that  which  shows  through  the  hole. 
You  will  then  observe  that  this  part  of 
the  orange  appears  to  be  flat,  not  round. 
If  we  could  get  far  enough  away  from 


Fig.  110.  — Columbus  taking  possession  of  the  newly  discovered  land  in  America. 


the    earth  to  see   a  large  part   of  it    at 
once,  we  could  easily  observe  that  it  is 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


round  (Fig.   111).     We  know  that  the 
moon  is  round,  because   we  look  at  it 


NORTH  POLE 


SOUTH  POLE 

Fig.  111.  —  A  map  of  half  the  earth  as  it  might  appear 
if  seen  from  a  great  distance  above  it. 

from  a  great  distance ;    and   the  earth 
has  the  same  shape  as  the  moon. 
The  size  of  Our  globe  is  very  large  ; 

the  earth  it  is  much  larger  than  the 

moon.     A  lofty  mountain  seems  to  us 

very  high,  but 
even  the  highest 
mountain  peaks 
are  only  a  very 
small  part  of 
the  great  earth; 
when  com- 
pared to  the 
whole  earth, 
they  are  no  larger 
than  a  speck  of 
dust  compared  to 
an  apple.  The 
loftiest  moun- 
tains are  rarely 
more  than  three 
or  four  miles 
high,  but  the 
Tig.  112),  or  the 


Fig.  112.  — Figure  of  the  earth 
cut  in  two,  to  show  tlie 
diameter  —  a  line  passing 
through  the  center  of  the 
earth. 

diameter  of  the  earth 


distance    from    one    side    to    the  other, 


through  the  center,  is  nearly  eight  thou- 
sand miles. 

The  distance  around  the  earth,  on  the  outside, 
called  the  circumference,  is  about  twenty-five 
thousand  miles.  This  distance,  as  you  may  see, 
is  a  little  more  than  three  times  the  diameter. 
The  circumference  of  any  sphere  is  always  a 
little  more  than  three  times  its  diameter.  How 
can  you  prove  this  with  an  orange  ? 


2.   Daily  Motion  of  the  Earth 

It  does  not  seem  to  us  that  the  earth 
is  moving,  but  the  ground  on  which  you 
stand  is  really  moving  faster  ^j^^  ^  .. 
than  any  passenger  train  that  motion  of 
you  ever  saw.     The  whole  *^®  ^^^^ 
earth  is  whirling  around  like  a  top,  at  a 
tremendous  rate.     This  motion  is  called 
rotation.     Since   the    earth    turns    com- 
pletely around,  or  makes  one  complete 
rotation,  every  twenty-four  hours,  this 
motion  is  called  its  daily  rotation. 

It   is  this  daily  rotation  How  rotation 
that  causes  day  and  night,  causes  day 
A  lamp  can  light  only  one  ^^^  night 
half  of  a  ball  at  a  time,  as  you  know 
(Fig.  113).     The  sun  is  a  kind  of  lamp 
for  the  earth  ball,  for  all  the  light  of 
our  day  comes  from  the  sun.     The  sun, 
then,  can  light  only  one  half  of  the  great 
earth  at  a  time. 

This  being  the  case,  if  our  globe  stood 
perfectly  still,  it  would  always  be  day 
on  the  side  facing  the  sun,  and  night  on 
the  other  side. 

Since  the  earth  rotates,  the  part  that 
is  getting  the  light  is  always  changing. 
Thus,  while  the  sun  is  always  setting 
for  some  people,  it  is  always  rising  for 
others.  When  it  is  noon  where  you  live, 
it  is  midnight  at  the  point  opposite  you, 
on  the  other  side  of  the  earth. 


GENERAL   FACTS  ABOUT  THE  EARTH 


89 


earth  is 
Neither 
and 


sun 


This  is  why  there  is  a  period  of  day- 
light, and  a  period  of  darkness,  at  the 
place  where  you  Uve.  These  two  peri- 
ods together  must  last  twenty-four  hours, 
l^ecause  the  earth  makes  one  complete 
rotation  in  that  time. 

The  daily  rotation  also  causes  sunrise 

and    sunset.     Our    earth    seems   to   be 

standing    still,    while     each     day    the 

sun  seems  to  rise  in  the  east, 

How  this  -I    ,  ± 

motion  causes  ^o  pass  over  US,  and  to  set 
sunrise  and      in  the  west.     Yet  we  have 

just   seen  that  the 
not  standing  still  by  any  means, 
does    the    sun    really    "  rise " 
''  set."      The  reason  that    the 
i-ieems  to  rise  in  the  east  is  that  the 
■arth  is  always  rotating  toward  the 
east.     We    first     get    the    light   of 
the     sun     from    the    east    because 
the  earth  is  turning  in  that  direction. 
The  sun  seems   to  set   in  the    west 
because,  as   the  earth  continues   to 
rotate,  we  see  the  sun  last  in  the  west. 


Although  men  speak  of  the  sun  "  rising "  in 
the  east  and  "  setting  "  in  the  west,  most  men 
really  know  better.  They  express  their 
thoughts  in  that  way,  simply  because  it  is  the 
easiest  way.  It  would  be  difficult  to  think  of 
any  better  way.  Can  you  ?  Hundreds  of 
years  ago,  however,  all  people  thought  that  the 
earth  stood  still ;  that  the  sun  really  rose ;  and 
that  after  moving  across  the  heavens,  it  really 
set  in  the  west.  Our  use  of  the  words  smo-ise 
and  sunset  has  come  down  to  us  from  that  time. 

Since  the  earth  is  rotating  with  so  great  speed, 
why  can  we  not  notice  it?  The  answer  is  simple. 
Everything  on  the  earth  is  moving  with  it,  in- 
cluding ourselves.  On  that  account  there  are 
no  objects  near  by  for  us  to  rush  past  ;  yet  the 
only  way  of  seeing  that  we  are  moving,  would 
be  to  observe  that  we  were  passing  the  objects 
about  us. 

Why  are  we  nofall  hurled  away  from 
the  earth  ?      When  the  string  breaks  by 


which  a  stone  is  being  whirled  around, 
the  stone  flies  off.  Why,  then,  do  not 
we,  and  other  objects,  such  as  the  water 
in  the  ocean,  fly  away  into  space  ? 

The  reason  is  that  the    earth    draics 
everything  toward  it,  and  holds  it  there. 

If  you    push^    a     book    from   why  rotation 

your  desk,   it  falls   to    the  does  not  hurl 
floor ;  and  when  you  spring  ^^  ^^^^ 
upward  into  the  air  you  quickly   return 
to  the  ground.     All  objects  are  drawn 


Fig.  113.  —  Ihe  light  from  the  cuiiilie  lights  only  hall  of 
the  apple  that  the  boy  is  holding,  just  as  the  sun 
lights  only  half  of  the  earth. 

downward  because  the  earth  is  pulling 
upon  them.  It  attracts  them  much  as 
a  horseshoe  magnet  attracts  a  piece  of 
iron.  This  force,  w^hich  draws  all  ob- 
jects to  the  earth,  is  called  gravity,  and 
you  see  how  very  important  it  is. 

You  have  perhaps  watched  a  wheel 
spin  about  on  a  rod  or  pin,  the  rod  or 
pin  holding  it  in  place  and  j^g^nin  f 
carrying  its  weight.  The  earth  axis  and  poles 
spins  around  in  much  the  °^  *^®  ^^^^ 
same  way  ;  but  no  rod  is  necessary  to 
hold  it  in  place.  What  a  mighty  rod  it 
would  have  to  be,  if  there  were  one  !  A 
spinning  top  does  not  turn  around  a  rod, 
either.      It  turns  around  a  line  running 


90 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


through  its  center,  which  is  called  its 
axis  (Fig.  114).  The  earth  also  rotates 
around,  or  as  we  say,  on  its  axis. 


Fig.  114.  —  A  drawing  of  the  earth,  cut  in  two,  to  show 
the  position  of  the  axis  extending  from  pole  to  pole 
through  the  center  of  the  earth. 

The  axis  of  the  earth  is  really  noth- 
ing that  you  can  see.  It  can  be  repre- 
sented, however,  by  a  straight  line  that 
runs  through  the  center  of  the  earth, 
and  extends  to  the  surface  in  both  di- 
rections. Such  a  line  is  called  the  axis 
of  the  earth  (Fig.  114),  and  the  two  ends 
of  the  line  are  called  the  poles  of  the  earth. 
One  end  of  the  axis  is  the  north  pole,  and 
the  other  the  south  pole. 

You  can  understand  this  better  by  running 
a  long,  slender  stick,  or  needle,  through  the 
center  of  an  apple.  The  stick  represents  the 
axis,  and  the  places  where  its  two  ends  appear 
at  the  surface  represent  the  two  poles  of  the 
earth.  You  can  then  spin  the  apple  very  much 
as  the  earth  spins  around  on  the  line  called  its 
axis  (Fig.  114). 

If  you  were  to  go  directly  north  from  the 
place  where  you  live,  you  Would  pass  through 
the  land  of  the  Eskimos ;  and  if  you  could  go 
on,  you  would,  in  time,  come  to  the  north  pole. 
Or,  if  you  should  travel  due  south,  and  went  far 
enough,  you  would  come  to  the  south  pole. 


Many  men  have  tried  to  cross  the  icy  sea 
that  surround  the  north  pole ;  but,  until  190i 
no  one  had  been  able  to  get  quite  as  far  as  th 
pole.  In  that  year  Commander  Peary,  afte 
many  trials,  at  last  reached  the  north  pole ;  bu 
so  far  no  one  has  yet  reached  the  south  pole.  0 
course.  Commander  Peary  did  not  find  anythin, 
at  the  pole  to  mark  the  place.  He  was  able  t 
tell  that  he  was  there  by  the  position  of  the  sue 
Had  he  been  there  during  the  night  he  wouL 
have  found  the  north  star,  toward  which  th 
earth's  axis  points,  almost  directly  over  his  head 

Midway  between  the  poles  we  thinl 
of  another  line  around  the  earth,  on  th 
outside  (Fig.  115).  This  Meaning  of 
is  called  the  equator,  because  equator 
all  parts  of  it  are  equally  distant  fron 
each  of  the  poles.  The  distance  arounc 
the  earth  was  given  on  page  88.  What 
then,  is  the  length  of  the  equator  ? 

As  the  earth  spins  on  its  axis,  all  points  oi 
the  surface  must  go  with  it,  just  as  every  par 
of  the  skin  of  an  apple  turns  with  the  apple 
Since  the  earth  makes  one  complete  turn  eacl 
day,  a  man  at  the  equator  travels  twenty-fiv( 
thousand  miles  in  twenty-four  hours.     What  ; 


North  Pole 


South  Poic    •^.  ^^' 

Fig.  115. — A  drawing  ot  lli;it  luill'  of  the  sphere  that  in 
eludes  the  New  World, — to  show  the  position  of  th( 
poles  and  the  equator. 

whirling  motion  that  is !  It  is  at  the  rate  oi 
over  one  thousand  miles  an  hour,  while  the  fast 
est  trains  travel  little  more  than  sixty  miles  ai 
hour ! 


GENERAL   FACTS  ABOUT  THE  EARTH 


91 


3.   The  Zones 

The  hottest  part  of  the  earth  is  near 
the  equator.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  sun,  at  midday,  is 
directly  over  the  heads  of 
the  people  who  live  in  that 
region. 

You  know  that  the  sun's 
rays  feel  warmer  at  noon  than  in  the 
early  evening,  because  the  sun  is  more 
nearly  overhead  at   noon.      For   much 


The  zones 
and  their 
boundaries 

1.    The 
torrid  zone 


Fig.  116.  — A  map  of  the  zones.  The  colors  suggest  sharp 
differences  between  the  zones  on  the  two  sides  of 
the  boundaries;  but  you  should  remember  that  the 
changes  are  really  very  gradual. 


the  same  reason  the  sun  seems  warmer 
in  summer  than  in  winter,  because  in 
summer  it  rises  higher  in  the  heavens. 
At  the  equator,  however,  and  for  many 
miles  to  the  north  and  south  of  it,  the 
sun  is  high  in  the  heavens  both  in  sum- 
mer and  winter.  Thus  there  is  a  wide 
belt,  extending  all  the  way  around  the 
earth,  that  never  has  any  winter ;  it  is 
hot  there  every  day  in  the  year,  as  it  is 
in  summer  at  our  home. 

The  northern  boundary  of  this  hot  belt 


is  called  the  Tropic  of  Cajicer  (Fig.  116); 
it  is  about  fifteen  hundred  miles  north 
of  the  equator.  The  southern  boundary, 
which  is  likewise  fifteen  hundred  miles 
from  the  equator,  is  called  the  Tropic  of 
Capricorn.  In  all  the  vast  space  be- 
tween these  two  lines,  or  tropics,  the 
sun  is  straight  overhead  during  a  part 
of  the  year;  and  it  is  never,  on  any 
day,  very  far  from  that. 

Point  out  these  two  tropics  on  Figure 
116.  How  wide  is  this  belt?  Over  all 
this  vast  region  the  heat  is  intense,  or 
torrid,  and  for  that  reason  this  is  called 
the  torrid  zone.  It  is  also  called  the 
tropical  zone,  or  the  tropical  belt,  be- 
cause it  is  bounded  by  the  two  tropics. 

People  who  live  within  the  torrid  zone  wear 
only  the  very  lightest  clothing.  We  have  seen 
that  this  is  true  of  the  Negroes  of  Central  Af- 
rica, whose  homes  lie  within  this  belt.  Point 
out  Central  Africa  on  Figure  106.  Does  any 
part  of  North  America  lie  within  the  torrid 
zone  ?     AYalk  toward  that  zone. 

North  of  the  torrid  zone,  the  sun,  even 
at  noon,  never  stands  directly  overhead ; 
and  the  greater  the  distance  g    ^j^^  ^^^ 
from  the  equator,  the  greater  temperate 
is  the  slant  at  which  the  sun's 
rays  shine  upon  the  earth.     Exactly  the 
same  is  true  as  one  goes  south  of  the  tor- 
rid zone. 

There  is  a  belt,  then,  on  each  side  of 
the  broad  torrid  zone,  where  it  is  neither 
very  hot  nor  very  cold.  The  climate 
there  is  called  temperate,  and  in  these 
belts  the  summers  are  warm  and  the 
winters  cold.  The  belt  north  of  the 
torrid  zone  is  called  the  north  temperate 
zone.  It  extends  all  the  way  from  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  to  the  Arctic  Circle 
(Fig.  116).  How  much  of  the  United 
States  lies  within  this  zone  ?  \ 


.Z" 


92 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


Here,  at  noon,  even  in  summer,  you  find 
your  shadow  pointing  north,  for  the  sun  is 
south  of  you.  Notice  the  direction  and  length 
of  your  shadow  at  midday,  and  the  position  of 
the  sun  at  that  time.  Do  you  know  whether 
your  shadow  is  longer  in  summer  than  in 
winter,  or  shorter  ?  Which  must  it  be,  since 
the  sun  stands  higher  in  the  heavens  in  summer 
than  in  winter  ? 

The  belt  south  of  the  torrid  zone  is 
called  the  south  temperate  zone,  as  you 
might  suppose.      It   extends  from   the 


Fig.  117. —  A.  ship  in  tlie  ice  tliat  covers  tlie  sea  in  the  cold,  or  frigid  zone 


Tropic  of  Capricorn  to  the  Antarctic 
Circle.  People  living  there  find  their 
shadows  at  noon  always  pointing  south, 
since  the  sun  is  north  of  them.  Their 
seasons,  also,  are  just  the  opposite  of 
ours ;  when  we  have  summer,  they  have 
winter  ;  and  when  we  have  winter,  they 
have  summer. 

Near  the  poles  the  rays  of  the  sun 
reach  the  earth  at  a  still  greater  slant, 
3.  The  two  much  as  they  do  with  us 
frigid  zones  early  in  the  morning,  or  late 
in  the  afternoon.  Even  in  the  middle 
of  the  day  the  sun  lies  low  in  the  sky, 
near  the  horizon,  and  the  shadows  are 


very  long.  Therefore,  the  climate  there 
is  very  cold,  or  frigid  ;  the  ground  never 
thaws  out;  and  the  ice  never  entirely 
disappears  from  the  sea  (Fig.  117).  In- 
deed, there  is  never  any  warm  summer 
near  the  poles,  just  as  there  is  never 
any  winter  near  the  equator. 

The  two  regions  around  the  poles  are 
called  the  frigid  zones.  That  about  the 
north  pole  is  called  the  north  frigid  zone, 
and  the  other,  the  south  frigid  zone. 
Since  they  surround  the  poles, 
they  are  also  sometimes  called 
the  polar  zones.  The  north 
frigid  zone  is  the  home  of 
the  Eskimos,  but  there  are 
no  people  living  in  the  south 
frigid  zone. 

Since  the  equator  is  midway 
between  the  poles,  it  divides  the 
earth,  or  sphere,  into 
two  equal  parts, 
called  hemispheres 
(/iem?*= half).  The  half  of  the 
earth  north  of  the  equator  is 
called  the  northern  hemisphere 
and  that  south  of  it  the  southern 
hemisphere.  In  which  of  these 
hemispheres  is  the  United  States  ? 
The  earth  may  also  be  divided 
into  halves  by  a  circle  running  north  and  south 
through  both  poles.  Tlie  western  half,  in  which 
the  New  World  lies,  is  called  the  western  hemi- 
sphere. The  eastern  half,  containing  the  Old 
World,  is  called  the  eastern  hemisphere.  You 
will  find  these  two  hemispheres  represented  in 
Figure  106.     In  which  of  them  is  your  home  ? 


4.   Latitude  and  Longitude 

If  we  learn  that  a  certain  place  is  in 
the  torrid  zone,  or  in  one  of  the  other 
zones,  we    know  something  How  places 
about  its  location  ;  yet  we  do  are  located 
not  know  very  much  about  °^  *^®  ^^^^ 
it,  because  each  zone  is  so  wide  and  long. 


The  hemi- 
spheres 


GENERAL   FACTS  ABOUT  THE  EARTH 


93 


To  help  locate  places  more  exactly 
►ther  circles  than  those  already  men- 
Finding  tioned  are  used  upon  maps 
lieir  latitude  and  globcs.  Some  of  these 
ircles  extend  east  and  west,  on  each  side 
)f  the  equator,  as  you  can  see  in  Figure 
LOG.  The  distance  between  them  is 
measured,  not  by  miles,  but  by  degrees. 
Bach  of  which  is  equal  to  almost  seventy 

I  miles.  How  many  degrees  are  there 
from  one  of  these  circles  to  the  next, 
in   Figure    106?  „,  . 


About  how  many 
miles  is  that  ?  We 
can  thus  quickly 
learn  how  far  any 
place  that  is  on  or 
near  one  of  these 
circles  is  from  the 
equator.  For  ex- 
ample, how  many 
degrees  north  of 
the  equator  is  New 
York  City?  (Fig. 
138)  Chicago? 
How  many  miles 
would  that  be  ? 

Instead,  how- 
ever, of  saying  that 
a  place  is  a  certain 
number  of  degrees  north  or  south  of 
the  equator,  we  say  that  it  is  in  so  many 
degrees  Jiorth  latitude  or  soitth  latitude. 
Latitude  means  simply  the  distance  north 
or  south  of  the  equator.  Places  north 
of  the  equator  are  in  north  latitude 
and  those  south  of  it,  in  south  latitude. 
The  circles  running  east  and  west,  which 
are  drawn  to  show  the  latitude  of  places, 
are  called  circles  of  latitude.  By  their 
help,  find  the  latitude  of  New  Orleans ; 
of  Boston. 

Other    circles,   extending    north    and 


south,  from  pole  to  pole,  help  to  locate 
places  in  an  east  and  west  direction.  A 
line  that  extends  through  England  is 
agreed  upon  as  the  starting  2.  Finding 
point  in  measuring.  Places  their  longitude 
east  of  this  line  are  said  to  be  so  many 
degrees  in  east  longitude  ;  places  west  of 
it,  so  many  degrees  in  west  longitude. 

Longitude,  as  you  see,  means  simply 
the  distance  east  or  west  of  this  prin- 
cipal line ;  and  these  circles  are  called 
circles  of  longitude. 
In  what  longitude 
is  New  York  City  ? 
Give  both  the  lati- 
tude and  the 
longitude  of  Chi- 
cago. Locate  other 
places  in  the  same 
way,  for  example, 
your  own  home. 

5.    TriE    CoNTi- 

On  page  45  you 

learned  that  there 

about 


IS 


Fig.  118.  —  A  map  to  show  the  land  in  the  northern  hemi- 
sphere that  nearly  surrounds  the  north  pole. 


The  five 


three  times  conti- 
as  much  "®°*^ 
water  as  land  upon  the  surface  of  the 
earth.  By  examining  the  globe  you 
can  see  that  most  of  the  land  is  in  the 
northern  hemisphere.  It  almost  sur- 
rounds the  north  pole,  as  you  can  see 
from  the  globe,  or  from  Figure  118. 

In  this  figure  two  great  masses  of 
land  are  shown,  one  called  Eurasia  and 
the  other  North  America.  Besides 
these,  there  are  three  other  great  divi- 
sions of  land  —  South  America,  Africa, 
and  Australia.  Point  these  out  on  the 
globe.     Thus  there  are  five  great  divi- 


94 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


sions  of  land  upon  the  earth,  and  each 

of  them  is  called  a  continent. 

The  continent  of  North  America  is  the 

one  on  which  you  live.     Notice  its  form, 

KT  _.,- .       .      which   is    clearly   shown  in 

North  America    tti-  n  r.         t.      • 

and  South         rigure    119.      It    is    quite 

America  broad   near  the  north  pole, 

andlumatf*''*  ^^^  tapers  down  almost  to 
a  point  just  north   of   the 
equator.     This  gives  it  the  shape  of  a 
triangle.     Make  a  drawing  of  it. 


Ato/-//'  Fofe 


Fig.  119.  — The  continenis  oi  Xnith  and  South  America. 

What  part  of  this  continent  is  in  the 
frigid  zone?  In  the  torrid  zone?  In 
the  temperate  zone  ? 

South  America  also  has  the  form  of  a 
triangle.  Draw  its  outline  by  using 
only  three  straight  lines.  Which  of  the 
American  continents  seems  to  have  the 
more  irregular  coast  line  ?  Which,  there- 
fore, has  the  greater  number  of  bays, 
capes,  and  peninsulas  ? 

In  what  zones  does  South  America  lie? 
Point  to  parts  of  both.  North  America 
and  South  America  where  there  is  never 
any  snow.  Point  to  a  part  of  North 
America  where  there  is  always  snow. 


Where  must  the  Eskimo  girl,  Agoonack,  on 
of  the  Seven  Little  Sisters,  have  lived  (Fie 
120)?  How  would 
the  climate  change 
if  you  were  to 
travel  from  the 
northern  part  of 
North  America  to 
the  southern  tip  of 
South  America? 
What  differences 
would  you  expect 
to  find  in  the 
plants  ?  In  the 
clothing  of  the 
people  ?  Write  a 
story  about  such  a 
journey. 

These  two 
continents  to- 
gether are  called 
the  two  Ameri- 
cas. They  form 
what  is  known 
as  the  N e lo 
World,  which 
Columbus  dis- 
covered. 


Fig.  120.  — An  Eskimo  boy, 
dressed  in  furs,  althougli  tlie 
picture  was  taken  in  August- 


You  can  see  by  the  map  that  the  two  Amer- 
icas are  connected  by  a  long,  narrow  neck  of 
land,  called  an  istJimns.     This  is 
the    Isthinus    of  Panama.     Any   2.    The  Isth- 
vessel  that  happens  to  be  on  one  ™"^  °^  ^""" . 
side    of    these     continents,  and  Jh^*two°°°**^*'°*' 
that  must  reach  the  other  side, 
has  to  pass  all  the  way  around  South  America. 
If  this  isthmus  were  not  in  the  way,  a  ship 
might  sail  directly  between  the  two  continents. 
To  save  so  long  a  journey,  the  United  States 
government,  with  the  help  of  many  thousands 
of   men,  is  now  digging  a  channel,  or  canal, 
across  this  isthmus.     When  finished,  it  will  be 
broad  enough  and  deep  enough  to   let   ocean 
vessels  pass  through.     Then  ships  going  from 
the  eastern  to  the  western  coast  of  our  country 
will  save  a  journey  of  thousands  of  miles. 

The  Old  World,  which  includes  Eurasia 
and  Africa,  contains   much    more   land 


GENERAL   FACTS  ABOUT  THE  EARTH 


95 


Eurasia 


SOUTH 
Fig.  121.  —  A  map  of  Eurasia  and  Africa. 

than  does  the  New  World  (Fig.  121). 
The  largest  mass,  which  is 
almost  entirely  surrounded 
l)y  water,  is  called  Eurasia.  You  will 
notice  that  it  is  connected  with  Africa 
by  a  narrow  isthmus.  This  isthmus, 
called  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  already  has 
a  ship  canal  through  it.  Thus  vessels 
may  go  from  one  ocean  to  the  other 
\vithout  having  to  travel  all  the  way 
around  Africa,  as  they  used  to  do. 

The  northern  part  of  Eurasia  lies  in 
the  north  frigid  zone,  on  the  opposite 
side  of  the  north  pole  from 
North  America  (Fig.  118). 
The  continent  extends  a  great  distance 
east  and  west,  as  you  see.  Find  for 
yourself  how  far  south  it  reaches,  and 
through  what  zones  it  extends.  The 
eastern  and  larger  part  of  the  conti- 
nent is  called  Asia.  Read  in  the 
"  Seven  Little  Sisters "  about  Pen-se, 
the  Chinese  girl,  whose  home  was  in 
Asia  (Fig.  122). 


1 .    Asia 


The  western  part  of  Eurasia  is 
called  Europe.  Long  ago,  before 
Columbus  made  his  voy- 
age to  the  New  World, 
the  most  highly  civilized  people  lived 
in  Europe.  The  homes  of  Jeannette 
and  Louise,  two  of  the  Seven  Little 
Sisters,  were  in  that  country.  If  you 
have  read  the  story,  can  you  tell 
something  about  each  of  them  ? 

Europe  is  usually  considered  one  conti- 
nent, and   Asia  another;    but,  as  you  can 
see  from  Figure  106,  they  are 
more  closely  united  to  each  f^.tJ^^e 
other    than    any    other    two   £urasia 
continents     are.       For    this 
reason  Europe  and  Asia  are  often  classed 
together  as  one  continent,  and  this  is  called 
Eurasia.      The   name   is   made  of   "Eur" 
from  Europe,  and  "  Asia." 
This   makes   the   largest   continent   on   the 
globe.     You  see  that  it  is  very  irregular,  even 
more  so  than  North  America.      Point  toward 
this   continent.     Walk   toward   it.     Which   is 
probably  its  warmest  part  ? 


Fig.  122. —Chinese  children. 


96 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


South  of  Europe  is  the  continent  of 
Africa.     Draw  its  outline  and  compare 
it  with  that  of  South  Amer- 
ica.    Is   its  coast  Hue  reg- 
ular or  irregular  ?     In  what  zones  does 
it  lie  ? 

The  Desert  of  Sahara,  where  the  nomads 
live,  is  in  the  northern  part  of  Africa  (Fig.  123). 


been  in  his  way,  he  might  have  reached 
India  and  the  East  Indies  ? 

None  of  the  East  Indies  is  large 
enough  to  be  called  a  continent.  Just 
south  of  them,  however,  is  an  island, 
called  Australia,  so  large  that  it  is 
generally  classed  as  a  continent.  It  is 
the  smallest  of  the  continents,  and  is  the 


]^  u;.  123.  —  Children  of  the  desert. 

It  is  on  this  continent  that  the  Negroes  have 
their  home;  and  here  lived  Gemila,  the  child 
of  the  desert,  and  Manenko,  the  little  dark  girl 
(Fig,  124),  two  of  the  Seven  Little  Sisters.  The 
Negroes  of  our  country  are  descendants  of  people 
who  were  brought  from  Africa  many  years  ago. 
Look  on  a  globe  to  see  in  what  direction  you 
would  have  to  travel  if  you  were  going  to 
Africa.  Could  you  reach  Africa  by  going  in 
any  other  direction  ? 

The  many  large  islands  south  and 
southeast  of  Asia  are  called  the  East 
The  East  Indies  ;  and  the  central  one 

Indies  and  of  the  peninsulas  on  the 
Australia  south  side  of  Asia  is  called 

India.  In  Figure  107,  find  this  penin- 
sula and  three  islands. 

It  was  this  part  of  the  world  that 
Columbus  hoped  to  reach  when  he 
sailed  westward  from  Europe  on  his 
wonderful  voyage.  Can  you  show  on  a 
3;lobe  that,  if  the  New  World  had  not 


Fig.  124. —  Negro  school  children  and  teacher  in  -Africa. 

only  one  that  lies  wholly  in  the  southern 
hemisphere. 

Find  Australia  on  the  globe ;  also  in 
Figure  106.  Is  the  northern  part  or 
the  southern  part  the  hotter  ?  Why 
should  you  expect  any  difference  in 
temperature  between  north  and  south  ? 


6.   The  Oceans 

The  ocean  water  forms  only  one  body 
of  water;  but  for  long  distances  some 
parts  are  largely  separated  from  others 
by  the  continents.  These  separate  parts 
are  given  different  names. 

The   parts  of   the  ocean  that  are  of 
most  importance   to  us  are  those  that 
lie  to  the  east  and  west  of  xhe  Atlantic 
the  United  States.     That  on  Ocean 
the  east,    between    North  America  and 
Europe,    is   called   the    Atlantic    Ocean 


GENERAL  FACTS  ABOUT  THE  EABTH 


97 


(Fig.125).  This  is  the  water  that  must 
l)e  crossed  in  going  to  Europe ;  and 
it  was  this  ocean  that  Columbus 
crossed.  Many  things  that  we  use 
are  brought  to  us  across  the  Atlantic 
from  the  Old  World,  and  we  send 
many  of  our  products  across  this 
ocean  to  Europe. 

On  Figure  125  observe  that  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  extends  far  to  the 
south,  between  South  America  and 
Africa,  as  well  as  far  to  the  north. 
In  what  part  must  the  water  be 
warmest  ?  In  what  parts  is  it  cold, 
and  perhaps  covered  with  ice  ?  On 
the  globe,  find  which  continents 
border  this  ocean. 

The  part  of  the  ocean  lying  west 
of  North  America  is  called  the 
The  Pacific  Pacific  Ocean  (Fig.  126). 
Ocean  What  continents  border 

NORTH  POLE 


of  the  earth's  surface.     Walk  toward  it. 
In  what  zones  does  it  lie  ? 


NORTH  POLE 


Fig.  126. 


SOUTH  POLE 
Map  of  a  part  of  the  great  Pacific  Ocean. 


Fig.  125.- 


SOUTH  POLE 

-Map  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 


it  (Fig.  107)  ?     It  is  the  largest  of  the 
oceans,  and  covers  more  than  one  third 


Not  so  many  products  are  brought  across 
the  Pacific  Ocean  for  our  use  as  across  the 
Atlantic.  Yet  Japan,  China,  and  the  Phil- 
ippine Islands  are  on  its  farther  side,  as 
you  can  see  on  the  map.  We  ship  some 
articles  to  these  countries,  and  they  send 
some  to  us.  Many  Chinese  and  Japanese 
have  come  across  this  ocean  to  the  United 
States.     Where  might  they  land  ? 

On  Figure  106  you  will  find  a 
third  great  body  of  water,  called  the 
The  Indian  Indian  Ocean  (Figs.  121 
Ocean  and  127).     What  conti- 

nents border  it  ?  Notice  that  it  lies 
directly  south  of  India,  the  penin- 
sula in  Asia  which  Columbus  was 
seeking  (p.  86).  In  what  zones 
does  this  ocean  lie  ? 

There  are  two  other  oceans,  making 

five  in  all.     One  of  these  is  the  Arctic 

Ocean,  which  extends  around  the  north 

pole,  and  is  almost  shut  in  by  Eurasia 


98 


WORLD  GEOGRAPHY 


NOKTH  POLE 


SOUTH    POLE 


Fig.  127.  —  The  Indian  Ocean  and  the  western  part 
of  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

and  North  America  (Fig.  118). 
The  Arctic  Notice  that  it  is  con- 
Ocean  nected  with  the  Pacific 

Ocean  by  only  a  very  narrow  body 
of  water,  or  strait,  called  Bering  Strait 
(Fig.  107).  North  America  and  Asia 
come  close  together  at  that  point. 

.  The  Arctic  Ocean  has  a  freer  connection 
with  the  Atlantic  on  the  east.  Huge  masses 
of  ice,  called  icebergs  (Fig.  128),  often  float 


down  from  the  Arctic  into  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 
Sometimes  there  are  so  many  that  they  are 
dangerous  to  vessels  sailing  between  North 
America  and  Europe. 

Figure    129    shows    the    Antarctic 
Ocean,  which  surroiuids  the  south  pole., 
There    is    a    great    mass  The  Antarctic 
of  land  around  that  pole  Ocean 
called  Antarctica.     It  is  large  enough 
to  be  called  a  continent ;  but,  since  no 


Fig.  128.  —  Large  numbers  of  icebergs  floating  in  the  water  of  the  Arctic 

Ocean. 


Fig.  129.  —  Map  of  the  Antarctic  Ocean,  whicli  surrounds 
Antarctica. 


one  lives  upon  it,  and  since 
it  is  covered  with  snow  and 
ice  all  the  year  through,  very 
little  is  known  about  it. 

This  ice-covered  land  is 
surrounded  by  the  Antarctic 
Ocean,  on  whicli  there  is  al- 
ways much  floating  ice.  Ob- 
serve that  this  ocean  is  not 
separated  from  the  three 
great  oceans  by  land,  as  the 
Arctic  is.  Are  the  Arctic 
and  Antarctic  oceans  of  more, 


GENERAL   FACTS  ABOUT  THE  EARTH 


99 


or  less,  importance  to  us  than  the  other 
oceans  ?     Why  ? 

The  water  in  the  ocean  occupies  great 
hollows  on  the  surface  of  the  earth. 
The  depth  The  depth  of  this  water 
of  the  ocean  varies  greatly,  though  on 
the  average  it  is  a  little  over  two  miles 
deep.  In  many  places,  however,  the 
ocean  is  more  than  four  miles  deep  ;  and 
in  one  place,  in  the  Pacific  Ocean,  the 
depth  is  nearly  six  miles.  If  the  highest 
mountain  in  the  world  could  be  placed 
in  the  water  at  this  point,  its  peak  would 
not  rise  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

Beneath  the  oceans  there  is  solid  rock,  just 

as  there  is  beneath  the  soil  of  th-e  land.     This 

rock  is  covered  with  a  coat  of  mud 

mals,  most  of  them  smaller  than 
the  head  of  a  pin.  They  have  lived  near  the 
surface  of  the  sea,  and  upon  dying,  their  shells 
have  slowly  dropped  to  the  bottom.  Some  of 
the  chalk  used  in  schools  was  once  just  such 
mud,  before  it  was  raised  to  form  layers  of  chalk 
on  the  dry  land. 

The  bed  of  the  ocean  lies  so  deep  below  the 
surface  of  the  water  that  it  is  as  dark  there'  as 
our  darkest  night.    Yet  fishes  are  living  in  these 


Fig.  130.  —  A  fish  caught  on  the  hottom  of  the  deep 
ocean,  where  no  sunlight  ever  reaches. 

dark  ocean  depths  (Fig.  130).  As  there  is  no 
sunlight,  they  have  little  use  for  eyes,  and 
some  of  them  have  no  eyes.  Others  see  by 
means  of  the  light  that  they  themselves  make, 
called  phosphorescent  light.  This  is  like  the 
light  that  the  firefly  gives  out  at  night. 

The  bottom  of  the  ocean  is,  for  the 
most  part,  a  level  plain.  In  many 
Tie  islands  places,  however,  there  are 
in  the  ocean  islands-  rising  from  the  sea 
floor,  as  a  glance  at  the  map  will  show. 


Many  of  these  islands  are  portions  of 
mountain  chains.  They  are  like  the 
mountains  on  the  continents,  with  only 
the  highest  peaks  rising  above  the  water. 
Other  islands  are  the  peaks  of  volcanoes. 
These  have  been  made  of  melted  rock, 
or  lava,  that  has  flowed  up  from  inside 
the  earth.  Still  others  are  what  are 
known  as  coral  islands.  These  have 
been  formed  in  the  following  interesting 
way :  — 

Some  of  the  tiny  creatures  that  live  in  the 
ocean  are  called  coral  ptolyps.     They  build  hard, 


Fig.  131. — Coral  growing  in  the  sea. 

limy  coral  (Fig.  131),  such  as  you  have  no 
doubt  seen ;  it  is  as  hard  as  rock.  Where  the 
ocean  water  is  warm,  as  in  the  torrid  zone, 
these  animals  live  in  immense  numbers,  mil- 
lions of  them  around  a  single  island. 

Each  polyp  helps  ta  build  the  coral,  which 
is  a  sort  of  house  in  which  it  lives.  When  it 
chooses  to  do  so,  the  polyp  can  draw  itself  into 
the  little  cave  that  forms  its  home.  '  It  can  thus 
escape  enemies  that  might  devour  it. 

At  other  times  the  polyp  stretches  out  be- 
yond the  surface  of  the  hard  coral,  spreading 
out  like  a  fully  blossomed  flower.  The  polyps 
differ  greatly  in  color,  being  white,  pink,  purple, 
red,  yellow,  brown,  and  of  other  colors.  It  is  a 
truly  beautiful  sight  to  see  them  spread  out  in 
the  water,  giving  the  appearance  of  a  flower 
garden  in  the  sea. 

When  these  coral  animals  die,  the  hard, 
stony    homes    that   they   have    built,   remain. 


100 


WORLD   GEOGRAPHY 


Then  other  polyps  build  upon  these  remains, 
and  this  continues  until  the  polyps  have  built 
the  coral  up  to  the  surface  of  the  water.  It  is  in 
this  way  that  coral  islands  are  formed  (Fig.  132), 


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Review 
Questions 


Fig.  132.  —  A  ring-shaped  coral  island  in  the  open  ocean. 

and  there  are  thousands  of  them  in  the  warm 
oceans,  especially  in  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans. 

FoKM  AND  Size.  1.  What  did  people  for- 
merly think  about  the  form  of  the  earth  ? 
2.  What  is  its  form?  3.  Re- 
late the  story  of  Columbus. 
4.  Why  did  he  call  the  savages 
Indians  ?  5.  Why  was  the  land  he  discovered 
called  the  New  World  ?  6.  What  makes  Ma- 
gellan's voyage  important  ?  7.  Explain  why 
the  earth  does  not  appear  to  us  to  be  a  sphere. 
8.  What  is  meant  by  the  diameter  of  the  earth  ? 
By  the  circumference  ?  What  is  the  length  of 
each? 

Daily  Motion.  9.  Describe  the  daily  mo- 
tion of  the  earth.     W^hat  is  this  motion  called  ? 

10.  How  does  this  motion  cause  day  and  night  ? 

11.  How   does   it  cause   sunrise  and   sunset  ? 

12.  Why  can  we  not  observe  that  the  earth  is 
rotating?  13.  Why  is  not  every  loose  object 
hurled  from  the  earth  by  this  rapid  motion  ? 
14.  What  is  meant  by  the  axis  of  the  earth  ? 
By  the  poles  of  the  earth  ?  15.  Walk  toward 
each  of  the  poles.  16.  What  is  meant  by  the 
equator  ?     How  long  is  it  ? 

The  Zones.  17.  Give  the  cause  of  the  great 
heat  in  the  torrid  zone.  18.  How  wide  is  that 
zone,  and  what  are  its  boundaries  ?  19.  Where 
are  the  two  temperate  zones  ?  20.  Why  is 
the  heat  less  there  than  in-  the  torrid  zone  ? 
21.  Where  are  the  frigid  zones  ?  22.  What 
is  meant  by  the  northern  hemisphere ;  by  the 
southern  hemisphere?  23.  What  is  meant  by 
the  eastern  and  the  western  hemispheres  ? 


Latitude   and   Longitude. 

places   located   on   the   earth  ? 
latitude  ?     Lonjjritude  ? 


24.  How  are 

25.  What   is 


The  Continents.  26.  Name  the  five  con- 
tinents, counting  Eurasia  as  one.  27.  Write 
their  names.  28.  Walk  toward  each.  29.  What 
is  the  shape  of  Korth  America;  of  South 
America  ?  Show  the  shape  of  each  by  a  draw- 
ing. 30.  Tell  about  the  climate  of  each.  31.  Of 
what  importance  is  the  Isthmus  of  Panama? 
32.  What  can  you  tell  about  Eurasia?  Why 
this  name  ?  33.  Tell  what  you  can  about  Africa. 
34.  Locate  and  give  the  principal  facts  about 
Australia.  35.  What  part  of  the  world,  near 
Australia,  was  Columbus  hoping  to  reach  ? 

The  Oceans.  36.  What  two  oceans  are  of 
most  importance  to  us  ?  37.  What  do  you 
know  about  each  of  them  ?  38.  Where  is  the 
Indian  Ocean  ?  39.  Where  are  the  Arctic  and 
Antarctic  oceans  ?  40.  Why  are  they  of  little 
importance  to  us  ?  41.  What  can  you  tell  about 
the  depth  of  the  ocean  ?  42.  About  the  ocean 
bottom  ?  43.  What  are  the  three  causes  for 
islands  in  the  ocean  ?  44.  What  is  the  result 
of  the  work  of  the  coral  polyps  ?  45.  What 
oceans  touch  North  America  ?  46.  Name  the 
five  oceans.     Write  their  names. 

1.  Trace  Columbus's  voyage  on  a  globe.  Find 
India  and  see  how  one  can  go  by  water  from 
Europe  to  India  by  sailing  east- 
ward ;  by  sailing  westward.  "^^^  *° 
2.  Make  a  sphere  in  clay.  Measure  its  diam- 
eter with  a  needle,  and  its  circumference  with 
a  string.  3.  Locate  the  poles  on  such  a  sphere; 
and  also  represent  the  equator.  4.  With  a 
globe  or  an  apple,  and  a  lamp,  show  how  it  is 
day  on  one  side  of  the  earth  while  it  is  night 
on  the  other  side.  Show  also  why  the  sun  ap- 
pears to  rise  in  the  east.  5.  Who  were  Atlas 
and  Aurora  ?  6.  Where  did  people,  long  ago, 
suppose  that  the  sun  went  at  night?  7.  Write 
a  story  telling  the  kinds  of  clothing  you  would 
need  in  going  from  the  north  to  the  south  pole. 
8.  Would  you  expect  a  sudden  change  in  tem- 
perature in  crossing  the  Tropic  of  Cancer  or 
of  Capricorn  ?  Why  ?  9.  If  there  were  no 
watches  or  clocks,  how  could  you  learn  the  time 
of  day  from  your  shadow  ?  10.  Find  out  about 
some  of  the  men  who  have  tried  to  reach  the 
north  pole.  11.  Examine  a  piece  of  coral.  If 
possible,  secure  a  piece  for  the  school  collection. 


PART  III.     TfORTH   AMERICA 


SECTION  I.     GENERAL   FACTS 


1.   Divisions  of  North  America 

If  you  look  on  the  map  of  North 
America  (Fig.  134),  you  will  see  that 
-,,       .    •  „,     the  continent  is  divided  into 

The  principal 

divisions  of  several  countries.  In  the 
North  America  center,  extending  from  ocean 
to  ocean,  is  the  United  States.  North  of 
our  country  is  Canada,  and  northwest  of 
that  is  Alaska.  South  of  us  lies  Mexico, 
and  southeast  of  that  is  Central  America. 
Make  a  simple  drawing  of  North  Amer- 
ica, and  upon  it  mark  off  each  of  these 
sections. 

You  remember  that  Spain  was  the 
nation  that  helped  Columbus  to  make 
his  discovery  of  America. 
After  his  voyage,  many 
Spaniards  came  over  and 
settled  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  continent.  They  oc- 
cupied the  portions  now  marked  Mexico 
and  Central  America.  All  this  section, 
and  some  of  the  land  to  the  north  of  it, 
now  a  part  of  the  United  States,  was  for 
many  years  owned  by  Spain  Indeed, 
at  one  time  it  all  bore  the  name  of  New 
Spain ;  but  the  government  by  Spain 
was  so  very  bad  that  the  people  rebelled 
against  it,  and,  by  war,  secured  their 
independence. 

Although  the  Spanish  language  is  still 
spoken  in  all   that   section,  it    is   now 


Some  reasons 
for  these 
divisions 

1.    Mexico  and 
Central  America 


divided  into  several  independent  coun- 
tries. The  larger  part  of  it,  called  Mexico, 
is  under  one  government ;  the  part  of  it 
marked  Central  America  is  divided  into 
several  little  nations.  The  only  reason 
for  calling  this  part  of  the  continent 
Central  America  is  its  central  position 
between  two  continents.  There  is  really 
no  country  of  that  name. 

The  small  country  of  Panama  occupies 
the  narrow  Isthmus  of  Panama,  which 
joins  Central  America  with  South  Amer- 
ica. It  is  here  that  the  Panama  Canal 
is  being  dug  to  connect  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  oceans  (p.  94). 

Other  nations  besides  Spain  sent  ex- 
plorers to  America,  and  made  settle- 
ments. Chief  among  these  2.  The 
were  the  English  and  the  United  states 
French.  The  English  settlers  at  first 
made  their  homes  along  the  eastern 
coast,  as  in  Massachusetts  and  Virginia. 
The  French  chose  the  valleys  of  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  Mississippi  rivers.  Find 
these  rivers  on  the  map.  As  the  result 
of  war,  the  English  obtained  control  of 
the  French  territory,  and  English  be- 
came the  principal  language  of  all  the 
continent  north  of  Mexico. 

Even  now,  however,  one  is  reminded  of  the 
old  French  rule.  French  is  still  heard  in  New 
Orleans,  near  the  mouth  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  it  is  the  common  language  in  the 


101 


'102' 


NORTH  AMERICA 


city   of  Quebec,  on   the  St.    Lawrence   River. 
Point  out  these  cities. 

The  names  of  many  places  in  the  Mississippi 
and  St.  Lawrence  valleys,  such  as  j^ew  Orleans, 
St.  Louis,  and  Montreal,  are  French.  They  were 
given  when  these  places  belonged  to  France. 

For  many  years  the  colonies  in  Amer- 
ica were  governed  by  England ;  but 
finally  many  of  the  colonists  became 
dissatisfied  with  English  rule.  As  a 
result,  a  war  for  independence  broke 
out,  which  lasted  several  years,  under 
the  leadership  of  ^General  George  Wash- 
ington (Fig.  98).  The  colonists  declared 
themselves  independent  on  July  4,  1776, 
a  date  whose  anniversary  you  celebrate 
every  year.  Independence  was  not 
gained,  however,  until  later,  after  sev- 
eral years  of  hard  fighting  and  much 
suffering. 

Our  ancestors,  after  this  war,  formed 
a  government  of  their  own,  which 
they  called  the  United  States.  At  first 
there  were  only  thirteen  small  states  in 
the  Union,  all  near  the  Atlantic  coast. 
Gradually  other  states  and  territories 
were  added,  until  our  country  now  ex- 
tends across  the  continent,  as  you  see. 

England  was  able  to  keep  a  large 
part  of  the  continent,  which  is  called 
3.  Canada  and  ^^^  Dominion  of  Canada. 
Newfoundland  Canada,  which  is  still  a 
British  colony,  is  a  union  of  states,  or 
provinces,  like  our  United  States. 

You  observe,  on  the  map,  the  large  island 
of  Newfoundland,  in  the  extreme  eastern  part 
of  the  continent.  This  also  was  kept  by  Eng- 
land and  is  still  a  British  colony  ;  but  it  has 
never  joined  the  Dominion  of  Canada  and  has, 
therefore,  a  separate  government. 

The    extreme   northwestern   part    of 

,    .,  North  America,  called  J[/as/^-«, 

was    first    explored    by    the 

Russians,    and    they    owned    it    for    a 


long  time.     Russia  finally  sold  it  to  the 
United  States,  and  it  still  belongs  to  us. 
Of    course,  where    two    countries    lie 
side   by    side,    as   do    Canada    and    the 
United    States,    there    must  ^j^^  bounda- 
be   some   place    where    one  ries  of  these 
country  ends  and  the  other  countries 
begins.     Such  a  place  is  called  a  bound- 
ary.    The  boundary  lines  between   the 
different  nations  are  marked  on  the  map 
(Fig.  134)  by  heavy  lines.     Point  them 
out. 

In  some  parts  you  will  see  that  a  natural 
boundary,  such  as  a  river  or  a  chain  of  lakes, 
has  been  chosen  to  separate  two  neighboring 
countries.  In  other  places  the  boundary  does 
not  follow  any  natural  line.  In  some  cases  it 
is  even  a  straight  line,  cutting  across  rivers, 
lakes,  and  mountains.  Examine  the  boundary 
of  the  United  States,  to  see  how  much  of  it  is 
natural. 

Where  the  boundary  is  only  a  straight  line, 
it  is  marked  by  a  row  of  posts  or  stone  pillars, 
a  few  rods  apart.  These  you  could  easily  see  if 
you  were  to  cross  from  one  country  to  another, 
where  there  is  such  a  boundary.  On  your  draw- 
ing of  Korth  America,  mark  those  boundaries  of 
the  United  States  which  are  natural. 

1.    Name  the  principal  parts  of  North  Amer- 
ica.    Write   these   names.      2.   State   some   of 
the  reasons  for  such  a  division  of 
the  continent :  (a)  for  Mexico  and   ^®'"®T^ 
Central  America ;  (ft)  for  United 
States;    (c)    for    (/anada   and    Newfoundland. 
3.    What  do  you  know  about  Alaska  ?    4.   What 
natural  boundaries  has  the  United  States  ? 


2.   Maps  of  North  America 
Figure  134  is  a  map  of  North  America 
showing   the   boundaries    of  study  of  maps 
the  different  countries,  and  i.   Pouticai 
the  location  of   the   largest  ^"^^ 
rivers  and  cities.     Such  a  map  is  called 
d,  political  map. 

Find  Greenland  on  this   map.     Would  you 
expect  it  to  be  an  important  island  ?     Why  ? 


FIG.  134. 


FIG.  136. 


GENERAL  FACTS 


103 


104 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Trace  the  Mississippi  River.  Three  other  great 
rivers  of  North  America  are  the  St.  Lawrence, 
the  Mackenzie,  and  the  Yukon.  Find  each. 
What  would  you  say  about  the  importance  of 
the  Mackenzie  and  Yukon  rivers,  in  comparison 
with  that  of  the  St.  Lawrence  and  the  Mis- 
sissippi ?     Why  ? 

Figure  135,  a  relief  map,  is  a  very 
2.   ReUef  different  kind  of  map  from 

Maps  Figure  134.     Its  purpose  is 

to  show  the  heights  of  the  land,  or  the 
higher  and  lower  parts  of  the  continent. 
There  is  still  another  kind  of  map  called 


nearly  as  you    can,   the   boundaries    of 
each. 

Where  is  the  lowest  land  between 
these  two  highlands  ?  Show  the  length 
and  width  of  the  Mississippi  Valley. 
Notice  the  slope  east  of  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  (Fig.  137).  Is  it  longer  or 
shorter  than  that  west  of  the  western 
Highlands  ?  What  are  the  main  slopes  in 
North  America  ?  Upon  which  of  these 
slopes  do  you  live  ?  Point  as  nearly  as 
you  can  to  the  place  where  your  home  is. 


Fig.  137.  —  A  section  across  the  United  States  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Pacific  ocean,  showing  the  highlands  and  lowlands. 


3.    Physical 
Maps 


a  physical  map,  of  which  Figure  136  is 
an  example.  It  also  shows 
the  heights  of  the  land,  not 
by  the  shading,  but  by  colors. 
The  different  colors  show  the  different 
heights,  as  is  explained  by  the  key  under 
the  map. 

What  great  mountain  system,  or  high- 
land, do  you  find  in  the  western  part  of 
North  America?  Find  it  on  both  the 
relief  and  the  physical  maps.  What 
great  highland  do  you  find  in  the 
east  ?  In  what  direction  does  each  of 
these  highlands  extend  ?  Which  is  the 
broader  ?    Which  the  higher  ?    Trace,  as 


On  Figure  134  find  New  York  and  San 
Francisco.  If  you  were  to  travel  westward  from 
the  former  to  the  latter  place,  you  would  have 
to  pass  over  many  hills,  valleys,  and  mountains. 
Some  of  the  slopes  would  be  short  and  gentle ; 
others  would  be  very  long,  sometimes  gentle, 
sometimes  steep.  Make  a  drawing  showing 
the  chief  slopes  you  would  cross  in  making  that 
journey. 

1.    What  do  you  understand  by  a  political 
map  ?     2.    By  a  relief  map  ?      3.    By  a  physi- 
cal map  ?     4.  What  are  the  prin- 
cipal slopes    in  North  America?      ®^®.T^ 
,-     T.X  ,  •     •     1  i  •      Questions 

5.   Name  the  principal  mountain 

ranges.  6.  The  principal  rivers.  7.  The  larg- 
est lakes.  8.  The  largest  islands,  peninsulas, 
gulfs,  and  bays.  9.  Make  a  drawing  of  the 
continent,  putting  in  the  names  of  all  these. 


SECTION  II.    THE  UNITED  STATES 


1.    General  Facts 

1.  What  waters  border  the  United  States  ? 
2.  What  countries  ?  3.  Find  the  Appalachian 
Mountains.  4.  What  are  the 
names  of  the  ihountain  chains  in 
western  United  States  ?  5.  Make  a  drawing  of 
the  Mississippi  River  and  its  larger  tributaries. 
6.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  United  States,  put- 
ting on  it   the  largest   rivers  and  lakes,  with 


their  names ;  also  the  largest  cities.     (You  will 
find  a  list  of  them  in  the  Appendix.) 

If  you  look  on  Figure  138  you  will  see 
that  its  scale   is  about  an  inch  to  325 
miles.      Knowing   this  fact  j^^  extent 
find  how  many  miles   it  is  of  the 
across  our  country  from  north  ^^*®^  states 
to  south,  measuring  from  our  northern 


116         Longitude  West  110    from Greenwich 1052. 


FIG.  138. 


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UNITED  STATES 


—  4 


EASTEEX  PART 

Cities  toUhover  1,000,000 ^CW  YOrk 

Cities  u-ith  500,000  to  1,000,000 BoS.ton 

Citiawith  200.000  (o  600,000 Buffalo 

Other  Places Denver 

CapitaU  with  less  tlum  200.000 DOVER  j      ^^^^ 

Scale  of  Sliles 
I    M.         I  ^M ir         •        ■ 

0       60     100  200  300  400  500 


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85^  Greenwich 


FIG.  138. 


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106 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  141.  — Distribution  of  population  in  the  United  States  in  ITiK). 


ware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  North 
Carolina,  South  Carolina,  and 
Georgia.  Find  each  of  these 
states  on  the  map.  Figure  138. 
How  many  of  them  do  not  border 
on  the  ocean?  What  a  small 
part  of  the  United  States  they 
now  form  ! 

Our  flag  still  has  its  thirteen  red  and 
white  stripes,  to  remind  us  of  these 
thirteen  original  states.  At  first  there 
were  only  thirteen  stars  in  the  blue 
field  of  the  flag.  But  a  star  has  been 
added  for  each  new  state,  until  now 
there  are  many  more.  Count  the  stars 
in  the  flag  to  ^ee  how  many  states 
there  are  now. 

In  Figure  141  observe  how  little  of 
the  country  east  of  the  Mississippi 
Eiver  was  settled  by  white  people  in 
1790.  Note  the  principal  cities  at  that 
time.    Explain  the  meaning  of  the  star. 


boundary  to  the  mouth  of  the  Rio 
Grande.  Find  the  width  of  our  country 
in  an  east-west  direction,  from  New 
York  to  &'an  Francisco.  The  United 
States  contains  about  3,000,000  square 
miles,  and  is  not  quite  so  large  as  Canada. 
How  does  it  compare 
with  Mexico  in  size  ? 

As  we  have  seen, 
the  states  that  formed 
our  Union 
after  the 
War  of 
Independ- 
ence were 
thirteen  in  number. 
These  were  New 
Hampshire,  Massachu- 
setts, Connecticut, 
Rhode  Island,  New 
York,  New  Jersey, 
Pennsylvania,      Dela- 


To  form  the  many  new  states,  several 
great  sections  of  land  have  2.   states  of 

T  Til  ,        T  (f  ,     the  Mississippi 

been     added,     at     dinerent  vaiiey 
times,   to   the   original    thirteen    states 
(Fig.  142). 

At  the  close  of  the  War  of  Independ- 


Steps  in  the 
growth  of  the 
United  States 
1 .    The  thirteen 
original  states 


Fig.  142.  —  Map  to  show  when  and  how  the  United  States  obtained  its  territory. 


GENERAL    FACTS 


107 


eiice,  all  the  land  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River  belonged  to  the  Union,  except 
Florida  and  a  narrow  strip  along  the 
coast  west  of  Florida.  For  many  years, 
however,  the  part  between  the  Appa- 
lachian Mountains  and  the  Mississij^pi 
[liver  was  not  made  into  states.  In- 
deed, it  was  a  wilderness,  about  which 
very  little  was  known,  because  the 
Appalachian  Mountains  were  like  a  great 
wall,  shutting  people  out  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Valley. 

Trappers  and  traders  first  forced  their  way 
into  this  valley.  Among  these  were  David 
Crockett  and  Daniel  Boone,  who  had  many 
thrilling  adventures  with  the  Indians,  some  of 
which  you  may  have  read  about.  Then,  when 
it  was  learned  what  an  attractive  region  this 
was,  settlers  rapidly  followed,  and  states  were 
soon  formed.     Name  some  of  these  states. 

Pioneers  quickly  pushed  across  the 
Mississippi  River,  over  the  Great  Plains, 
as  far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Nearly 
_  all  the  vast  region  between  the  Mis- 
sissippi River  and  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
except  Texas,  was  bought  from  France 
in  the  year  1803.  Name  some  of  the 
states  that  have  been  formed  from  it. 

Florida,  together  with  a  narrow  strip 
of  land  along  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  w^as 

3.  Florida  bought  froui  Spain  in  1819. 
and  Texas  Tcxas,  which  had  once  been 
a  part  of  Mexico,  obtained  its  inde- 
pendence from  that  country ;  and  later 
it  entered  the  Union. 

The  highlands  of  western  United 
States    are    much    broader    and    more 

4.  states  west  difficult  to  cross  than  the 
of  the  Rocky       Appalachian  Mountains,  and 

Mountains  j-  ^  ..  p 

tor  a  long  tune  lew  men 
were  daring  enough  to  try  to  reach  the 
Pacific  coast.  When  rich  gold  deposits 
were    discovered    near   the    west   coast, 


however,  many  thousands  started  in 
haste  for  that  region.  Partly  by  pur- 
chase, and  partly  by  war  with  Mexico, 
our  country  had  already  obtained  pos- 
session of  this  western  land ;  and,  as 
it  became  rapidly  settled,  states  were 
formed  from  it.  Name  some  of  them. 
At  the  close  of  the  War  of  Inde- 
pendence, in  1783,  there  were  only  about 
three  million  white  persons  our  growth 
living  in  the  United  States,  i^i  population 
Now  we   have  over  ninety  millions,  or 


Fig.  143.  —  Density  of  population  in  North  America  at 
the  present  time. 

more  than  are  found  in  all  the  other 
countries  of  North  and  South  America 
together.  Our  country  has  more  in- 
habitants than  France,  or  Germany,  or 
any  European  nation  except  Russia.  It 
should  be  remembered,  too,  that  those 
countries  are  very  old,  and  had  been 
settled  for  centuries  when  America  was 


108 


NORTH  AMERICA 


discovered.  Dating  the  birth  of  our 
nation  from  1776,  how  old  is  it?  Ob- 
serve how  thickly  the  United  States  is 
now  settled,  as  shown  in  Figure  143. 

One  reason  for  this  rapid   growth  in 

population  is  the  fact  that  our  country 

is  situated  in  the  temperate 

Reasons  for  i  •       i 

this  growth       zone.     1  he  great  heat  m  the 

1.  Our  tem-  torrid  zone  makes  it  difficult 
P«'^t"^«  to  work  and  unhealthful  to 

live  there.  On  the  other  hand,  the  ex- 
treme cold  of  the  frigid  zone  makes  it 
difficult  to  get  a  living,  no  matter  how 
hard  one  works.  In  the  temperate  zone, 
we  find  neither  of  these  drawbacks. 
There  is  not  too  much  heat  for  comfort 
or  health,  and  yet  there  is  plenty  for  the 
growth  of  plants. 

Our  country  is  so  large  that  there  may  be  much 
difference  in  temperature  between  one  part  and 
another.  In  southern  Florida,  there  is  never 
any  frost  or  snow,  and  such  crops  as  bananas 
and  pineapples  can  be  grown,  as  in  the  torrid 
zone.  Cotton,  sugar  cane,  rice,  and  oranges, 
which  require  a  warm  climate,  are  cultivated 
iu  our  Southern  States.  Farther  north  we  can 
produce  the  more  hardy  crops,  such  as  wheat 
and  oats,  that  thrive  in  a  cooler  climate.  There 
are  few  countries  that  have  such  variety  of 
temperature  as  ours. 

Over  a  large  part  of  the  United  States 
there  is  plenty  of  rain  for  farming  and 
gardening.  In  several  of  the 
Western  States,  however, 
there  is  so  little  rain  that  no  crops  can 
be  grown  without  irrigation.  In  fact, 
some  parts  of  the  West  are  true  deserts, 
with  farming  only  on  the  oases,  as  in  the 
Sahara.  In  spite  of  their  dryness,  large 
portions  of  these  sections  are  useful  for 
grazing;  and  the  western  part  of  the 
United  States  is  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant regions  in  the  world  for  raising 
sheep  and  cattle.      Thus  the  differences 


in  rainfall,  as  well  as  in  temperature,  helf 
to  give  us  a  variety  of  products. 

Fertile  soil,  as  well  as  heat  and  rain 
is  necessary  in  order  that  people  ma^ 
have    food,    clothing,    and  „    _ 

'  °'.  .       3.    Our  soil 

shelter.     Few    countries    in 

the  world  have  as  much  deep,  rich  soi 

as    our    own.     There  are   many    kinds 

too,  so  that  many  kinds  of  crops  can  b( 

raised. 

On  the  whole,  the  climate  and  soil  o; 
our  country  are  so  favorable,  and  s( 
varied,  that  the  United  States  produces 
almost  all  the  crops  necessary  for  food 
clothing,  and  shelter. 

The  mineral  products,  from  the  rock; 
beneath  the  soil,  are  also  of  great  value 
In  our  western  mountains  4.  ourmin- 
are  gold,  silver,  lead,  and  ^""^^ 
copper  mines  of  untold  richness.  Enor 
mous  amounts  of  copper  and  iron  or( 
are  mined  in  the  states  that  borde] 
Lake  Superior.  Coal,  too,  is  abundani 
in  many  of  our  states,  so  that  there  i( 
plenty  of  fuel  for  manufacturing  thes( 
various  metals  into  useful  articles.  Ii 
addition,  we  have  valuable  building  stom 
of  many  kinds,  and  clays,  salt,  and  othei 
useful  mineral  products.  Indeed,  th( 
rich  supply  of  minerals  found  in  th( 
United  States  is  one  of  the  chief  rea 
sons  for  our  remarkable  growth  as  £ 
nation. 

It  is  of  great  advantage  that  we  liav( 
so  many  different  kinds  of  land  in  oui 
country.  There  are  the  5.  our  plains 
coastal  plains,  that  lie  be-  and  mountains 
tween  the  Appalachian  Mountains  anc 
the  sea.  Here  the  land  is  so  level  anc 
fertile  that  farming  is  easy.  Far  largei 
than  these  are  the  central  plains. 
through  which  the  Mississippi  River  anC 
its  tributaries  flow.     This  level  countr\ 


GENERAL  FACTS 


109 


makes  one  of  the  finest  farming  sections 
in  the  world.  There  are  also  many 
smaller  plains,  and  much  gently  rolling 
and  hilly  land  suited  to  agriculture. 

The  higher  hills,  mountains,  and 
plateaus  are  valuable  in  a  different  way. 
They  cause  the  moisture  in  the  air  to 
be  condensed  into  rain  and  snow,  which 
keep  the  rivers  filled  with  water.  In 
addition,  they  are  the  source  of  valu- 
able minerals,  and  they  are  often  cov- 
ered with  forests,  which  supply  us  with 
the  lumber  that  we  need  for  so  many 
purposes. 

The  minerals  and  other  raw  products 
have  to  be  transported  from  the  mines 
„    _  to    the    factories,  and    then 

6.    Our  con-  ' 

veniencesfor  the  manufactured  articles 
transportation      j^^g^  \^q  distributed  far  and 

wide  over  the  country.  It  is  important, 
therefore,  tliat  there  be  abundant  means 
for  shipping  goods. 

The  railroads  now  do  much  to  supply 
this  need,  but  our  natural  highways,  or 
waterways,  have  met  it  well  from  the 
beginning.  First  of  all,  note  (Fig.  134) 
how  the  Mississippi  River  and  its  tribu- 
taries make  it  possible  for  boats  to  reach 
the  ocean  even  from  the  heart  of  the 
country.  Trace  some  of  the  larger  of 
these  rivers,  and  write  their  names. 

The  Great  Lakes  on  the  north  are 
other  important  w^aterways  on  which 
vessels  may  travel  for  many  hundreds 
of  miles.  How  many  such  lakes  are 
there  ?  There  are  also  many  smaller 
rivers  and  lakes  of  importance  for  trans- 
portation. Can  you  name  some  of  them, 
and  point  them  out  on  the  map  ? 

It  is  necessary  to  send  some  goods  to 
foreign  lands,  and  to  bring  others  from 
foreign  countries  to  our  shores.  Here 
again    the   United    States    is  fortunate. 


One  of  our  coasts  faces  Europe,  and  is 
well  supplied  with  excellent  harbors. 
Trace  this  coast  line,  to  see  how  irregu- 
lar it  is,  thus  making  fine  harbors 
possible. 

Our  Southern  coast,  too,  has  some  ex- 
cellent harbors,  from  w^hich  ships  can 
easily  sail  to  Europe,  the  West  Indies, 
Mexico,  and  the  countries  of  South 
America.  Vessels  can  also  go  from 
port  to  port  along  our  coast,  carrying 
goods  from  one  place  to  another. 

Our  Western  coast  faces  Asia,  where 
there  are  enormous  numbers  of  Chinese, 
Japanese,  and  other  people.  This  coast 
likewise  has  some  excellent  harbors, 
from  which  steamship  lines  now  run  to 
many  ports  on  the  Pacific  and  Indian 
oceans. 

No  other  country  has  so  favorable  a 
situation  for  trade  with  all  parts  of  the 
world  as  ours.  In  fact,  no  other  large 
country  has  a  seacoast,  with  an  abun- 
dance of  good  harbors,  on  both  the 
Atlantic  and  Pacific  oceans. 

There  have  been  still  other  powerful 
attractions  that  have  drawn  foreigners 
to  our  country.  One  of  these  has  been 
the  free  land.  Any  one  7.  qut 
who  has  cared  to  come  here  free  land 
and  live  for  a  few  years  could  obtain  a 
good-sized  farm  to  live  upon.  That  has 
been  a  help  indeed  to  many  a  man. 
So  many  people  have  been  attracted  to 
this  country  from  other  lands,  that  al- 
most all  the  free  farm  land  has  now 
been  taken  up. 

Even  where  there  was  no  land  to  be 
given  away,  it  has  often  been  possible 
to  buy  it  at  a  very  low  price,  —  only  a 
few  dollars  an  acre,  —  which  even  a 
poor  man,  with  energy,  could  hope  to 
pay.     Millions  of  our  people  have  come 


110 


NORTH  AMERICA 


to  the  United  States,  attracted  by  the 
free  or  cheap  farm  lands. 

In  some  countries  of  Europe  many  of 
the  people  are  still  very  ignorant.     In  the 

8.  Our  free  United  States,  on  the  other 
education  hand,  an  effort  is  made  to 
give  every  one  an  education.  One 
of  the  first  things  our  forefathers  did 
was  to  establish  schools,  and  now  there 
are  schools,  colleges,  and  universities 
throughout  all  the  land.  Most  of  this 
education  is  free,  and  any  one  can  ob- 
tain it.  Our  excellent  system  of  educa- 
tion is  one  of  the  chief  cauvses  of  our 
rapid  advance,  for  educated  people  can 
do  things  which  ignorant  people  cannot 
do. 

Another  great  attraction  to  many  per- 
sons has  been  our  free  government.     In 

9.  Our  free  somc  couutries  the  rulers  do 
government        ^^^  \^^  ^\-^q  people  share  in 

the  making  of  laws.  They  seize  private 
property;  they  arrest  men  and  throw  them 
into  prison,  or  drive  them  from  the  coun- 
try, or  put  them  to  death,  without  trial. 

After  the  War  of  Independence,  our 
forefathers  established  a  government 
called  a  democracy.  In  this,  the  people 
elect  some  men  to  make  laws,  and  otliers 
to  execute  them.  That  is  the  kind  of 
government  we  still  have.  All  the 
officers  are  really  servants  of  the  people, 
and  not  masters;  and  most  of  them  are 
paid  by  the  people  for  their  work.  The 
object  of  the  government  is  to  help 
every  one,  as  far  as  possible,  and  not  to 
worry  or  oppress  any  one. 

Millions  of  men  have  died  fighting 
against  a  despotic  form  of  government ; 
and  it  is  no  wonder  that  other  millions 
have  braved  great  hardships  to  reach  a 
land  where  they  were  free  from  it.  There 
is,  perhaps,   no   country   on   the   earth 


where  an  honest  man,  with  ability  and 
energy,  can  prosper  more  easily  than  in 
tlie  United  States. 

These  are  some  of  the  more  impor- 
tant reasons  why  our  population  has 
increased  so  rapidly.  Aside  ,^^,^,„,, 
from  the  people  who  have  to  the 
been  born  in  this  country,  ^^^^^^  States 
millions  have  come  from  Europe  and 
Asia ;  and  they  still  come  in  almost 
every  ship  that  carries  passengers. 
Such  people  are  called  immigrants,  and 
most  of  them  land  at  New  York. 

From  that  city  they  scatter  in  all  directions, 
and  settle  in  every  part  of  the  country.  These 
immigrants  have  greatly  helped  to  develop  our 
nation,  and  to  make  the  United  States  one  of  the 
great  powers  of  the  world.  They  have  been 
eager  to  come  here,  and  most  of  them  have  been 
eager  to  stay,  for  they  have  learned  to  love  this 
land.  You  probably  know  some  immigrants 
yourself,  for  they  are  all  about  you.  Ask  some 
of  them  why  they  came  here,  and  whether  this 
country  is  as  good  to  live  in  as  the  one  they 
left. 

Our   country    is    so  large   that  it   is 
necessary  to  divide  it  into  sections,  in 
order  to  study  it  in  proper  detail.     Ac- 
cordingly,   the    states   have  ^^^^^^^^^ 
been  grouped  into  four  sec-  studying  the 
tions,  of  which  the  first  is  United  states 
the     Northeastern     Group. 
The  others,  in  their  order,  are  the  South- 
ern States,  the  Central  States,  and  the 
Western  States. 

As  you  study  each  of  these  sections,  a 
very  important  point  to  notice  is  the  scale 

upon  which  each  map  is  j^^p^j^ance  of 
drawn.  For  example,  in  Fig-  watching  the 
ure  144,  an  inch  represents  scale  of  maps 
about  seventy-five  miles.  According  to 
that  scale,  how  long  is  the  state  of 
Connecticut  ? 

Find  what  the    scale  is  on  the    map, 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


111 


Figure  138.  Using  that  scale,  find  the 
distance  from  New  York  to  Buffalo. 
From  Philadelphia  to  Boston,  by  way  of 
New  York.  When  studying  a  map, 
whether  in  this  book,  on  the  wall,  or  in 
an  atlas,  it  is  always  important  to 
observe  its  scale  first. 

1.   What  is  the  size  of  the  United  States  ? 
How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  other  coun- 
tries ?    2.  Name  the  first  thirteen 
Review  states   of  our  Union,  and  locate 

Questions  ^^^^^^     ^  ^^j^^^  ^^.^^^  sections  of 

land  have  been  added  to  these,  to  make  the 
number  of  states  that  we  now  have  ?  4.  Tell 
about  our  growth  in  population.  5.  Show  that 
our  temperature  is  one  reason  for  so  great  a 
population.  6.  How  is  our  rainfall  a  second 
reason,  and  our  soil  a  third  ?  7.  How  are  our 
minerals  a  fourth  reason  ?  8.  Show  that  our 
plains  and  mountains  are  a  fifth  reason.  9.  How 
have  our  conveniences  for  transportation  helped 
our  growth  ?  10.  How  has  our  free  land  helped  ? 
11.  Our  free  education  ?  12.  Our  free  govern- 
ment ?  13.  Tell  about  the  immigrants  to  the 
United  States.  14.  Why  is  it  important  to 
watch  the  scale  of  any  map  used  ? 

1.  Read  the  life  of  Daniel  Boone  or  David 
Crockett.  2.  Find  out  what  steps  a  man  has 
had  to  take,  in  order  to  get 
possession  of  free  land  in  this 
country.  3.  Learn  what  is  done  with  the  im- 
migrants when  they  land  at  Ellis  Island  in 
New  York  Harbor.  4.  Do  you  see  any  dangers 
to  this  country  in  allowing  all  people  to  come 
here  from  other  countries  who  desire  to  come  ? 

2.    The  Northeastern  States 

1.  Name  these  states.  Write  the  names. 
2.    Which  has  no  seacoast  ?     3.    Which  state 

extends  farthest  east  and  north  ? 

Which  farthest  south  ?  Which 
farthest  west  ?  4.  What  natural  boundaries 
do  you  find  between  them  ?  5.  Which  of  them 
border  on  Canada  ?  On  the  Atlantic  Ocean  ? 
6.  What  two  large  lakes  form  part  of  the  boun- 
dary on  the  West  ?  7.  What  mountain  system 
crosses  these  states  ?  8.  Which  states  are 
most  mountainous  ?      9.   Name  and  trace  the 


Suggestions 


Map  study 


course  of  the  chief  rivers.  10.  What  do  you 
observe  about  the  direction  in  which  the  prin- 
cipal rivers  flow  ?  11.  Name  and  locate  three 
lakes ;  three  bays ;  three  capes  and  three 
islands.  12.  To  which  state  does  Long 
Island  belong?  13.  Find  New  York  City. 
Using  the  scale,  about  how  far  is  it  from 
New  York  City  to  Boston  ?  To  Philadelphia  ? 
14.  Walk  toward  New  York  City.  15.  In 
what  direction  would  one  have  to  sail  from 
New  England,  in  order  to  reach  England  ? 

Of  the  nine  states  in  this  group  the 
six  farthest  northeast  are  called  J)^ew 
England.  What  are  their  The  area  of 
names?  What  are  the  these  states 
names  of  the  other  three  ?  On  the 
map  of  the  United  States  (Fig.  138) 
you  can  see  what  a  small  part  of  our 
country  these  states  make.  All  of 
them  together  are  much  smaller  than 
Texas,  yet  they  form  nearly  one  fifth 
of  our  whole  number  of  states. 

Which  is  the  smallest  of  these  states  ? 
It  is  the  smallest  state  in  the  Union. 
One  of  the  New  England  States  is  about 
as  large  as  the  other  five  together. 
Which  one  is  it  ?  Even  this,  however, 
is  much  smaller  than  New  York,  the 
largest  of  the  Northeastern  States. 

A  large  part  of  the  surface  of  these 
states  is  hilly  or  mountainous.  Near 
the  coast  the  hills  are  low,  character  of 
and  much  of  New  Jersey  is  their  surface 
a  plain ;  but  the  land  rises  gradually 
toward  the  interior  until  the  mountains 
are  reached.  West  of  the  mountains, 
in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania,  the 
country  is  a  low,  hilly  plateau  with 
some  plains,  especially  along  the  shores 
of  lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.  ' 

The  mountains  have  different  names. 
In  Pennsylvania  are  the  Appalachian 
Mountains  which  extend  southward  into 
the    gouthern    States.       North    of    the 


112 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  146.  — The  New  England  States. 


NORTHEASTERN  STATES 

(WESTERN  SECTION) 

Scale  of  Miles  


«««»  u/JOl  ouer  1,000,000 NEW  YORK 

Cilie»  mth  000,000  to  1,000,000 PittSbUTg 

citten  urith  100,000  to  000,000 Rochester 

«(iMim(A  25,000  10  100,000_.. AubuPD 

Smaller  places Oswego 

Capitals  with  lees  (Aait-26,000 DOVER 

Jfatinnal  Capitalt  @  State  Capitals  ®        Other  Cities  o 


FIG.  144. 


FIG.  144. 


Fig.  140.  — Relief  map  of  Middle  Atlantic  States. 


114 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  148.  — A  view  of  the  White  Mountains  of  New  Hampshire. 


Appalachian  Mountains  are  the  Catskill 
and  Adirondack  Mountains  in  New  York. 


Fig.  149.  —  A  view  of  Niagara  Falls. 


Find  the  Green  Mountains  and  the 
White  Mountains  in  New  England. 
Mount  Washington  in  the 
White  Mountains  is  the  high- 
est peak  in  all  these  States, 
being  a  little  over  a  mile 
high. 

In  this  hilly  and  mountain- 
ous land  there  are  many  lakes, 
as  you  can  see  by  the  map; 
and  many  waterfalls,  the 
largest  being  Niagara  Falls, 
the  grandest  waterfall  in  the 
world.  Much  of  the  surface 
is  very  rough  and  rocky,  with 
bold  cliffs  and  the  soil  strewn 
with  stones. 

The    coast    of    this    entire 
section  is  very  irregular,  with 
many  capes,  penin-  character 
sulas,  bays,  sounds,  of  the  coast, 
and  harbors.    This  with  reason 
irregularity   of   coast   line   is 
due  to  the  fact  that  the  land 
has    been    lowered,    and    the 
ocean  has  entered  the  valleys 
forming    bays    and     harbors, 
while  the  higher  parts  have 
remained    above    the    sea    as 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


115 


>apes  and  peninsulas.  This  sinking  of 
lie  land  has  therefore  been  very  import- 
uit,  for  it  has  made  safe  places  where 
<liips  can  load  and  unload.  It  has  made 
possible  such  large  and  busy  seaports  as 
Uoston,  New  York,  and  Philadelphia. 

The  northern  part  of  the  Northeastern 
^iates  has  a  bold,  rocky  coast,  with  much 
^rand  scenery.  But  the  coast  of  New 
Jersey  is  low  and  sandy,  with  fine  sand 
beaches,  where  the  bathing  is  excellent. 


into  the  Atlantic  Ocean  (Fig.  414). 
East  of  New  England  it  is  much  farther 
from  land  than  the  Labrador  current. 

The  prevailing  winds  blow  from  the 
west ;  but  every  few  days,  the  direction 
of  the  wind  changes  to  the  east  or 
south,  and  the  air  then  comes  from  the 
ocean,  often  bringing  rain.  The  winds 
that  blow  from  the  east  and  northeast 
are  cool  in  summer  arid  very  chilly  in 
winter,     because    they    are    cooled     in 


Photograph  supplied  by  Pennsylvania  Railroad. 

Fig.  150.  —  Bathing  on  Cape  May  Beach,  New  Jersey. 


Northern  Maine  lies  so  far  north  that 
it  has  a  severe  climate ;  but  it  is  made 

1.   In  the  influence   of    a    cold    ocean 

North  current   which    flows   along 

the  northern  coast. 

This  is  called  the  Labrador  current, 
because  it  flows  past  the  Labrador  coast. 
It  is  a  slowly  moving  stream  of  ocean 
water,  many  miles  wide,  that  begins  in 
the  Arctic  Ocean  and  flows  southward 
along  the  coast  of  Nova  Scotia  and  New 
England  as  far  as  Cape  Cod. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  is  a  current 
of  warm  water  that  rnakes  the  southern 
portion  of  New"  England  warmer  than 
it  would  otherwise  be.  This  current, 
called  the  Gulf  Stream,  comes  from  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico  and  flows  northeast,  out 


passing  over  the  Labrador  current. 
They  often  cause  heavy  snows  in  winter, 
and  rain  and  fog  in  summer.  Those 
winds  that  blow  from  the  south,  on  the 
other  hand,  are  warmed  in  passing  over 
the  Gulf  Stream.  Largely  for  that 
reason,  the  southern  part  of  New  Eng- 
land is  much  warmer  than  the  northern 
part,  and  has  little  snow  in  winter. 

The  climate  of  most  of  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania  is  much  like  that  of 
New  England ;  but  the  New  Jersey 
coast  has  a  much  warmer  2.  in  the 
climate,  for  here  the  effect  ^°^^ 
of  the  warm  Gulf  Stream  is  felt.  For 
this  reason  Atlantic  City,  for  instance, 
has  such  mild  weather  that  many 
people  go  there  to  escape  the  cold  of 
winter  and  early  spring. 


116 


NORTH  AMERICA 


In  spite  of  their  small  area  and  rugged 
surface,  the  Northeastern  States  contain 
Population  of  Over  twenty-one  million  in- 
these  states  habitants,  or  nearly  one 
fourth  of  the  people  in  the  United  States. 
One  of  them,  New  York,  has  more  inhab- 
itants than  any  other  state  in  the  Union. 
It  contains  also  the  largest  city  in  the 
New  World.  Pennsylvania  is  next  to 
New  York  in  population  and  in  size. 

It  is  interesting  to  learn  why  so  many 
Why  so  great  people  have  crowded  to- 
a  population  gether  in  this  small  section. 
What  special  kinds  of  work  can  have 
attracted  them  here  ? 


Fig.  151.- 


A  view  in  the  hilly  region  of  New  England,  dotted  with  patches  of 
woodland  and  of  land  cleared  for  farming. 


The  principal  occupations  are  the  same 
as  those  found  elsewhere  ;  namely,  agri- 
culture, lumbering,  fishing,  mining, 
manufacturing,  and  commerce.  '  Some 
of  these  occupations,  however,  have  be- 
come far  more  important  than  others,  and 
we  shall  now  find  out  which  these  are. 

Agriculture,  the  most  important  occu- 
Agriculture  Potion  in  the  world,  is  not  so 
1.   Notespe-      important  in  these  states  as 

cially  prominent    -j-^   ^^^^^.  ^^j^^^,  plaCCS.       One 

reason  for  this  is  that  there  is  so  mucli 


mountainous  land  (Figs.  145  and  146 
Name  the  states  that  contain  mountain 

Even  in  sections  where  there  are  r 
mountains,  the  country  is  often  so  hill 
and  rocky  that  much  of  the  land  cannc 
profitably  be  farmed.  The  slopes  ai 
too  steep,  or  the  soil  is  too  thin  ar 
stony.  There  are  so  many  people  livir 
in  these  states,  however,  that  even  muc 
land  with  thin,  stony  soil  and  stet 
slopes  is  cultivated. 

In  so  hilly  a  country  farming  on 
large  scale  is  seldom  possible.  Tl 
land  is  cut  into  small  fields  with  patch* 
of  woodland  here  and  there  (Fig.  151) 
Among  the  mOst  cor 
mon    products    are    sue 

fruits        and    2.    why  sma 

vecrptables    as  ^^rms,  often 
vegeiaoies    as    used  for  truch 

find  a  ready  farming 
market  in  the  neighborir 
cities.  This  kind  of  farr 
iiig  is  known  as  tnu 
farming ;  for  the  mar 
things  that  are  raise 
such  as  tomatoes,  onion 
beans,  peas,  sweet  cor 
berries,  apples,  and  ra 
ishes  are  called  true 
These  products  are  eate 
fresh  in  great  quantitie 
But  the  dense  population  of  these  stat 
calls  for  enormous  quantities  of  cann( 
fruits  and  vegetables,  also  ;  and  man 
gardeners  and  farmers  raise  crops  main 
for  canning. 

Much  poultry  including  ducks,  chicl 
ens,  turkeys,  and  geese  are  3  ^hymuc 
raised  for  food.    Eggs,  there-  dairying  and 

~  •  ,        .    raising  of 

lore,   are  a   very  important  animals 
product. 

One  of  the  chief  farming  industries 
dairying.    The  many  inhabitants  of  th 


THE   NORTHEASTERN   STATES 


117 


Fig.  152. —  A  held  of  dairy  cow.-,  j^raziiig  in  the  pasture.    Their  milk  is  sent  to  the  cities. 


section  require  great  quantities  of  milk, 
butter,  and  cheese;  and  even  where 
other  crops  will  not  flourish,  the  land 
produces  grass.  Wherever  one  travels 
through  these  states,  he  is  lil^ely  to 
see  beautiful  pastures  and  fine  cattle. 
While  butter  and  cheese  are  made  in 
every  state  in  the  Union,  this  work  is 
especially  important  in  New  York. 

The  number  of  cows  in  a  dairy  herd  varies 
from  a  dozen  to  several  score.  In  summer 
they  are  allowed  to  graze  in  the  pastures,  but 
during  the  winter  they  are  kept  in  large  barns, 
where  hay  and  grain  are  fed  to  them.  Twice 
each  day  they  are  milked,  and  the  milk  may  be 
sent  to  a  neighboring  city  to  be  sold,  or  it  may 
be  made  into  butter  and  cheese. 

Utica,  on  the  Mohawk  Eiver,  is  an  impor- 
tant cheese  market;  and  small  cheese  and  butter 
factories,  or  creameries,  are  scattered  over  New 
York.  They  are  common  in  other  states,  also. 
These  creameries  furnish  a  ready  market  for 
milk,  and  are  therefore  of  great  value  to  the 
farmers  near  by.  So  much  milk  is  needed  in  the 
large  cities  that  special  arrangements  are  made 
for  supplying  it.  Special  cars,  and  even  whole 
trains,  carrying  nothing  but  cans  of  milk,  are 
run  to  these  cities  from  far  out  in  the  country. 

Besides  dairy  products,  the  cattle  fur- 
nish meat  for  food  and  hides  for  leather. 

Tn   n  rid  if  inn   fr»  oaf  tip    manv  liA(r«    bnriaps 


and  sheep  are  raised,  the  sheep  furnish- 
ing meat,  wool,  and  skins. 

There  are  many  sections  in  which  the  farm 
land  is  of  the  very  best  quality.     This  is  true,  for 
instance,  of  the  Connecticut  Val-    ^     g^^^^  ^^  ^^ 
ley,  in   which   much    grain  and    most  fertile 
tobacco  are   raised.      Trace  the    sections,  and 
Connecticut   River.      It  is  true,    their  products 
again,  of  the  southern  half  of  New  Jersey  and  of 
eastern  Pennsylvania.      Here  the  climate  is  so 
mild  that  such  crops  as  grapes  and  peaches  are 
raised.      Apples,  grapes,  and  other  fruits  also 
thrive  on  the  fine  farm  land  of  western  New 
York,  especially  near  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario. 
Here  the  water   of  the  lakes  warms  the  air  in 
the  fall  and  winter,  so  that  there  is  less  danger 
from  frosts  than  in  other  regions. 


Fig.  153.  —  Grapes  on  a  vine  in  a  vineyard  in  western 


118 


NORTH  AMISBICA 


There  is  so  much  fruit  raising  in 
New  York  that  the  nursery  business,  or 
that  of  ^raising  young  trees,  vines,  and 
bushes  to  sell,  is  a  flourishing  industry. 
One  of  the  principal  centers  for  this 
business  is  Rochester. 

Among  the  most  important  crops  of  the 
Northeastern  States  are  potatoes,  hay,  and  the 
Other  farm  grains,  such  as  wheat,  oats,  corn, 
products  barley,  rye,  and  buckwheat.     Far 

more  land  is  used  for  these  crops  than  for  those 
already  mentioned.  However,  since  the  states 
farther  west  are  even  more  noted  for  hay  and  grain, 


Lumbering 
1 .    Extent  of 
the  forests 


Fig.  154. —  A  forest-covered  mountain  slope  in  the  New  Hampshire  moun- 
tains, where  a  large  part  of  the  surface  is  still  occupied  by  forest. 


a  description  of  this  kind  of  farming  will  be  given 
when  these  states  are  studied  (pp.  177-179). 

While  a  great  deal  of  food  is  raised  in  the 
Northeastern  States,  there  is  not  nearly  enough 
5.  Need  of  ^°  ^^^^  *^^  people.  Therefore 
food  from  much  is  brought  from  the  more 

other  places  fertile  farming  states  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi Valley.  Wheat  for  bread  is  shipped 
to  the  Northeastern  States  in  great  quantities ; 
so  are  meat,  sugar,  and  other  common  foods. 

In  the  days  of  the  early  settlers,  most 
of  this  region  was  covered  with  forests, 


and  one  of  the  first  products  sent  bac 

to    England    was    lumber.      'Now    tb 

woods    have    been    cleared 

away   from    much    of    the 

land,   but   where    it    is    too 

steep  or  rocky  for  farming,  large  foresi 

still  remain. 

For  instance,  there  are  large  tracts  ( 
land  in  northern  Maine,  New  Hampshii 
(Fig.  154),  and  Vermont,  as  well  as  i 
parts  of  the  three  states  south  of  thei 
that  are  still  covered  with  timber.  Stan( 
ing  on  the  summit  of  Moui 
Katahdin,  one  sees  only 
vast  wilderness  of  trees  i 
all  directions.  The  nearei 
cultivated  land  is  twent; 
five  miles  to  the  east,  whi 
the  unbroken  forest  stretchc 
much  farther  away  to  tl 
north  and  west.  The  Ad 
rondack  Mountains,  and  tt 
Appalachian  Mountains  i 
New  York  and  Penns;y 
vania  are  also  heavil 
wooded. 

Winter  is  the  busiei 
season  for  cutting  timber  i 
these  forests,  2.  cutting 
for  the  swamps,  ^^  ^^^^^ 
which  are  numerous,  ai 
then  frozen  over.  At  the 
season,  also,  the  snows  have  covere 
the  bowlders  and  fallen  trees,  and  ha\ 
made  the  surface  level  enough  for  sled 
loaded  with  logs,  to  be  drawn  throug 
the  woods. 

The  industry  of  lumbering  is  very  in 
portant,  and  many  men  are  employed  i 
it.  Usually  fifty  men  or  more  are  neco 
sary  to  a  logging  camp.  With  axes  i 
hand,  they  go  through  the  woods  cho] 
ping  down  all  the  trees  that  are  large  an 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


119 


sound  enough  for  good 
lumber.  The  limbs  are 
then  chopped  off,  and  the 
logs  are  dragged  by  horses 
to  the  banks  of  the  nearest 
stream  (Fig.  155). 

When  the  snow  melts  in 
the  spring,  the  cutting  is 
,    „,   ^.  over    and     an- 

3.    Floating 

the  logs  to  other  busy  sea- 

the  mills  i       _  • 

son  begins. 
The  ice  on  the  rivers  breaks 
up,  the  streams  are  swollen 
by  the  melting  snows,  and 
the  logs  are  whirled  off 
downstream  in  the  swift  current.  Fre- 
quently, however,  even  this  flood  of  wa- 
ter is  not  sufficient  to  carry  them.  In 
such  cases,  in  order  to  provide  more  w^a- 
ter,  dams  are  placed  across  the  streams, 
or  at  the  outlet  of  lakes.  When  more 
water  is  needed,  the  dams  are  opened, 
and  a  flood  is  poured  into  the  stream. 


Fig.  155. 


Lumbermen  at  work  in  winter,  drawing  the  logs  on  sleds  to  the 
edge  of  the  stream. 


In  this  way  immense  numbers  of  logs 
are  floated  or  "  driven "  downstream, 
forming  what  the  lumbermen  call  a  "  log 
drive." 

The  work  of  driving  the  logs  is  a  very 
exciting  one.  The  logs  often  run  on  to 
rocks  and  shoals  ;  and,  as  soon  as  one 
log  gets  caught,  others  are  held  back  by 
it.  If  the  "  jam "  is  not 
speedily  removed,  the  entire 
stream  may  become  blocked. 
Such  a  condition  is  called  a 
logja7n  (Fig.  156).  It  is  the 
business  of  the  log  drivers 
to  prevent  jams  by  freeing 
the  logs  that  become  thus 
lodged. 

Some  of  the  logs  are 
stopped  near  waterfalls,  far 
upstream,  where  they  are 
sawed  into  boards,  lath^,-' 
shingles,  etc.;  but  mosf^of 
them  are  carriedj:^  sawmills 
as  far  down^he  river  as 
the  current  will  take  them. 


Fig.  15f). —  A  log  jam  in  a  stream  in  which  ihc  logs  are  being  floated  lron\  the 
forest.    The  lumbermen  are  at  work  trying  to  start  the  logs  moving  again. 


During  the  season  for  cutting, 
the  men  go  forth  early  in  the 
morning  and  work  until  late  in 


120 


NORTH  AMERICA 


the  evening,  eating  and  sleeping  in  log  cabins 
(Fig.  157).  Their  beds  are  broad  shelves 
4.  Hardships  of  rough  boards,  covered  with 
of  the  lumber-  boughs  from  the  spruce  and 
man's  life  balsam   trees;    and  the  camp  is 

often  so  small  that  they  must  lie  side  by  side, 
with  scarcely  room  to  turn.  There  is  much 
exposure,  too.  The  men  may  suffer  from  the 
cold,  for  it  is  often  necessary  to  work  when  the 
temperature  is  far  below  zero. 

The  work  of  preventing  logjams  brings  even 
more  exposure,  and  danger  as  well,  for  the 
workmen  must  frequently  wade  into  the  icy 
water  and  ride  upon  the  logs.     One  may  often 


. 

S^               A                     j-ii 

^^^^^^^^^^Hk^2§^^^^^^ltJl^S 

jm^^'-^'^- 

Jt  I^'timn 

F«w 

' 

Fig.  157.  —  Lumbermen  aud  their  log  cabin  in  the  woods  of  Maine 


see  a  man  carried  along  on  a  single  log,  cling- 
ing to  it  by  means  of  sharp  spikes  in  his  boot  , 
and  balancing  himself  with  a  long  pole.  Now 
and  then  he  must  jump  from  log  to  log,  as  a 
squirrel  springs  from  tree  to  tree.  The  men  so 
employed  are  often  wet  from  head  to  foot,  and 
may  even  be  thrown  into  the  water  and 
drowned. 

The  forests  of  these  states  supply 
much  himber,  though  far  less  than 
5.   Value  formerly.     Make    a    list   of 

of  the  forest  articles  manufactured  out  of 
wood.  Forests  have  another  important 
use:  they  prevent  the  rain  water  from 
running  rapidly  off  from  the  land. 
Where  forests  have  been  carelessly  de- 


stroyed by  the  lumbermen,  or  by  fire 
the  streams  rise  rapidly  after  every  rain 
and  then  quickly  decrease  in  size.  Offer 
there  is  not  enough  water  to  run  th( 
factories  that  use  the  water  power. 

For  these  reasons  there  are  forast  reservation, 
in  several  of  these  states  in  which  it  is  forbiddei 
to  cut  down  the  trees,  or  where  only  a  few  o 
the  largest  are  cut  each  year.  Besides  this 
some  large  tracts  of  woodland,  called  game  pre 
serves,  are  carefully  protected  by  certain  citizens 
for  the  sake  of  the  fishing  and  hunting  at  th( 
proper  season.  State  lawi 
also  protect  the  game. 

Fishing  is  anothe] 
occupation  of  mucl 
importance,   ^.^^^^ 

though     it    1.    Kinds 

employs  few  °^^^^ 
men.  Along  th( 
eastern  coast  are  founc 
cod,  halibut,  mackerel 
herring,  shad,  bluefish 
clams,  oysters,  anc 
other  food  fish.  Al 
the  time  of  the  earl} 
settlements,  food  fist 
were  abundant  close 
by  the  rocky  New  England  shore 
but  so  many  have  been  caught  alon^ 
the  coast,  that  they  are  now  far  less 
common. 

To-day,  in  order  to  catch  large  quanti- 
ties of  cod,  halibut,  and  mackerel,  it  is 
necessary    to    go    far    from  ^    centers  of 
land,  and  hundreds  of  ves-  the  fishing 
sels,  and  thousands  of  men,  *°  "^  ^ 
are    engaged    solely    in    catching    fish. 
Gloucester,  in  Massachusetts,    is   the 
most  noted   fishing  port  in  the  United 
States ;    but   BosToisr,   Portland,   and 
Provincetown"  also  have  an  important 
fish  trade.     Locate  each  of  these  cities. 


THE  NORTHEASTERN   STATES 


121 


3.    Mackerel 


Most  of  the  mackerel  are 

caught  in  spring  and  sum- 
mer. They 
swim   together, 

on  the  surface  of  the  ocean, 

in  such  numbers,  or  schools, 

as  fishermen  say,  that  they 

may  be  easily  seen  from  a 

distance.       The     fishermen 

who  cruise  about  in  search 

of    the    mackerel,    sail    in 

swift,    two-masted    vessels, 

called  schooners  (Fig.  158). 

When  they  see  a  ''  school," 

they  spring  into  their  great 

seine  boats,  row  over  to  the 

fish,   drop    a   large   net,  or 

seine,   into  the   water,   and 

draw  it  around  the  "school." 

Then  the  seine  is  drawn  in 

pocket  and  trapping  the  fish.     In  this 

pocket  enough  fish  are  sometimes  caught 

to    fill    hundreds  of  barrels.     Some    of 

the  fish  are  taken  to  port  to  be  sold  fresh, 


port  on  a  tishing 


forming  a 


but  most  are  salted.  This 
fishing  is  similar  to  that 
Disciples  of  Jesus  used  in 
Galilee. 

Halibut    and    cod    cannot   be   caught 


method  of 
which  the 
the  Sea  of 


Fig.  159.  —  Fishermen  drawing  up  a  trawl  on  the  Fishing  Banks  of  Newfoundland.  Tlie  long  line,  with  shorter  ones 
hanging  from  it,  with  hooks  on  their  ends,  is  lowered  to  the  hottom.  After  a  while  it  is  drawn  up  and  the  fish  that 
are  on  the  hooks  are  taken  into  the  boat. 


122 


NORTH  AMERICA 


with  a  seine,  for  instead  of  swimming 
at  the  surface,  these  fish  live  in  deep  sea 
water.  They  are  caught  in 
winter  as  well  as  in  sum- 
mer, mainly  on  the  Fishing 
Banks  that  lie  off  the  coasts 
of    New    England    and    Newfoundland. 


4.    Halibut 
and  codfish 

(1)  Where 
caught 


1        1 

^^^Mk 

■ 

lj 

■ 

*>^ 

1 

^/    itil'Sffifr^ 

lEp-*^ 

sm 

^Mjsm 

-  ..;^^^Sg| 

^^^^^M 

.^^d^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l 

^H 

(4)  Method  q 
marketing 


Fig.  ]()0.  —  One  of  the  marble  quarries  near  Rutlaiifl,  Vt.  The  stone  is 
quarried  out  in  the  deep  pit  on  the  right,  and  the  blocks  are  hoisted  to 
the  surface  by  the  derricks. 


Some  of  the  Gloucester  fishing  vessels, 
however,  go  as  far  as  Greenland  and 
Iceland  for  halibut  and  codfish. 

Halibut  are  very  large,  some  weighing 
more  than  a  man,  and  they  are  often 
{2)Met?iodof  caught  upon  single  lines. 
catching  Codfisli    may   be    caught   in 

the  same  manner,  though  a  trmvl  (Fig. 
159)  is  more  commonly  used  for  cod 
than  for  halibut.  The  trawl  consists  of 
a  number  of  hooks  hanging  from  a 
single  long  line,  all  lowered  into  the 
water  together  and  left  there  for  hours. 
The  fish  swallow  the  bait  on  the  hooks, 
and  in  this  way  many  are  caught  at  one 
time. 

This  kind  of  fishing  is  dangerous,  because 
tTie  men  must  venture  out  in  small,  flat-bot- 
tomed boats,  called  dories,  to  take  the  fish  off 


the  trawls.     While   they  are  busy  fishing,   i 
storm  may  arise,  or  a  heavy  fog  come  up,  an( 
prevent  their  return  to  the  vessel. 
They  are  then  left  in  open  boats      ^^)  ^^t^ff^r  o 

•'  ^  such  fishing 

far  out  upon  the  ocean.     Every 

year   dozens  of  Gloucester  fishermen  are  los 
in  this  manner. 

Codfish  are  sold  either  fresh  or  salt ;  bu 
most  of  the  halibut  are  soL 
fresh,  though  some 
are  smoked.  In  or- 
der to  salt,  or  cure, 
the  codfish,  they  are  split  opei 
and  cleaned,  soaked  in  barrels  c 
brine,  and  then  dried  upon  th 
wharf.  Very  often  the  bones  ar 
removed,  the  skin  stripped  of 
and  the  flesh  torn  into  shred 
and  packed  into  boxes  as  bon( 
less  cod.  Either  the  salted  c 
boneless  cod  may  be  seen  in  a 
most  any  grocery,  and  much  of  i 
comes  from  Gloucester. 

Traps,  or  weirs,  also,  are  se 
for  fish.  They  are  placed  alon 
the  shore,  and  many  kinds  of  fisl 
such  as  shad,  salmon,  and  basf 
swim  into  them  and  are  the 
unable  to  find  their  way  oui 
Another  kind  of  fish  that  is 
caught  on  the  New  England  f^^dT^*^  **"" 
coast  is  the  herring,  which  is 
smoked  and  canned  in  large  quantities  ;i 
Eastport,  Me. 

Lobster  fishing  also  is  carried  on,  especiall 
on  the  coast  of  Maine.  A  lobster  trap,  mad 
of  wood  and  weighted  with  stone,  is  lowere 
to  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  Avhere  the  lobste 
lives,  crawling  around  among  the  rocks  an 
seaweed.  A  fish-head  for  bait  is  inside  th 
trap,  and  the  lobster  crawls  in  to  get  it ;  but  h 
is  so  stupid  that  he  is  rarely  able  to  find  hi 
way  out. 

Clams  are  found  along  many  parts  of  th 
New  England  coast.  Some  of  them  live  burie 
in  the  mud  flats  which  are  exposed  to  view  a 
low  tide.  At  such  times  boys  and  men  di 
these  shellfish  out,  much  as  a  farmer  digs  pot? 
toes.  Another  kind  of  shellfish  on  the  Ne^ 
England  coast  is  the  scallop;  and  still  anothe 
is  the  oyster,  which  thrives  in  the  shallow  wat€ 
of  the  bays  south  of  Cape  Cod. 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


123 


Quarrying  and  mining  in  these  states 
Quarrying  and  employ  a  great  number  of 
mining.  men.     Note  how  many  kinds 

of  mineral  products  are  found  here. 

More  than  half  the  granite  used  in  the  en- 
tire country  is  obtained  from  the  Northeastern 
1.  Stones  and  States.  The  greatest  quantity 
clay  comes  from  Maine,  Massachusetts, 

and  Vermont.  One  of  the  oldest  stone  quarries 
in  the  country  is  at  Quixcy,  near  Boston. 
There  are  other  quarries  in  and  near  Glouces- 
ter, Mass. ;  Barre,  Vt. ;  Concord,  IST.H. ;  and 
at  several  points  along  the  coast  of  Maine. 


it  was  fortunate  for  the  early  settlers 
that  salt  springs  were  found  in  central 
New  York.  To  these  springs  the  wild 
animals  and  the  Indians  had  long  been 
in  the  habit  of  going  for  the  salt  they 
needed.  The  white  men  found  the  salt 
springs  so  valuable  that  the  production 
of  salt  soon  became  an  important  indus- 
try at  that  point,  and  it  caused  the 
beginning  of  the  city  of  Syracuse. 

The  salt  water  of  these  springs  flowed  from 
a  great  bed  of  salt  that  lies  underground,  be- 


■ 

^^mmi,  ;■ 

■^v'il^Si  ^j'^l?* 

Fig.  161.  —A  view  in  the  oil  fields  of  western  Pennsylvania.     Each  of  these  small  towers,  or  derricks,  stands  over  an 
oil  well.    The  derricks  were  used  in  boring  the  wells. 


Marble  is  found  in  several  places,  especially 
near  Rutland,  Vt.  Here  are  quarries  of  fine 
white  marble  that  is  much  used  for  monuments. 

Slate,  used  for  roofs  of  houses,  for  writing 
slates,  and  for  other  purposes,  is  found  in 
several  of  these  states,  especially  in  Pennsyl- 
vania and  Averment.  There  is  much  sandstone 
that  is  good  for  building ;  there  is  clay,  for 
making  bricks,  drainpipes,  flowerpots,  and 
tiles ;  and  there  is  limestone  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  lime  and  of  Portland  cement.  Pennsyl- 
vania leads  all  our  states  in  the  value  of  its 
building  stone. 

Salt  is  ar.other  very  important  prod- 
uct of  this  region.  Since  this  is  the 
one  mineral  that  everybody  must  have. 


neath  a  large  part  of  central  New  York.  By 
boring  down  through  the  soil  and  some  layers 
of  rock,  the  salt  bed  itself  can  be  reached. 
Many  such  borings  have  been  made,  and  much 
salt  is  now  obtained  through  them.  New  York 
produces  more  salt  than  any  other  state. 

Two  fuels,  oil  and  natural  gas,  are 
found  in  western  New  York  3.  petroleum 
and  Pennsylvania.  Fetro-  and  natural  gas 
leum,  as  the  oil  is  generally  called, 
means  "  rock  oil,"  —  a  name  which  sug- 
gests its  origin. 

The  oil  and  gas  have  been  formed  by  the 
decay  of  remains  of  animals  and  plants  that 
lived    a,<?es    ae-o   when    the   ocean  covered  this 


124 


NORTH  AMERICA 


region.     As  they  died  and  fell  to  the  bottom 

of  the  sea  they  were  buried  beneath  sand  and 

clay   which    have    now    become 

hard  rock.    The  oil  and  gas,  which 

came  from  the  decay  of  the  animals  and  plants, 


Fig.  162. —  a  lar^e  pipe  tlirongh  which  petroleum  is 
flowing  from  the  oil  wells  to  the  refinery. 

entered  the  crevices  between  the  grains  of  the 
sandstones  and  other  rocks.  Thus  these  sub- 
stances were  stored  deep  down  in  the  earth. 
Oil  resembling  petroleum  is  now  manufactured 
from  fish;  and  gas  similar  to  that  now  found 
in  the  rocks  often  rises  from  swampy  places, 
where  plants  are  decaying. 

When  a  hole  is  bored  down  to  a  rock 
layer  where  gas  is  thus  stored,  the  gas 
(2)  How  Ob-  I'ushes  to  the  surface.  It 
twined  from       is  then  led  away  in  pipes, 

vnderground  c±  r  t    j        ,  ^ 

otten  to  distant  places. 
Thousands  of  homes  in  Buffalo,  Pitts- 
burg, and  other  cities  are  heated  with 
natural  gas ;  and  in  many  factories,  too, 
the  gas  is  used  for  fuel. 

Borings  in  which  petroleum  rises  are 
called  oil  wells.  From  these  the  oil 
sometimes  spurts,  or  gushes  out ;  but  it 
must  often  be  pumped  out.  Near  the 
oil  wells  cities  have  grown  up,  such  as 
Bradford  and  Oil  City  in  Pennsyl- 
vania, and  Olean  in  New  York. 

After  being  taken  from  the  earth,  the 
petroleum  is  stored  in  large  tanks,  and 
then  refined.     In  its  natural  state  it  is  a 


thick,  dark  yellow  or  reddish  fluid,  bul 
in  the  refinery  it  is  changed  (3)  Products 
so  that  a  large  part  of   it  from  the  ou 
becomes    clear,    colorless    kerosetie    oil 

Benzine,  naphtha,  and  gasoline  also  are  made 
from  petroleum.  The  thick  substances  that  art 
left,  after  the  refining,  are  used  in  making  dyes 
of  various  kinds,  machine  oil,  vaseline,  and 
paraffin.  The  latter  is  used  in  many  ways ;  foi 
example,  in  making  chewing  gum  and  candles. 

The  oil  business  is  mainly  in  the  hands  of  tht 

Standard  Oil  Company.     From  the  wells  the 

oil  is  led  to  the  refineries  in  pipes 

(Fig.   162),  sometimes  hundreds   (*)  Principal 
0     -1      1  rin  •  company  han- 

of  miles  long.  This  company  owns   aiing  oil 

many  special  tank  cars  for  haul- 
ing the  kerosene,  as  well  as  steamers  for  ship- 
ping it  to  foreign  lands.     Watch  for  one  of  the 
tank  cars,  and  describe  it. 

The  pioneers  knew  nothing  about  either  ol 
these  substances.  For  lighting  in  the  early 
days  they  used  either  candles  or  lamps  in  which 
some  animal  oil,  such  as  whale  oil,  was  burned. 
Very  likely,  even  your  great-grandfather,  when 
he  was  a  boy,  did  not  know  what  kerosene  oil 
was. 


Fig.  \C^.  —  Trunks  of  trees,  in  the  solid  rock,  standing 
where  they  grew  when  these  rocks  were  being  de- 
posited as  sediment  in  the  Coal  Period. 

Another  fuel,  far  more  important 
than  either  of  these,  is  coal,  which  is 
found   in    great    abundance 

.      T>  1  •  4.    Coal 

m  rennsylvama. 

There  is  good  proof  that  the  coal  used 
in   our   stoves  and    furnaces   has   been 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


125 


made  from  plants.  Roots  of  plants  may 
still  be  seen  in  the  old  soil,  now  changed 

(1)  How  coal  to  rock,  that  lies  beneath 
hasbeenformed  ^\^q  ^oal  bcds ;  and  stems 
of  plants,  and  even  trunks  of  trees 
(Fig.  163)  changed  to  coal  are  found  in 
the  coal  beds.  Besides,  with  a  micro- 
scope, or  at  times  even  with  the  naked 
eye,  one  can  see  that  coal  is  made  of 
bits  of  plants  pressed  closely  together. 
Sometimes  the  full  form  of  a  fern 
or  leaf,  called  a  fossil,  may  be  seen 
(Fig.  164). 

The  plants  of  which  the  coal  is  made 
grew  many  ages  ago  in  great  swamps. 
When  they  died,  they  fell  into  water, 
making  thick  beds  of  plant  remains, 
like   those  that   are    forming   in 
swamps  to-day.     If  it  could  then 
have  been  dug  up  and  dried,  it 
would  have  made  good   fuel.     In- 
deed, in  Ireland,  Norway,  and  other 
cool,  moist  lands,  it  is  now  the  custom 
to  dig  such  woody  matter   out  of   the 
swamps  and  dry  it  forburning  (Fig.  469). 
Such  fuel,  called  jjeat,  is  much  used  for 
cooking  and  heating  in  those  coimtries. 

These  ancient  swamps  were  later 
covered  up  by  layers  of  sand,  clay,  and 

(2)  The  kinds  othcr  substances,  now  hard- 
0/  coal  ejje(j  i^to  rock.  The  plant 
remains  themselves  have  also  been 
changed  by  pressure  until  they  have 
become  a  kind  of  rock,  or  mineral  coal. 
Some  of  the  poorer  coals,  known  as 
lignite,  are  little  more  than  peat  beds 
partly  changed  to  coal. 

Other  beds,  having  had  far  more  pres- 
sure upon  them,  have  been  changed  to 
harder  coal.  One  of  them  is  called 
soft,  or  hituminous,  coal.  Another,  called 
anthracite,  has  had  even  greater  pressure. 
It  has  been  so  greatly  changed  that  it  is 


as  hard  as  some  rocks,  and  is  known  as 
hard  coal. 

About  half  the  coal  of  the  United 
States  comes  from  Pennsylvania.  This 
state,    also,    produces    both 

1  •     J         c  1     u    •  r    (3)  The  amount 

kmds  of  coal,  bemg  one  of  and  kinds  of 
the  very  few  regions  in  the  <^^"^  *"  -P^'"*- 

,  ,  ,  , ,  .,        .      sylvania 

world    where   anthracite   is 
found     in    abundance.       Wilkesbarre 
and  ScRANTOx,  in  eastern  Pennsylvania, 
owe    their    importance    largely   to   the 
anthracite    mined    near    them.     Great 


Fig.  164.  — The  print  of  a  fern  in  a  rock  that  was  formed 
during  the  Goal  Period. 

quantities  of  soft,  or  bituminous,  coal 
are  mined  about  Pittsburg.  Pennsyl- 
vania is  the  only  one  of  the  Northeastern 
States  that  has  important  coal  fields. 

In  some  places  the  coal  is  found  close  to 
the  surface,  while  in  many  others  it  is 
several  hundred  feet  beneath  (4)  Method  of 
the  surface.  Where  the  coal  '"^""'^ 
Hes  far  down  in  the  earth,  deep  shafts 
must  be  s\mk  to  reach  it.  From  the 
sides  of  such  a  shaft,  tunnels  (Fig.  165) 
are  dug  into  the  coal  beds,  and  from  these 
the  coal  is  removed.  Some  of  the  coal 
beds  are  only  two  or  three  feet  thick,  l)ut 
others  are  several  times  as  thick  as  this. 


126 


NOBTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  165.  —  A  drawing  to  illustrate  how  coal  is  mined.     There  is  a  shaft  going 
straight  down,  then  tunnels  extend  off  from  it  into  the  different  coal  beds. 


Usually  there  are  several  beds  of  coal,  with 
thick  layers  of  rock  between,  and  the  shaft  ex- 
tends downward  through  them  all,  with  tunnels 
reaching  out  into  each  bed  (Fig.  165).  In  a 
large  mine  one  may  travel  through  miles  and 
miles  of  tunnels.  Since  it  is  very  dark  so  far 
underground,  the  tunnels  are  sometimes  lighted 
by  electricity ;  but  the  workmen  often  furnish 


their    own    light    by   means    ol 
lamps  fastened  to  their  caps. 

The  miners  drill  holes  in  th( 
coal  beds  with  drills  run  by  steaii 
or  compressed  air  (Fig.  166),  anc 
break  the  coal  out  by  blasting 
the  larger  lumps  are  then  broker 
up  with  picks.  After  this  ii 
done,  the  coal  is  placed  in  cars 
drawn  to  the  shaft  by  mules,  oi 
by  electricity,  and  then  hoisted  t( 
the  surface.  The  mules  are  kep' 
underground  for  months,  bein^ 
fed  and  allowed  to  sleep  ii 
stables  cut  out  of  solid  coal. 

Soft  coal  is  sold  in  the  forn 
in  which  it  reaches  the  surface 
but  anthracite  must 
first  be  sorted  into 
different  piles,  each 
containing  lumps 
of  a  single  size.  This  work  is 
done  in  great  buildings,  called  coed  breakers 
which  stand  close  by  the  mouth  of  the  shafts 
The  coal  is  hoisted  to  the  top  of  the  breaker 
where  the  larger  lumps  are  broken  up.  It  thei 
passes  down  through  the  building  and  is  sepa 
rated  into  different  sizes  by  means  of  sievei 
and  various  kinds  of  machinery. 


(6)  Hoio  anthra 
cite  coal  is 
prepared  for 
market 


Fig.  166.  —  Miners  working  far  underground  in  a  bituminous  coal  mine  near  Pittsburg.     The 
machine  in  front  is  drilling  a  hole  in  the  thick  coal  seam  that  forms  the  wall  on  the  right. 


THE  NORTHEASTERN   STATES 


127 


There  is  much  rock  mixed  with  the  coal, 
and  this  must  be  picked  out.  Some  of  this 
work  is  done  by  machinery ;  but  much  of  it  is 
I  lone  by  boys,  called  breaker  boys,  who  sit  on 
low  wooden  benches,  as  the  coal  passes  by, 
watching  carefully  for  pieces  of  rock.  These 
they  pick  out  and  throw  away.  You  can 
imagine  how  black  the  boys  become  before 
their  day's  work  is  done. 

Both  the  hard  and  the  soft  coal  are 

used  not  only  for  heating  houses  and  for 

cooking,  but  also  in  making 

1 6)  Uses  of  coal       ,  ,  .  . 

steam    to    use    m    runnmg 
locomotives,   steamboats,  and   the   ma- 


almost  side  by  side.  Both  coal  and  iron 
are  easily  sent  to  all  the  cities  of  these 
states  for  use  in  the  factories.  This  is 
very  important,  since  iron  is  the  most 
useful  of  all  metals. 

In  appearance,  iron  ore  is  sometimes  a 
hard,  black  mineral ;  sometimes  a  soft, 
loose,  yellowish   or   reddish 
brown  earth.     It  is  not  iron  ancJ-  ZfoTow 
at  all,  any  more  than  ivheat  /«/■'««/  ""'^ 

'  .      .  ,       ,  mined 

IS  flour ;  it  IS  only  iron  ore, 

a  mineral  out  of  which,  by  much  work, 

iron  may  be  made. 


Fig.  167.  —  Coke  ovens  near  Pittsburg. 


Each  of  the  small  doors  leads  to  an  oven  where  the  coal  is  burned  and 
changed  to  coke. 


chinery  of  factories.  Much  coal  is  used 
also  in  smelting  iron  and  other  metals, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  gas  for  light- 
ing. Coal  is,  indeed,  the  most  useful  of 
all  minerals.  Without  it  our  country 
could  not  have  prospered  as  it  has. 
Iron  ore  is  mined  in  large  quantities 
in  Pennsylvania,  and  also  in 
New  Jersey  and  New  York. 
Thus  both  the  raw  material 
and  the  fuel  for  manufactur- 
ing   it    into    useful    articles    are    found 


5.    Iron  ore 

(1)  Where 
found,  and  why 
important 


Like  coal,  the  iron  ore  in  the  earth  was  pre- 
pared long  ago,  though  in  a  very  different 
manner,  as  follows:  Small  quantities  of  iron 
exist  in  many  minerals  and  rocks.  Indeed,  the 
red  and  yellow  colors  of  soils,  and  of  some 
rocks,  are  due  to  it.  As  water  slowly  works 
its  way  through  the  soil  and  rocks,  it  dissolves 
the  iron,  much  as  it  would  dissolve  salt  or 
sugar  if  those  substances  w^ere  there.  Where 
the  conditions  have  been  favorable,  the  water 
has  brought  quantities  of  the  iron  to  one  point, 
and  there  deposited  it.  This  has  formed  beds, 
or  veins,  of  iron  ore,  and  it  is  these  that  are 
now  being  mined. 


130 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Some  of  these  articles  are  made  partly 
or  wholly  of  other  metals  than  iron, 
such  as  copper,  gold,  and  silver. 

Worcester,  west  of  Boston,  manu- 
factures wire  and  other  iron  goods. 
New  Haven  is  noted  for  hardware  and 
firearms.  Carriages,  sewing  machines, 
and  other  articles  are  made  at  Bridge- 
port. Firearms,  cars,  and  bicycles  are 
made  at  Springfield,  and  at  Hart- 
ford, which  is  situated  at  the  head  of 
steamboat  navigation  on  the  Connecticut 


Manufactories  making  four  other  arti- 
cles from  mineral  products  are  especiall}' 
worthy    of    note    in    these 
states.     One  of   these   arti-  ture  of  glass, 
cles  is  qlass,  which  is  made  po^e^y,  brick, 

1^  and  cement 

at  and  near  Pittsburg, 
where  natural  gas  furnishes 
cheap  fuel.  Pittsburg  is  the  greatest 
center  in  the  country  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  plate  glass. 

Clay   suited  to   the   manufacture    oi 
pottery  is  found  in  a  number  of  places: 


(1)  Glass 


Fig.  171.  — The  Waltham  Watch  Factory  at  night.    This  is  hut  one  of  the  many  large  factories  of  New  England. 


River.     Fitchburg  is  also  engaged  in 
metal  manufacturing. 

Near  Boston,  at  Waltham,  the  Amer- 
ican Watch  Company  has  an  immense 
factory  (Fig.  171),  where  3100  watches 
are  made  every  day.  About  4300  per- 
sons, more  than  half  of  whom  are  women, 
are  employed  in  this  factory,  receiving 
about  $200,000  a  month  in  wages. 
Great  numbers  of  clocks  and  watches 
are  made  in  Waterbury,  and  much 
cutlery  at  Meriden,  Conn.  Some  of 
the  cities  where  cotton  and  woolen  goods 
are  manufactured,  such  as  Fall  River, 
Lowell,  and  New  Bedford,  also  manu- 
facture goods  of  iron  and  other  metals. 


but  much  clay  for  pottery  is  imported. 
A  high  grade  of  pottery  is  {^2)  Pottery 
made    at     Trenton,    N.J.,  <^rid  bricks 
where   this  industry  has    become  very 
important. 

So  many  bricks  are  used  for  building, 
that  brickyards  are  found  in  the  neigh- 
borhood of  nearly  all  cities.  Bricks  are 
made  of  clay.  This  is  first  pressed  into 
the  brick  shape  when  damp,  then  dried, 
and  finally  baked.  In  this  process  some 
of  the  grains  melt,  so  that  when  cooled 
again,  they  cling  together  like  stone. 
The  clays  near  Philadelphia,  and  the 
great  clay  beds  of  the  Hudson  Valley, 
above  New  York  City,  supply  an  abun- 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


131 


(3)  Cement 


dance  of  brick  for  these  and  neighboring 
cities. 

Portland  cement  has  become  of 
great  importance  within  the  last  few- 
years.  It  is  made  in  many 
places,  especially  in  New 
Jersey,  Pennsylvania,  and  New  York. 
To  make  it,  limestone  is  ground  fine 
and  mixed  with  coal  dust.  The  two 
are  then  placed  in  a  furnace,  where  the 
burning  coal  dust  gives  out  so  much 
heat  that  the  limestone  melts.  It  comes 
out  of  the  furnace  as  a  kind  of  clinker, 
which  is  then  ground  into  fine  powder. 
This  cement  has  the  valuable  property 
of  becoming  hard  like  rock,  or  setting, 
when  water  is  added.  It  is  used  for 
sidewalks,  for  buildings,  dams,  bridges, 
and  many  other  purposes,  taking  the 
place  of  wood,  stone,  and  iron. 

There  are  about  400  cotton  mills  in 
New  England  alone,  making  such  articles 
^    ^  ^.,  as  sheets,  towels,  stockings, 

4.    Textile  '  '  .  ^ 

manufacturing     undcrwcar,    thread,    strmg, 

(1)  Extent  and    Jiandkerchicfs,  and  gingham 

variety  of  cot-  '  i  * 

ton  and  ivooien  and  calico  dress  goods.  As 
manufacturing   ^^^^ ^^  ^200  pcrsous  maybe 

employed  in  a  single  mill,  perhaps  three 
quarters  of  the  number  being  women. 
One  of  these  mills  may  use  from  60,000 
to  70,000  pounds  of  cotton  per  day. 

Most  of  the  cotton  used  grows  in  our  warm 
Southern  States.  It  is  sent  to  the  factories  in 
bales,  each  weighing  about  500  pounds,  and  is 

(2)  Method  made  into  cloth  in  the  following 
of  cotton  manner  :  First,  the  dirt,  small 
manufacture  sticks,  and  other  foreign  matter 
are  removed.  Then  the  cotton  fibers,  of  vari- 
ous lengths,  are  combed  out  straight  and  well 
mixed  with  one  another.  After  that  they  are 
pressed  into  thin,  gauze-like  sheets.  These  are 
gradually  drawn  out  and  twisted  into  threads, 
and  then  wound  upon  spindles  and  taken  to 
the  looms  for  weaving.  All  this  work  is  done 
by  machinery.     The  cotton  cloth  is  made  by 


machinery  which  weaves  the  threads  together. 
In  an  ordinary  piece  of  calico  there  may  be  as 
many  as  1200  threads,  side  by  side,  and  others 
crossing  them.  Stripes  and  other  patterns  are 
made  by  coloring  the  threads  differently,  and 
then,  before  the  weaviiig  begins,  carefully 
arranging  them  according  to  some'  design. 

The  manufacture  of  woolen  goods  is 
another  very  important  industry  in  New 
England. 

After  being  sheared  from  the  sheep, 
the  wool  is  washed  and  freed  from  burs, 
sticks,  and  dirt.     It  is  then  ^g^  ^^^^^^ 
untangled  and  combed  out  of  wool 

.       •    1   ,  (•,  1  •    1       'l     '      manufacture 

straight,  alter  which  it  is 
twisted  into  yarn,  much  as  cotton  is 
twisted  into  thread.  The  yarn  is  woven 
into  cloth  for  men's  suits  and  overcoats, 
and  also  for  cloaks,  skirts,  underwear, 
blankets,  stockings,  carpets,  and  dozens 
of  other  articles.  Most,  if  not  all,  of 
the  garments  that  you  are  wearing  are 
made  either  of  wool  or  of  cotton,  or  of 
the  two  mixed  together. 

The  following  cities  are  engaged  ex- 
tensively in  the  manufacture  of  either 
cotton  or  woolen   cloth,  or    . 

,       ,        .      Tj^    .  -r,  (4)  Chief  cities 

both ;   m  Maine,  UIDDEFORD,    ewjaged  in 

LEWisToisr,  Auburn",  and 
Augusta;  in  New  Hamp- 
shire, Manchester,  Nashua,  and 
Dover;  in  Massachusetts,  Lowell 
and  Lawreistce  on  the  Merrimac  River ; 
PiTTSFiELD  in  western  Massachusetts, 
and  Fall  River,  New  Bedford,  and 
Taunton  in  the  southern  part ;  in  Rhode 
Island,  Pawtucket,  Woonsocket,  and 
Providence  which  is  the  second  city  in 
size  in  New  England.  One  of  the  larg- 
est cotton  factories  in  the  world  is  at 
Manchester,  N.H. 

In  New  York,  New  Jersey,  and  Penn- 
sylvania there  is  also  much  manufacture 
of   cotton  and  woolen  goods.     For   in- 


teztile  manu- 
facture 


132 


NORTH  AMERICA 


stance,  YoNKERS  in  New  York  is  noted  for 
its  manufacture  of  carpets  and  hats  ;  New 
York  City  and  Philadelphia  for  cloth- 
ing ;  Philadelphia  for  carpets ;  Troy 
for  collars  and  cuffs;  Utica  for  cotton 
goods ;  and  Jamestown  for  plush  goods. 
Locate  each  of  these  cities  on  the  map. 

Boot  and  shoe  making  is  carried  on 
iu  a  number  of  cities,  though  the  most 
important   are    Lynn,    Ha- 


5.     Leather 
manufacturing 

(1)  Cities 
engaged  in  it, 
and  articles 
made 


verhill,  and  Brockton  in 


cities. 


Massachusetts,    and    Bing- 
HAMTON  and  Rochester  in 
New   York.      Locate   these 
Besides  boots  and  shoes,  leather 


Fig.  172.  —  Workmen  in  a  shoe  factory  iu  Lynn 


is  made  into  many  other  articles,  such  as 
bookbindings,  harnesses,  pocketbooks, 
and  bicycle  saddles.  Can  you  name 
articles  made  of  leather  ? 

Leather  is  made  from  the  hides  of 
animals,  including  cattle,  sheep,  goats, 
(2)  How  leather  horses,    and    hogs.      After 

ts  prepared  ^]^q     J^^jj.     -g     rcmOVCd,     the 

hides  are  taken  to  tanneries,  where  they 
■are  soaked  in  tannic  acid  to  make  them 
wear  well. 


Some  of  the  tanneries  are  situated  near  foi 
ests,  where  there  are  many  hemlock  or  oa' 
trees  whose  bark  produces  the  tannic  acic 
Others,  like  those  in  and  about  Salem,  Mass 
are  far  away  from  the  forests.  To  these,  bot 
the  hides  and  the  bark  must  be  brought  a  Ion 
distance.  In  other  tanneries  chemicals  are  use 
in  place  of  the  tannic  acid  from  hemlock  or  oa 
bark.  In  a  single  tannery  near  Boston,  wher 
sheepskins  are  tanned,  from  30,000  to  40,00 
skins  are  prepared  each  week. 

After  being  tanned,  the  leather  is  take: 
to  the  shoe  factories  (Fig.  172)  and  cu 
up,  one  machine  cutting  out  ^3^  ^^^  ^^^^^ 

soles     of     a     certain     size,     a    and  shoes  are 

second  tops,  a  third  tongues,  *""  ^ 

etc.;  these  parts  are  the: 
sewed  or  nailed  togethei 
and  the  shoes  are  soo: 
finished.  As  in  the  cas 
of  cotton  and  woolen  mam 
facturing,  nearly  all  th 
work  is  done  by  machinerj 
each  person  caring  for  on 
or  more  machines,  and  pei 
forming  the  same  simpl 
task  day  after  day. 

Every  city  in  these  state 
is    engaged    in  g    ^^^^^^^_ 

the  inanufac-  tures  from  the 
.  (■  1        1  forests 

ture  01  lumber, 
or   of    other  materials   fo 
building,  or  for  furniture. 
Bangor  in  Maine  is  especially  notei 
for  its  manufacture    of    lumber.     Log 
from   the    forest  are  easily  (^  cr/^fe/ cen- 
floated  down  the  Penobscot  ters  for  such 

-r»'  i       T>  11  manufactures 

River  to  Bangor;  and  here 
they  are  cut  up  into  lumber,  whicl 
ocean  vessels  carry  to  other  points 
The  same  is  true  of  Portland.  On  th 
wharves  of  this  city  are  quantities  o 
boards  ready  to  be  shipped  away,  to  b 
made   into   boxes,   barrels,   doors,    an( 


THE  NOETHEASTEBN  STATES 


133 


lundreds  of  other  articles.  Water- 
viLLE,  Augusta,  and  Bath,  in  Maine; 
WiLLiAMSPORT,  Penn.,  and  Watertown, 
N.Y.,  are  engaged  extensively  in  manu- 
facturing articles  of  wood. 

Another  important  use  of  the  forests  is  in 

making  paper,  for  much  of  the  paper  commonly 

seen, 
(2)  Paper  / 

^  '      ^  such 

as  newspaper  and 
wrapping  paper,  is 
now  made  of  wood. 

Short  logs,  after 
having  the  bark  re- 
moved, are  placed  in 
a  steel  frame  and 
forced  against  an 
enormous  grind- 
stone. The  wood 
pulp  thus  ground  off 
is  carried  away  by 
water,  run  through 
a  sieve,  deposited 
on  a  wide  belt,  and 
pressed  into  thin 
sheets  between  rol- 
lers. When  dry,  it 
is  paper.  Wood  pulp 
is  made  also  by  the 
use  of  chemicals. 
We  do  not  often 
think,  when  reading 
the  news  or  wrapping 
a  package,  that  the 
paper  in  our  hands 
may  once  have  been 
part  of  a  live  tree,  perhaps  in  the  woods  of 
Maine. 

Paper  mills  are  found  at  Bangor, 
Waterville,  and  a  number  of  smaller 
places  in  Maine ;  and  at  Watertown  and 
other  points  in  New  York.  However, 
HoLYOKE,  the  greatest  paper-making 
city  in  New  England,  is  situated  not  in 
the  forest  region,  but  in  the  midst  of 
busy  cities  in  Massachusetts.  There 
the  pulp  is  generally  made  of  rags, 
which  produce  a  finer  grade  of   paper 


acid ;   maple 
sugar  and  sirup 


Fig.  173.  —  Falls  in  the  Genesee  River  at  Rochester,  used  for 
power  in  the  flour  mills  aud'other  factories  at  Rochester. 


than  wood.     The  neighboring  cities  fur- 
nish the  necessary  rags. 

The  forest  trees  supply  other  valuable  prod- 
ucts besides  lumber  and  wood  pulp.     One  of 
these  is  tannic  acid,  used  in  tan- 
ning leather;  it  is  made  from  the    ^^^  Tannic 
bark  of  the  hemlock  and  other 
trees.     Another  product  is  maple 

sirup  and  maple 
sugar.  Among  the 
trees  in  the  forests 
of  these  states  is  the 
sugar  maj)le.  Its 
sap,  unlike  that  of 
most  trees,  is  sweet ; 
and  if  a  hole  is  bored 
through  the  bark  in 
early  spring,  when 
the  sap  is  moving 
rapidly  through  the 
tree,  it  will  ooze 
forth  as  a  watery 
liquid.  This  is  then 
boiled  to  drive  off 
some  of  the  water, 
thus  making  maple 
sirup  and  maple 
sugar. 

Although  these 
are  the  principal 
kinds  of  7.  other 
manufac- ^^"^f  °^ 

manu- 

turingcar-  facturing 
ried  on  in  the 
Northeastern 
States,  there  are  many  others  that  have 
not  been  mentioned.  For  instance,  auto- 
mobiles, farm  machinery,  wagons,  rubber 
goods,  silk  goods,  chocolate,  and  many 
other  articles  are  manufactured  in  large 
quantities  in  these  states.  One  very  im- 
portant industry  is  grinding  grain  into 
flour,  which  is  done  in  scores  of  places. 
Rochester,  N.Y.,  for  example,  has  .many 
flour  mills,  as  well  as  other  factories, 
run  by  the  water  power  furnished  by  the 
falls  of  the  Genesee  River  (Fig.  173). 


134 


NOBTH  AMERICA 


The  way  in  which  manufacturing  is 
now  carried  on  is  very  different  from 
the  old  way.  In  the  olden 
days,  all  the  wool  for  cloth, 
for  instance,  was  obtained 
from  sheep  that  were  raised 
near  by.  It  was  brought  to 
the  house,  and  was  first 
made  into  yarn  by  means  of  a  spinning 


8.    Great 
changes  in 
methods  of 
manufacture 

(1)  The  old 
10  ay  of 
manufacturing 


Fig.  174.  —  An  old-fiishioiied  spiuuiny  wheel. 

wheel  (Fig.  174).  Then  it  was  woven 
into  cloth,  and  this  cloth  was  made  into 
garments  by  the  mother  and  daughters 
of  the  household,  during  the  long  winter 
evenings.  This  work  was  done  by  simple 
machines  run  by  hand  or. by  foot  power. 
It  was  then  the  custom  for  everybody 
to  wear  "  homespun,"  or  cloth  made  at 
home. 

Likewise,  when  the  men  were  not  too 
busy  with  farm  work,  they  often  made 


shoes  for  their  families.  Or  some  one 
traveled  from  house  to  house,  making 
boots  and  shoes.  Pieces  of  leather  for 
the  uppers  were  cut  from  hides  of 
animals  raised  near  by,  and  sewed  to- 
gether by  hand;  then  the  thick  soles 
were  tacked  on,  again  by  hand.  Most 
kinds  of  work,  indeed,  were  done  by 
hand. 

Now,  most  of  the  wool  that 
is  used  is  raised  far  away, 
perhaps     on     the  (2)  The 

sheep    ranches     of    present  way 

the  Western  States,  and  is 
brought  to  the  factories  in  boats, 
or  in  freight  trains.  There 
it  is  put  into  machines  and 
quickly  spun  into  long  threads 
of  yarn  that  are  wound  upon 
spools  by  machinery.  This 
yarn  is  then  woven  into  cloth, 
also  by  machinery. 

To-day,  also,  most  of  the 
hides  for  use  in  making  shoes 
are  brought  long  distances, 
often  from  the  cattle  ranches  of 
the  West.  The  hides  are  first 
tanned  at  a  tannery,  and  then 
the  leather  is  cut  into  proper 
shapes  by  machines.  After 
that  the  pieces  are  sewed,  or 
nailed,  together  by  machinery. 

Everywhere  machinery  has  taken  the  place 
of  hand  work.  As  now  done,  the  work  is  car- 
ried on,  not  in  the  home,  but  in  factories ;  and 
hundreds,  or  even  thousands,  of  persons  are 
often  employed  in  a  single  factory.  All  these 
men  and  women,  and  boys  and  girls,  are  kept 
busy  from  morning  till  night  running  the 
machines.  It  is  an  interesting  sight  to  watch 
the  throngs  of  workers  pour  out  of  one  of  these 
buildings  at  the  close  of  the  day  (Fig.  175). 

In  former  days  it  took  a  long  time  to  make 
a  piece  of  cloth,  or  a  pair  of  shoes,  that  can 
now  be  made  in  a  few  minutes.     One  of  the 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


135 


most  striking  changes,  though,  is  in  the  kind 
of  work  that  each  person  does;    for  now  one 

person  usually  works  on  only  a 
(3)  The  variety  ^^^^y^       ^^.^    ^f    ^^^    ^^.^-^j^ 

oj  work  r-  T        TT 

manufactured.  He  may  spend 
all  of  his  time,  day  after  day,  tending  a  machine 
that  merely  cuts  out  soles  for  shoes,  or  that 
sews  certain  pieces  of  leather  together. 

How  different   it  was  when  a  man  plowed 
ground  one  day,  acted  as  a  carpenter  in  build- 
ing a  shed  on  a  second  day,  and 
made    shoes    a    third !       Were 
former  days  really    worse  than 
the  present,  or  better  ? 

All    this    manufacturing 

calls  for  great  quantities  of 

food,    and    for 

Commerce 

,     „„  an     immense 

1 .     Why  espe- 
cially important   amouut  of  raw 

in  these  states  j.      •    i  u 

materials,  such 
as  coal,  metal,  cotton,  wool, 
leather,  and  lumber.  The 
wants  of  the  twenty-six  mil- 
]ion  inhabitantsof  the  North- 
east e  r  n  States  naturally 
cause  extensive  trade  in  such 
materials  and  the  articles 
made  from  them.  It  is  plain,  then,  that 
the  transportation  of  goods,  as  well  as 
buying  and  selling,  must  be  very  impor- 
tant occupations  in  these  states.  In  addi- 
tion, there  are  many  millions  of  persons 
living  west  of  these  states  who  have  goods 
that  they  wish  to  send  across  the  At- 
lantic Ocean  to  foreign  lands ;  and  the 
foreign  countries,  in  turn,  have  goods  to 
send  to  us.  ,  A  large  portion  of  this 
trade  is  carried  on  in  the  seaports  of  the 
Northeastern  States.  " 

This  foreign  commerce  alone  keeps 
thousands  of  men  and  women  busy  all 
the  time,  mainly  in  the  large  cities  on 
the  coast,  such  as  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, and  Boston. 

Good   harbors    alonsr   the   coast    are 


among  the  chief  aids  to  such  commerce. 

Not  only  must  many  things  be  received 

from  foreign  countries,  and 

many    articles    be    shipped 

abroad,   but  many  articles  can   best  be 

sent  from  city  to  city  in  these  states  by 

boat,  along  the  coast. 

If  you  examine  the  map,  you  will  see 


Fig.  175.  —  Men  and  women  leaving  the  factory  at  the  close  of  the  clay. 
Notice  how  many  people  there  are  employed  in  this  one  factory. 


that  this  coast  is  very  irregular,  with 
many  bays,  both  large  and  small .  These 
form  excellent  harbors  along  the  coast 
from  Maine  to  Pennsylvania.  Draw 
this  coast  line,  showing  the  chief  bays 
and  capes.  Write  their  names  on  your 
drawing. 

The  rivers  also  are  of  great  value  in 
such  commerce.  Name  and  trace  the 
chief  rivers  in  New  England.  3.  Rivers  and 
On  the  map  find  the  Hudson,  *^*°^^^ 
the  principal  river  in  New  York ;  the 
Susquehanna,  the  principal  one  in  Penn- 
sylvania ;  and  the  Delaware  River. 

Most  of  these  rivers  are  too  shallow 
for  large  boats  to  go  far  upstream ;  and 
in  some  cases  travel  by  boat  is  prevented 
bv  ranids  and  falls.     The  Hudson  River 


136 


NORTH  AMERICA 


4.    Railroads 


Fig.  176.  —  Delaware  Water  Gap.    Here  the  Delaware  River  cuts  through  one  of  the  Appala- 
chian Mountain  ridges.    The  river  is  not  navigable,  but  railroads  follow  it  on  both  banks. 


railroads  began  tc 
be  built.  After 
that, 
there 
was  less  pressing 
need  for  more 
canals,  since  rail- 
roads could  take 
their  place. 

Railroads  run 
from  north  tc 
south  through 
these  states ;  but 
most  of  the  great 
railroads  run  from 
the  coast  west- 
ward, toward  the 
interior    of   the 


is  the  one  notable  exception  ;  for  large 
steamboats  can  go  up  the  Hudson  as 
far  as  the  mouth  of  the  Mohawk  River 
(Fig.  177). 

The  wide  mouths  of  these  rivers  make 
excellent  harbors,  as  is  proven  by  the 
large  cities  there.  Name  and  locate 
some  of  these  cities. 

The  need  of  more  waterways  into  the  in- 
terior led  very  early  to  the  digging  of  canals. 
Several  have  been  dug,  the  longest 
and  most  important  of  which  is  the 
Erie  Canal  (Fig.  183),  extending 
from  the  Hudson  River,  near  Troy 
and  Albany,  to  Buffalo  on  Lake 
Erie.  Measure  its  length.  This 
canal  is  especially  important,  be- 
cause it  connects  the  Great  Lakes 
with  the  ocean,  by  way  of  the 
Hudson  River.  On  that  account 
it  has  been  a  great  highway  of 
commerce.  Name  several  cities 
along  its  course. 

About   the  time  the  Erie 
Canal  was  finished  the  loco- 


country.  The  Ap 
palachian  Mountains  have  been  a  great 
hindrance  in  building  them.  Why^ 
Yet  several  fine  roads  now  cross  these 
mountains.  One  of  the  first  was  the 
New  York  Central,  running  from  New 
York  City  to  Buffalo.  It  follows  the 
Hudson  River  to  Albany,  then  takes 
the  same  course  westward  as  the  Erie 
Canal  does.  All  the  important  cities  of 
these  states  are  now  connected  by  rail. 


motive    was    invented,    and 


Fig.  177.  —  The  broad  and  deep  Hudson  Eiver  as  seen  from  West  Point. 


THE  NORTflEASTERN  STATES 


137 


The  greatest  of  all 

lie  cities  of  the  United 

tates  is  New  York, 

which  con- 

reat  centers 

f  population    tains  more 
New  York    than    four 

it y  and  vicinity         •-,,• 

,/„     ,  ,.       milhon  iri- 

l)  Population 

'•(ir  New  York  habitants, 

irbor  1    • 

and  is  sec- 
iid  only  to  London 
mong  the  great  cities 
if  the  world.  There 
re  several  other  large 
•ities  near  by,  the 
argest  being  Newark,  Jersey  City, 
^ITERSON,  Elizabeth,  and  Hoboken 
Mg.  187),  all  west  of  the  Hudson  River 
11  New  Jersey.  Although  in  another 
-tate,  these  cities  are  so  closely  related 
o  New  York  in  business  that  they  may 
ilmost  be  considered  a  part  of  New 
Y'ork  City ;  so  also  may  Yonkers, 
)n  the  Hudson,  just  above  that  city. 
Before  it  became  a  part  of  New  York, 
he  city  of  Brooklyn,  on  Long  Island, 
A  as  itself  fourth  among  the  cities  of  the 
ountry.  More  than  six  million  persons, 
)!■  one  fifteenth  of  all  the  inhabitants 


Fig.  179.  —  The  Empire  State  Express,  one  of  the  trains  of  the  present  day  on  the 
New  York  Central  Railroad.    This  picture  was  taken  while  the  train  was  running 


Fig.  178.  —  The  first  railway  train  which  ran  out  of  Albany. 


of  the  United  States,  live  within  twenty 
miles  of  New  York  harbor. 

It  is,  first  of  all,  the  great  conven- 
ience for  shipping  that  has  caused  so 
great  a  number  of  people  to  ^^^  j,,^,,^_^,, 
collect   at  this  point.     Not  ting  vast 

1  J  •!     u  i.    population 

only  can  goods  easily  be  sent 
far  inland  by  water  and  by  rail,  as 
already  explained,  but  they  can  also  be 
carried  on  the  ocean  to  any  port  in  the 
world.  The  harbor  is  deep  enough  for 
the  largest  vessels,  and  large  enough  to 
bold  all  that  come.  More  than  half  of 
all  the  foreign  trade  of  the  United  States 
is  carried  on  tkrough 
this  port,  which  is  the 
leading  shipping  point 
in  the  New  World. 

The  second  reason 
for  the  vast  population 
here  is  the  fact  that 
this  is  the  greatest 
manufacturing  center 
in  the  New  World. 


Nearly  every  manufac- 
tured article  that  men 
need  is  made  in  or  near 
New  York,  but  one  of  the 


138 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  180.  —A  view  of  lower  New  York,  showing  the  lofty 

manufacture  of 
clothing.  Cotton 
and  woolen  goods 
are  sent  here  from 
the  factories  of 
New  England,  and 
other  sections,  to 
be  made  into  such 
articles  as  women's 
gowns,  men's  suits, 
and  undercloth- 
ing. Lftrge  build- 
ings, in  which  hun- 
dreds of  men  and 
women  are  em- 
ployed, are  given 
up  to  this  work 
alone. 

Iron  and  coal 
are  so  near  that 
the  manufacture 
of  iron  goods  is 
another  great  in- 
dustry. The  refin- 
ing of  petroleum  is 
a  third,  the  oil  be- 
ing led,  in  pipes, 

from  the  oil  fields      ^'"'  ^*^1-— '^''e   riatiron   building,  b.iilt   in    tliis 
of    western    Ppnn  occupies  the  comer  where  two  streets  come  to^ 

oi.    wtJbuern    l-enn-  oflices  occupy  every  floor  in  this  tall  building. 


pynglit,  l:*),-,  [,y  Di-troit  Publishing'  Co 

buildings,  or  "sky  scrapers." 

sylvania  to  n 
fineries  in  Nei 
Jersey,  near  Ne> 
York.  The  refir 
ing  of  sugar  i 
another  immens 
business  in  Nev 
York,  Jersey  City 
and  Brooklyn;  an( 
silk  manufactur( 
is  carried  on  ex 
tensively  a' 
Paterson. 


Merchants 
from  all  part.- 
of  the  United 
States  come  to 
New  York  to 
buy  goods.  The 
business  of  sell- 
ing goods  to 
merchants,  to 
be  sold  again, 
called  the  ivholc- 
sale  trade,  is  a 


sliape    beciiuse    it 
ether.     Stores  and 


THE  NORTHEASTERK  STATES 


139 


tJiird  reason  why  so  many  people  have 
collected  around  New  York  harbor.  A 
large  section  in  the  southern  part  of 
the  city  is  given  up  almost  entirely  to 
the  wholesale  trade.  Since  the  land  is 
very  expensive,  as  much  use  as .  pos- 
sible is  made  of  every  bit  of  it.  For 
that  reason  the  buildings  are  high  (Fig. 
180).  Many  of  the  stores  and  office 
buildings  are  twenty  or  thirty,  and  some 
forty  stories  high. 
Goods  manufactured 
in  the  city,  together 
with  others  brought 
from  all  parts  of  the 
world,  are  collected  in 
this  part  of  New  York. 
These  are  sold  in 
quantities,  or  by  whole- 
sale, to  retail  mer- 
chants both  of  New 
York  and  of  other 
cities  and  towns,  who 
then  sell  them  to  cus- 
tomers in  their  own 
stores. 

The  difference  between 
life  in  New  York  City  and 

iipon  a  farm 

(p.    67)  .  is 

striking. 
On  some  of  the  streets  in 
the  city  scarcely  anything 

but  stores  can  be  seen  for  ten  or  twelve  miles. 
Many  of  these  stores  are  small,  but  some  occupy 
enormous  buildings,  and  employ  many  hundreds 
of  clerks. 

Families  whose  homes  are  in  the  city  do  not 
usually  occupy  a  whole  house,  but  often  hun- 
dreds of  people  live  in  one  building.  These 
structures,  called  apartment  houses,  are  usually 
from  six  to  eight  stories  high,  and  some  even 
from  fifteen  to  twenty.  They  are  so  arranged 
that  one  family  occupies  only  a  small  part 
of  one  floor,  called  an  apartment.  Other 
families  live  above  and  below,  as  well  as  on  each 


side,  being  separated  by  only  a  few  inches  of 
brick  or  boards.  Since  land  is  so  valuable  there 
is  usually  neither  front  yard  nor  back  yard. 

In  the  poorer  sections  of  the  city  the  people 
are  even  more  densely  crowded.  Some  of  the 
children  have  never  seen  the  country,  and 
they  have  seen  scarcely  any  birds,  trees,  or 
grass,  except  possibly  in  one  of  the  city  parks. 
In  these  crowded  sections  there  are  many  for- 
eigners from  all  nations  of  the  earth. 

To  escape  such  a  crowded  city  life,  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  men  live  in  suburban  towns. 


(3)  Life  in 
the  great  city 


Fig.  182.  —  Map  showing  location  of  Bulfalo,  Kochester,  and  Albany. 


or  country  homes,  from  ten  to  forty  miles 
from  their  places  of  business.  Every  day  they 
spend  from  one  to  three  hours  traveling  back 
and  forth.  Some  ride  upon  elevated  railways 
built  in  the  street,  and  supi^orted  by  iron  col- 
umns. Others  go  by  train  in  one  of  the  sub- 
ways, which  extend  for  miles  underground, 
and  even  cross  under  the  rivers  to  Brooklyn, 
Jersey  City,  and  Hoboken. 

How  different  all  this  is  from  the  country, 
where  perhaps  only  two  or  three  houses  may  be 
seen  at  a  time !  Where  sunlight  and  freshairmay 
enter  oue's  home  from  all  sides  of  the  building ! 


140 


IfOBTH  AMERICA 


Map  of  the 

CANALS 


NEW  YORK 

0    10  20  30  40  50  60  70  80 


Toronti 


cities  along  the  Erie  Cans 
route  (Fig.  183),  and  reca' 
what  has  been  said  abon 
them. 

Since  the  canal  (Fig.  184)  \ 
only  seventy  feet  wide,  an 
seven  feet  deep,  all  freight  con 
ing  in  lake  steamers  from  th 
West  must  be  unloaded  at  c 
near  Buffalo,  and  placed  in  cam 
boats  before  it  can  be  carried  o 
the  canal.  These  clumsy  lool 
ing  boats  are  made  with  broac 
flat  bottoms,  in  order  that  the 
may  carry  heavy  loads  withou 
sinking  too  deep  into  the  watei 
They  are  drawn  by  horses  c 
mules  that  walk  along  the  tot* 
path  at  the  side.  The  Eri 
Canal  is  now  being  enlarged  to 
barge  canal. 


Fig.  183.  —  The  Erie  Caual  aud  other  water  routes  of  New  York  and  vicinity 

"Where  there  is  plenty  of  room  to  play,  and 
where  there  are  green  grass,  large  trees,  and  sing- 
ing birds  in  the  yard !  No  wonder  the  people 
living  in  great  cities  are  anxious  to  visit  the 
country,  the  mountains,  the  lakes,  and  the  sea- 
shore during  the  summer  season. 


Most  of  the  other  large 
cities  in  the  State  of  New 

2.  Buffalo  and  ^ork  are  found 
cities  along  the    along  the  Water 

Erie  Canal  ->  -i  , 

and  rail  routes 
from  New  York  City  to  Lake 
Erie  (Fig.  183).  The  most 
important  of  these  is  Buf- 
falo (Fig.  182),  on  Lake 
Erie,  at  the  western  end  of 
the  Erie  Canal.  Before  the 
canal  was  built,  Buffalo  was 
only  a  village.  But  both 
New  York  and  Buffalo  have 
had  a  very  rapid  growth 
since  1825,  when  the  canal 
was  finished.     Name   other 


Buffalo  is  a  great  railwa; 
center,  as  well  as  an  iin 
portant  lake  port.  Here  quantities  o 
grain,  flour,  lumber,  and  iron,  brough 
by  lake  vessels  from  the  West,  ar 
transferred  to  railway  cars  or  to  cana 


Fig.  184. — Locks  in  the  Erie  Canal.  The  canal  boats  are  drawn  into  one  o 
these  spaces,  which  is  then  filled  with  water,  raising  the  boat  to  a  highe 
level.  This  is  then  repeated  until  the  boat  is  raised  to  the  level  of  thi 
canal  above  the  lock.s.  Or,  if  a  boat  is  going  the  other  way,  It  is  low  ere< 
in  the  locks  by  letting  the  water  run  out. 


FIG.  187. 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


141 


boats ;  and  coal  and  manufactured 
i^'oods  are  shipped  westward.  There  is 
also  much  manufacturing  of  many  kinds 
(p.  129). 

Niagara  Falls  (Fig.  149),  which   are 
a'oout  twenty  miles  from  Buffalo,  supply 


The.  greatest  of  all  the  cities  south- 
west  of   New    York   is   Philadelphia 
(Fig.  187),  which  has  over  3    ^^^^^^,^^^ 
1,500,000   inhabitants,   and   and  neighbor- 
ranks     third     among     the   "^^"'®^ 
cities  of  the  United  States.     As  in  the 


Copyright,  1897,  by  William  Rau. 

Fjg.  185.  —  The  Battleship  Iowa  going  at  full  speed.    This  was  built  in  the  shipyards  below  Philadelphia. 


electric  power  for  use  in  lighting  the  city 
and  in  running  street  cars  and  factories. 
Much  use  is  made  of  this  electric  power 
near  the  Falls,  as  at  the  city  of  Niagara 
Falls,  which  has  become  an  important 
manufacturing  center.  Power  from  Niag- 
ara is  used  also  for  running  electric  cars 
between  Buffalo  and  Niagara  Falls  and 
between  Buffalo  and  Lockport.  This 
electric  power  is  carried  by  wire  even 
as  far  east  as  Syracuse.  How  far  is 
that? 

The  State  of  New  York  ranks  first 
among  the  states  of  the  Union  in  popu- 
Rank  of  New  lation,  manufactures,  com- 
York  state  merce,  and  wealth,  and  is 
often  called  the  Empire  State.  The 
great  size  of  New  York  City,  with  its 
manufacturing,  commerce,  and  wealth, 
is  the  main  reason  for  the  high  rank 
of  the  State. 


case  of  New  York,  other  important  cities 
are  near  by,  the  largest  being  Trenton 
and  Camden,  in  New  Jersey ;  Chester 


Fig.  186.  —  Independence  Hall,  in  Philadelphia. 


VER.    ^    -  NEW 

Bennington  Y/     HAMPSHIRE 


FIG.  187. 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


141 


Itoats;  and  coal  and  manufactured 
^'oods  are  shipped  westward.  There  is 
also  much  manufacturing  of  many  kinds 
(p.  129). 

Niagara  Falls  (Fig.  149),  which  are 
about  twenty  miles  from  Buffalo,  supply 


The.  greatest  of  all  the  cities  south- 
west  of   New   York   is   Philadelphia 
(Fig.  187),  which  has  over  3    ^^^^^^^^^^.^ 
1,500,000   inhabitants,   and   and  neighbor- 
ranks     third     among     the   *°^"^®^ 
cities  of  the  United  States.     As  in  the 


Fig.  185. 


Copyright,  1897,  by  William  Kau. 

■The  Battleship  Iowa  going  at  full  speed.    This  was  built  in  the  shipyards  below  Philadelphia. 


electric  power  for  use  in  lighting  the  city 
and  in  running  street  cars  and  factories. 
Much  use  is  made  of  this  electric  power 
near  the  Falls,  as  at  the  city  of  Niagara 
Falls,  which  has  become  an  important 
manufacturing  center.  Power  from  Niag- 
ara is  used  also  for  running  electric  cars 
between  Buffalo  and  Niagara  Falls  and 
between  Buffalo  and  Lockport.  This 
electric  power  is  carried  by  wire  even 
as  far  east  as  Syracuse.  How  far  is 
that? 

The  State  of  New  York  ranks  first 
among  the  states  of  the  Union  in  popu- 
RankofNew  lation,  manufactures,  com- 
York  state  merce,  and  wealth,  and  is 
often  called  the  Umpire  State.  The 
great  size  of  New  York  City,  with  its 
manufacturing,  commerce,  and  wealth, 
is  the  main  reason  for  the  high  rank 
of  the  State. 


case  of  New  York,  other  important  cities 
are  near  by,  the  largest  being  Trenton 
and  Camden,  in  New  Jersey ;  Chester 


Fig.  186.  —  Independence  Hall,  in  Plijladelphia. 


142 


NORTH  AMERICA 


and  NoRRisTOWN,  in  Pennsylvania;  and 
Wilmington,  in  Delaware. 


the  coal  fields,  Philadelphia  has  becon 
a  great  shipping  point  for  coal.  Tl 
coal  and  iron  ha^ 
made  possible  the  man 
facture  of  cars,  hea\ 
machinery,  and  ste 
ships  (Fig.  185)  £ 
Philadelphia  an 
Wilmington.  Phil 
delphia  is  a  center  f( 
manufacturing  textile 
especially  woolen  good 
there  is  much  manufa 
turing  of  clothing  ;  an 
in  the  manufacture  ( 
carpets  this  is  the  moi 
important  city  in  tl 
country. 

Philadelphia  is  calk 
the  Quaker  City,  b 
cause  it  was  founded  b 
William  Penn  and  oth( 
Quakers,  many  of  whof 
descendants  still  li\ 
there.  It  was  the  hon 
of  Benjamin  Franklii] 
and  at  one  time,  befoi 
Washington  was  buil 
it  was  the  capital  of  tt 
United  States.  Indi 
pendence  Hall,  in  whic 
the  Declaration  of  Ii 
dependence  was  signe( 
and  in  which  the  Coi 
stitution  of  the  Unite 
States  was  written,  i 


Fig.  188. — Boston  and  vicinity.  Also  small  maps  of  Providence,  Portland,  and 
Worcester.  Notice  the  steamship  and  railway  lines  converging  at  Boston. 
Also  the  number  of  cities  near  Boston. 


Lines  of  steamships  (Fig.  187)  run 
from  Philadelphia  to  the  leading  sea- 
ports of  the  United  States  and  foreign 
countries.     Because  of   its   nearness   to 


still  standing  (Fig.  186' 
Pennsylvania  has  th 

city  of  Erie,  on  Lak 
Erie,  as  New  York  has  Buffalo;  bu 
while  Erie  is  an  important  4  other  dtic 
shipping  and  manufacturing  »°  PennsyWan 
center,  it  is  much  smaller  than  Buffalc 


THE  NORTHEASTERN  STATES 


143 


The  city  in  Pennsylvania  that  ranks 
K'xt  to  Philadelphia  is  Pittsburg,  the 
^('venth  city  in  size  in  the  United  States, 
['ittsburg  is  located  at  the  point  where 
he  Allegheny  and  Monongahela  rivers 
mite  to  form  the  Ohio  River,  and  there- 
ore  has  extensive  water  connections.  It 
s  a  center  for  the  manufacture  of  iron 
11  id  steel,  and. of  articles  made  from 
hem.  Indeed,  for  such  work  it  is  the 
greatest  center  in  the  country. 


abroad.  In  return,  ships  from  foreign 
countries  bring  such  articles  as  coffee, 
tea,  chocolate,  rubber,  wool,  hides,  and 
bananas,  which  are  needed  in  New  Eng- 
land. 

Boston  and  its  vicinity  have  been  important 
from  the  earUest  days  of  our  history.  There, 
at  the  beginning  of  the  Revolutionary  War,  oc- 
curred the  Boston  Tea  Party,  Paul  Revere's 
Ride,  and  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill.  The  vi- 
cinity of  Boston  is  also  noted  for  its  eminent 


Fig.  189.  —  A  part  of  Boston,  with  its  fine  harbor  beyond. 


5.    Boston 


The  most  important  of  the  New  Eng- 
and  cities  is  BosTOisr,  the  fifth  city  in 
size  in  the  United  States. 
It  is  a  great  manufacturing 
center,  being  engaged  in  most  of  the 
industries  already  named,  and  especially 
in  making  clothing.  Its  size  is  chiefly 
due  to  its  excellent  harbor  (Fig.  189) 
and  its  central  location. 

The  port  of  Boston  is  second  only  to 
that  of  New  York  in  importance  in  the 
United  States.  Great  quantities  of  raw 
materials  are  received  here,  to  be  sent 
to  the  factories  of  New  England ;  and 
the  finished  goods  are  shipped  over  all 
the  world.  Much  grain  and  meat  reach 
Boston  from  the  West  to  be  distributed 
among  smaller  cities,  or  to  be  shipped 


men.  Harvard  College,  the  oldest  college  in  the 
United  States,  was  founded  in  1636  at  Cam- 
bridge, three  miles  from  Boston.  Longfellow, 
Lowell,  Holmes,  and  Agassiz  were  professors  at 
Harvard;  and  Hawthorne,  Emerson,  Thoreau, 
and  Whittier  lived  not  far  from  Boston. 

In  the  vicinity  of  Boston  are  many 
manufacturing  cities  and  towns  which 
also  serve  as  places  of  resi-  e.  cities 
dence  for  the  business  men  near  Boston 
of  Boston.  Among  these  the  largest  are 
Cambridge  and  Somerville  (Fig.  188), 
which  have  important  industries  of  meat 
packing,  machine  manufacturing,  and 
printing.  Others  are  Chelsea  and  Mal- 
DEN,  each  engaged  in  manufacturing  rub- 
ber goods  and  other  articles.  Still  farther 
away  are  Lynn  and  Salem,  both  impor- 
tant cities. 


144 


NORTH  AMERICA 


'IHBbsj^^^N  - 

M 

jgb^/3m 

^^s^H 

* 

/ 

1 

*?^^H 

■ 

W' 

1 

^-V^  ffl 

■ 

■ 

B 

pp^       "^ 

^■dti 

*'''**wi»ii2?i*i§j 

m 

Summer 

resorts 

1 .    Why  a  nee 

of  vacations 


Fig.  190. — The  Washington  elm  at  Cambridge.    It  was  under  this  tree  tliat 
Washington  first  took  command  of  the  American  Army  in  July,  1775. 


Portland  (Fig.  188),  the  largest  city 
„    ^,.     ,         in  Maine,  has  an  excellent 

7.    Other  large  ^ 

cities  of  New      harbor.     New   Haven,  the 
^^^^  largest  city  in  Connecticut, 

and  Providence  (Fig.  188), 
the  largest  in  Rhode  Island, 
are  both  on  the  seacoast. 

The  seacoast  of  New 
Hampshire  is  very  small, 
and  the  largest  city,  Man- 
chester, lies  inland  near 
some  falls  in  the  Merrimac 
River;  but  on  the  coast  is 
the  important  city  of  Ports- 
mouth. Vermont  has  no 
seacoast.  Its  largest  city, 
Burlington,  is  a  lake  port 
on  Lake  Champlain. 

There  is  so  much  manu- 
facturing and  commerce  in 
the  Northeastern  States  that 
great    numbers     of    people 


dwell  in  the  cities ;  an 
during  most  of  the  yea 
they  are  closely 
confined  in 
noisy  factories, 
or  in  offices  and 
stores.  To  these,  the  woode 
mountains,  the  silvery  lake; 
the  rivers,  with  their  fall 
and  rapids,  the  green  valleyi 
and  the  sandj^  or  rocky  sef 
coast  offer  great  attractions 
and  every  summer  tens  c 
thousands  run  away  fror 
town  for  a  week  or  more,  t 
enjoy  their  vacations  at  sue 
places. 

Many  go  to  the  gree 
slopes  and  woods  of  the  Ad 
rondacks  or  the  ^    ^herethe 

Catskills,  in  New  people  spend 
-tr      1  111         T->      1     1  •        their  vacations 

York;   or  to  the  Berkshire 
Hills  of  Massachusetts ;  or  to  the  Whit 
Mountains  of  New  Hampshire  (Fig.  191 
or  to  the  mountains  in  Pennsylvania 


Fig.  191.  —  The  railway  up  the  slopes  of  Mount  Washington,  on  whic 
thousands  of  summer  visitors  are  taken  to  the  top  of  the  mountai 
every  summer. 


THE  NOBTREASTEUN  STATES 


145 


Here  they  can  enjoy  the  scenery  and  the 
mountain  life  to  their  hearts'  content. 
( )thers  plunge  into  the  woods  of  Maine 
or  northern  New  Hampshire,  to  hunt  and 
Jish,  or  to  canoe  upon  the  streams  and 
lakes;  and  still  others  settle  down  at  farm- 
liouses,  to  enjoy  the  quiet  of  the  country. 

Many  others  visit  the  seashore  to 
escape  the  heat  and  to  bathe  in  the 
salt  water,  or  to  sail  and  row.  So 
many  go  there,  that  a  large  part  of  the 
coast  is  dotted  with  summer  cottages 
and  hotels.  Indeed,  people  come  here 
from  all  parts  of  the  United  States. 
Thousands  visit  Atlantic  City  and  Long 
Branch  on  the  New  Jersey  coast.  Nan- 
tucket Island  and  Martha's  Vineyard  are 
similar  resorts  farther  north ;  while  just 
west  of  them,  on  Narragansett  Bay,  is 
Newport,  noted  for  its  many  magnificent 
summer  homes. 

Along  the  coast  for  many  miles  north 
and  south  of  Boston  there  are  noted 
summer  resorts  ;  and  the  especially  cool 
summers  on  the  coast  of  Maine  also 
attract  great  numbers  of  people. 


Review 
Questions 


1.  What  can  you  say  about  the  area  of  the 
Kortheastern  States  ?  2.  Describe  their  sur- 
face. 3.  Name  and  locate  the 
principal  mountainous  regions. 
4.  Describe  the  coast  line. 
6.  Explain  what  has  made  it  so  irregular. 
6.  Describe  the  climate  in  the  north,  with  some 
of  the  reasons.  7.  In  the  south.  8.  What  can 
you  say  about  the  population  of  these  states  ? 
9.  Why  is  the  population  so  great  ?  10.  Why 
is  the  farming  not  especially  important  ? 
11.  Explain  why  the  farms  are  usually  small, 
and  much  used  for  truck  faiming.  12.  Why  is 
there  much  dairying  and  raising  of  animals  ? 
13.  Locate  some  of  the  more  fertile  sections 
and  name  their  products.  14.  Name  other  very 
important  farm  products.  15.  What  can  you 
say  about  the  supply  of  food  ?  16.  Locate  the 
forests.  17.  Tell  how  the  lumbering  industry 
is  carried  on.     18.   What  about  the  hardships 


of  the  lumberman's  life  ?  19.  State  the  value 
of  the  forests.  20.  What  kinds  of  fish  are 
caught  in  this  region  ?  21.  Name  and  locate 
the  centers  of  the  fishing  industry.  22.  Tell 
about  the  mackerel  fishing.  23.  Fishing  for 
halibut  and  cod.  24.  Other  ocean  foods. 
25.  About  the  stone  and  clay.  26.  About  the 
salt  industry.  27.  About  the  production  of 
petroleum  and  gas.  28.  How  has  coal  been 
formed  ?  29.  What  is  the  origin  of  the  different 
kinds  of  coal  ?  30.  Tell  about  the  amounts 
and  kinds  of  coal  in  Pennsylvania.  31.  De- 
scribe the  method  of  mining  coal.  32.  How  is 
anthracite  prepared  for  market  ?  33.  State 
the  uses  of  coal.  34.  Where  is  iron  ore  found  ? 
Tell  about  its  importance.  35.  Its  appearance ; 
also  how  formed,  and  mined.  36.  Why  is 
manufacturing  especially  important  in  these 
states  ?  37.  How  is  iron  made  ?  38.  Name 
the  kinds  of  iron.  39.  Locate  the  principal 
centers  for  work  in  metal,  and  name  the  arti- 
cles made.  40.  Tell  about  the  manufacture 
of  glass.  41.  Pottery  and  brick.  42.  Cement. 
43.  Give  some  idea  of  the  extent  and  variety 
of  the  cotton  and  woolen  manufacture.  44.  De- 
scribe the  method  of  cotton  manufacturing. 
45.  Of  woolen  manufacture.  46.  Name  and 
locate  the  chief  cities  engaged  in  textile  manu- 
facture. 47.  What  cities  are  engaged  in  leather 
manufacture,  and  what  are  some  of  the  arti- 
cles made  ?  48.  How  is  leather  prepared  ? 
49.  Describe  the  method  of  making  boots  and 
shoes.  50.  Tell  about  manufactures  from  the 
forest.  51.  Name  other  prominent  kinds  of 
manufacturing  in  these  states.  52.  Tell  about 
changes  that  have  taken  place  in  methods  of 
manufacturing.  53.  Why  is  commerce  espe- 
cially important  in  these  states  ?  54.  What 
about  the  harbors  ?  55.  The  rivers  and  canals  ? 
56.  The  railroads  ?  57.  Name  and  locate  sev- 
eral cities  very  near  New  York.  What  is  the 
population  in  and  near  New  York  ?  58.  Give 
reasons  for  so  vast  a  population.  59.  Describe 
life  in  the  great  city.  60.  State  some  facts 
about  Buffalo,  and  cities  along  the  Erie  Canal. 
61.  What  can  you  say  about  the  rank  of  New 
York  State  ?  62.  Tell  about  Philadelphia  and 
neighboring  cities.  63.  Other  cities  in  Penn- 
sylvania. 64.  Boston.  65.  Cities  near  Boston. 
66.  Other  large  cities.  67.  Explain  the  special 
need  of  vacations  for  people  living  in  great 
cities.  68.  Where  and  how  do  the  people  in 
these  states  spend  them  ? 


146 


NOUTB  AMERICA 


Maine  (Me.).      1.   Draw  the   coast   line   of 

Maine.   2.  Why  is  it  so  irregular  ?   3.  Find  the 

principal  rivers.    4.  What  cities 

Review  Ques-    ^^^  situated  on  each  ?   5.  Should 

tions  by  States  ,  i   n  u  •         ^        j.i 

^  you  expect  much  nshmg  along  the 

coast  ?  Why  ?  6.  What  reasons  can  you  give 
why  so  many  people  resort  to  the  Maine  coast 
and  woods  in  summer  ?  7.  Describe  lumbering 
in  Maine.  8.  Which  is  the  largest  city  ?  How 
does  it  compare  in  size  with  Boston  and  Prov- 
idence ?  (See  Appendix  at  end  of  book.) 
9.  What  other  cities  in  Maine  are  mentioned 
in  the  text  ?  Find  them  on  the  map.  10.  Draw 
an  outline  map  of  Maine,  locating  the  principal 
rivers  and  lakes,  the  capital,  and  other  leading 
cities.  Do  the  same  for  each  of  the  other  states 
as  you  study  about  it. 

New  Hampshire  (N.H.).  11.  What  large 
lakes  are  found  in  this  state  ?  What  river  ? 
12.  Name  the  cities  on  .it.  13.  For  what  are 
they  important  ?  14.  Why  are  there  not  more 
cities  in  northern  New  Hampshire  ?  15.  What 
industry  should  you  expect  there  ?  16.  Locate 
the  White  Mountains.  17.  Where  should  you 
expect  to  find  most  farming  ?  18.  How  does 
the  largest  city  in  the  state  compare  in  size 
with  Portland  ? 

Vermont  (Vt.).  19.  What  large  lake  forms 
a  part  of  the  western  boundary  ?  Into  what 
waters  does  it  empty  ?  20.  What  river  flows 
along  the  eastern  boundary  ?  Through  what 
states  does  it  flow?  21.  What  is  the  name  of 
the  mountains  ?  22.  Lumbering  is  carried  on, 
as  in  Maine ;  into  what  waters  must  the  lumber 
be  floated  ?  23.  What  other  Vermont  indus- 
tries are  mentioned  in  the  text  ?  24.  There  is 
also  farming  in  the  fertile  valleys,  and  manu- 
facturing, as  at  Brattleboro.  Find  Brattleboro. 
25.  Compare  the  size  of  the  largest  city  with 
that  of  Manchester,  N.H. 

Massachusetts  (Mass.).  26.  Compare  Massa- 
chusetts with  Vermont  and  Maine  in  area ;  in 
population.  (See  Appendix.)  27.  Name  the 
large  cities  near  Boston  (Fig.  188),  28.  Find 
the  principal  cities  mentioned  in  the  text,  and 
tell  where  each  is  located.  29.  For  what  is 
each  important  ?  30.  What  advantages  do  you 
see  in  the  location  of  each  ?  31.  Name  sev- 
eral seaports.;  several  manufacturing  cities. 
32.  Where  is  the  mountainous  portion  of  the 
state  ?  33.  What  effect  should  you  expect  the 
mountains  to  have  upon  agriculture?  34.  State 
as  clearly  as  you  can  the  reasons  why  Boston 


has  grown  to  be  a  large  city.     35.   Of  what  im 
portance   is   Boston   to    the    cities    near    by 
36.    Of  what  importance  are  they  to  Boston  ? 

Rhode  Island  (R.I.).  37.  Compare  this  stab 
with  Massachusetts  and  Maine  in  area.  It  i 
the  smallest  state  in  the  Union.  38.  What  i 
the  name  of  the  bay  in  this  state  ?  What  citie 
are  located  on  it  ?  39.  What  large  city  i 
in  Rhode  Island  ?  How  is  it  important ' 
40.  Compare  its  size  with  that  of  Boston  anc 
Portland.  41.  Should  you  expect  much  luni 
bering  in  Rhode  Island?  Why?  42.  Wha 
kind  of  farming  ?     Why  ? 

Connecticut  (Conn,  or  Ct.).  43.  Where  ari 
the  mountains  in  this  state  ?  44.  Locate  eacl 
of  the  cities  mentioned  in  the  text.  45.  Tel 
how  each  is  important.  46.  The  farms  of  Con 
necticut  average  better  than  those  of  Maine 
Why  ?  47.  There  is  little  lumbering  in  th< 
state.  Why?  48.  Compare  the  size  of  Nev 
Haven  with  that  of  Boston  and  Portland. 

New  York  (N.Y.).  49.  Where  are  the  moun 
tains  ?  50.  What  are  their  names  ?  51.  Wh\ 
are  forests  extensive  here  ?  Why  is  there  litth 
agriculture  among  the  mountains  ?  52.  W^ha 
about  the  surface  features  of  the  rest  of  th( 
state  ?  53.  What  about  the  extent  of  agricul 
ture  ?  54.  Tell  about  the  dairying.  55.  Wha 
fruits  are  important  in  New  York,  and  when 
are  they  raised  ?  56.  What  waters  form  parti 
of  the  boundary  of  the  state  ?  57.  Into  whai 
rivers  do  the  lakes  empty  ?  58.  What  rivers 
drain  New  York  ?  59.  State  clearly  the  impor 
tance  of  the  Erie  Canal.  60.  Which  cities  men 
tioned  in  the  text  are  on  the  canal  ?  Whict 
are  on  the  Hudson  ?  61.  Compare  New  Yorl^ 
in  size  with  all  of  New  England. 

New  Jersey  (N.  J.).  62.  Why  should  peachej 
and  grapes  grow  better  in  New  Jersey  than  ir 
New  England  ?  63.  Name  and  locate  each  o1 
the  cities  mentioned  in  the  text.  64.  For  whai 
is  each  important?  Q>5.  In  what  ways  art 
some  of  the  largest  cities  dependent  upon  the 
products  of  Pennsylvania  ?  QQ.  What  cities 
in  New  Jersey  are  situated  on  or  very  close 
to  New  York  Bay  ? 

Pennsylvania  (Pa.  or  Penn.).  67.  Where 
would  you  look  for  the  best  farm  land  ? 
68.  The  principal  forests  ?  69.  The  leading 
coal  mines  ?  70.  Where  are  the  principal  cities  ? 
Why  located  where  they  are  ?  71.  Why  is  man- 
ufacturing so  important  in  this  state  ?  72.  What 
kind  of  manufacturing  is  especially  important? 


Cities  with  over  600,000 St.LOUiS 

Citietwith  loo.oowo  500,000- '_  iTew  Orleans 

Citiet  with  26,000  to  IOO.OOOl HoUStOH 

Smaller  Placet Sherman 

Cafitalt  with  less  thanib,000 JACKSON 

Capitals  ®  Other  Cities  o 

WllUtmi  Ea|r»iiig  Co.,  M.7. 


100°  Longitude  Wait  from        Ureeowlch         95 


FIG.  192. 


SOUTHEBJif  STATES 

(EASTER:N  SECTION) 

gcale  of  Mi  lea 


200  250  300 

Citiei  iviih  ever  SDO,000. NeW  YOtk 

Cities  with  with  100,000  to  boo.vxL New  OrUans 

Ci<ie9  with  25,000  fo  100,000 AngUBta 

Smaller  Placet- Columbus 

Capitalt  with  leei  than  25,000 JACKSON 

Xatiojial  Capitals  -ft     State  Capital*  ®      Other  Cities  o 

g  Epgrnvipg  Co.,  N.r. 


Longitude 


Gre«Dwioh 


FIG.  192. 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


-1J^7 


General 
Review 
Questions 


Why  ?  73.  What  advantage  do  you  see  in  the 
position  of  Pittsburg?  74,  By  or  through 
what  states  woukl  one  pass  in  going  by  boat 
from  Pittsburg  to  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  ?  (See 
map,  Fig.  138.)  75.  Measure  the  length  and 
width  of  Pennsylvania.  Also  find  its  area. 
(See  Appendix.)  76.  Is  Pennsylvania  larger 
or  smaller  than  New  York  ?  New  England  ? 
77.  Is  it  larger  or  smaller  than  the  state  you 
live  in  ?     How  much  ? 

1.  Describe  the  surface  features  of  this 
group  of  states  from  the  relief  map  (Figs.  145 
and  146).  2.  State  the  principal 
industries.  3.  In  which  states 
are  they  carried  on  ?  4.  Make  a 
list  of  the  ten  largest  cities. 
5.  Locate  each  of  these  cities,  and  explain  its 
importance.  6.  Make  a  drawing  of  these 
states,  including  the  chief  rivers,  cities,  moun- 
tains, and  the  state  boundaries. 

1.  Make  a  drawing  of  New  York  State, 
showing  the  Hudson  River  and  the  Erie  Canal. 
2.  Explain  why  New  York  City 
and  Buffalo,  at  opposite  ends  of 
the  state,  are  such  large  cities.  3.  Collect  pic- 
tures of  Niagara  Falls.  4.  Can  you  give  a 
reason  why  the  Erie  Canal  was  dug  to  Lake  Erie 
rather  than  to  Lake  Ontario  ?  5.  How  can  a 
canal  be  built  where  land  is  not  level  ?  6.  Give 
reasons  why  freight  charges  are  less  on  canals 
than  on  railroads.  7.  Make  drawings  of  some 
of  the  more  common  fish.  Fill  in  the  colors. 
8.  Visit  a  fish  store  to  see  the  kinds  of  fish 
mentioned  in  the  text.  9.  Make  a  collection, 
for  the  school,  of  some  marble,  granite,  slate, 
hard  coal,  soft  coal,  cotton,  wool,  leather,  and 
iron  ore.  10.  Collect  samples  of  cast  iron, 
wrought  iron,  and  steel.  11.  Write  a  compo- 
sition telling  why  one  might  prefer  to  live  in  a 
large  city,  or  in  the  country.  12.  What  names 
beginning  with  Miv  do  you  find  on  the  map  ? 
How  can  you  explain  such  frequent  use  of  this 
word?  13.  Write  the  abbreviation  for  each 
of  the  states  in  this  group.  14.  Name  and  lo- 
cate the  capital  of  each  state  in  this  group. 
15.  Find  from  what  places  in  these  states 
canned  fruits  and  vegetables,  sold  in  a  neigh- 
boring grocery  store,  are  obtained.  16.  Visit 
some  factory  near  you.  Find  how  many  per- 
sons are  employed  there,  how  much  raw  material 
is  consumed  per  week,  and  how  much  it  costs. 


3.   The  Southern  States 

In  which  states  of  this  group  are  there 
mountains?  2.  What  are  the  names  of  the 
mountains  ?  3.  Where  are  the 
plains  (Fig.  194)  ?  4.  Which  is  ^^^  ^^^^ 
the  largest  river  ?  Name  and  trace  its  prin- 
cipal tributaries.  5.  Locate  Chesapeake  Bay. 
What  rivers  enter  it  ?  6.  What  large  cities  are 
on  it  ?  7.  How  is  Texas  separated  from  Mex- 
ico ?  8.  Which  is  the  largest  state  ?  Which 
the  smallest?  How  does  it  compare  in  area 
with  Ehode  Island  ?  In  population  ?  (See 
Appendix.)  9.  Which  state  is  largely  a 
peninsula  ?  10.  How  far  distant  are  the 
southern  points  of  Florida  and  Texas  from  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  ?  What  does  this  suggest 
about  the  climate  of  the  Southern  States  ? 
11.    What  waters  east  and  south  of  these  states  ? 

These  states  are  not  always  grouped 
together  as  Southern  States.  Sometimes 
Kentucky  is  considered  one  states  in- 
of  the  Central  States,  which  eluded  here 
is  the  next  group  to  be  studied ;  and 
Delaware,  Maryland,  Virginia,  and  West 
Virginia  are  often  classed  with  New 
York,  New  Jersey,  and  Pennsylvania,  as 
the  Middle  Atlantic  States.  Name  the 
sixteen  states  of  this  southern  group. 

These  sixteen  states  have  more  than 
five  times  the  area  of  the  Northeastern 
States ;    and    Texas    alone,  Area  and 
the    largest    state    in    the  population 
Union,  is  larger  than  the  entire  group 
of  Northeastern  States. 

The  population  of  all  the  Southern 
States  together  is  not  much  greater 
than  that  of  the  Northeastern  States. 
This  fact  suggests  that  the  chief  occupa- 
tions may  be  different  from  those  in  the 
states  already  studied. 

We  have  seen  that  much  of  the  land 
in  the   Northeastern   States  Surface 
is     mountainous     or     hilly,  features 
The  Appalachian  Mountains  extend  also 


I 


.y 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


149 


across  some  of  the  Southern  States,  as 
1.  The  yo^i  can  see  from  the  map. 

mountains         Name  the  states  that  these 
mountains  cross. 

These  mountains  are  generally  low, 
as  they  are  in  the  states  farther  north ; 
hut  in  western  North  Carolina  and  east- 
ern Tennessee  they  are  much  higher. 
In  fact,  the  highest  peak  east  of  the 
Mississippi  River  is  Mount  Mitchell  in 


land  known  as  the  Coastal  Plains.  The 
Coastal  Plains  are  very  extensive  in 
Florida,  which  is,  therefore,  a  remark- 
ably level  state  (Fig.  195). 

Between  the  Coastal  Plains  and  the 
Appalachian  Mountains,  on  the  east  and 
south,  there  is  a  very  fertile,  (2)  The  pied- 
rolHng    country    called   the  rnontpiateau 
Piedrnont  (meaning  "  foot  of  the  moun- 
tain")   Plateau.     It     slopes     seaward, 


Fig.  195.  —  Much  of  the  South  is  level  land  like  that  in  the  picture,  which  shows  an  immense  peach 

orchard  on  the  plains  of  Florida. 


Xorth  Carolina.  It  rises  6711  feet,  or 
432  feet  higher  than  Mount  Washington 
in  New  Hampshire. 

There  are  also  low  mountains  in 
western  Arkansas  and  in  eastern  Okla- 
homa; and  a  portion  of  the  Rocky 
Mountains  extends  across  western  Texas. 

The  rest  of  this  section  consists 
2.  The  plains  mainly  of  plains.  Along  al- 
(1)  The  most  the  entire  coast,  from 

Coastal  Plains     ^^^       j^^^^^       ^^       WCStem 

Texas,  there  is  a  broad  strip  of  low,  level 


causing  the  streams,  which  are  short,  to 
flow  in  the  same  direction. 

From  New  York  to  Alabama  the 
streams  that  flow  from  the  Piedmont 
Plateau     to     the     Coastal  .„,  „,    „  „ 

(3)  The  Fall 

Plains  have  rapids  and  falls  Lme  and  its 

1  ,1  xu       J  •     •  J     importance 

where  they  cross  the  divid- 
ing line  between  these  two  regions. 
This  boundary  is,  therefore,  called  the 
Fall  Line  (Fig.  196).  There  are  rapids 
and  falls  along  this  line,  because  the 
streams  have  been  able  to  dig  more  rap- 


150 


NORTH  AMERICA 


idly  into  the  soft  layers  of  the  Coastal 
Plains  than  into  the  harder  rocks  of  the 
Piedmont  Plateau. 

Before  white  men  came,  the  Indians 
placed    their    villages   on   the   streams 


and    fertile    plains    of    the    Mississippi 
Valley. 

West  of  the  Mississippi  the  land 
gradually  rises  again  until  in  western 
Texas  it  forms  a  plateau  4000  to  5000 
feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  This 
plateau  region  is  a  part  of  the  Great 
Plains  of  the  West. 

One  of  the  most  level  parts  of  this 
region  is  along  the  Mississippi  River. 
This  river  is  bordered  on  both  sides  by 
broad,  fertile  flood  plains ;  and  at  its 
mouth  is  a  large  and  very  level  delta, 
whose  surface  is  only  a  few  feet  above 
the  sea. 

Chesapeake  Bay  affords  several  excel- 
lent harbors.  South  of  Norfolk  the  coast 
line  is  much  more  regular,  3_  jhe 
and  fine  harbors  are  not  so  coastline 
numerous  as  they  are  in  the  Northeast- 
ern States.  There  are  a  number  of 
bays,  and  on  some  of  them  there  are 
good  harbors.  But  others  are  too  shal- 
low for  large  vessels,  and  some  of  them 
are  shut  in  by  sand  bars.     Where  cities 


Fig.  196.  —  The  Fall  Line.  Coastal  Plains  dotted,  Pied- 
mont and  other  sections  left  white.  Cities  printed  in 
heavy  type  are  located  along  the  Fall  Line. 

along  this  line.     The  early  settlers  also 
located  their  villages   here,  partly   be- 
cause of  the  water  power,   and   partly 
because     boats     going     up- 
stream were  stopped  by  the 
rapids   and   falls.     Now 
many  of  these  villages  have 
become   large   cities.     Note 
(Fig.  196)  how  many  cities 
are  on  the  Fall  Line.    Name 
them. 

As    in    western    Pennsyl- 
vania, the  portions  of  thesi 

states  just  wesi 

of  the  Appala- 
chian Mountains  are  a  low 
plateau  deeply  cut  by  river 
valleys.  It  gradually  be- 
comes   lower   and    more 

regular     farther     west,    until     F"--  1»7.~  Another  view  in  the  Southern  States.     Miicli  of  tlie  land  is  as 
•i  *    ^-        +1  U         J  level  as  this.     The  crop  raised  in  this  field  is  the  peanut,  which  the 

It     merges     mtO     tne      Droad.  boys  and  glrls  are  picking  from  the  roots  of  the  peanut  plants. 


(4)  Other  plains 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


151 


have  grown  on  such  bays 
the  entrances  are  kept  open 
by  dredging  or  by  building 
jetties  which  cause  a  current 
that  sweeps  the  sand  away 
from  the  channel. 

Southern  Florida  has  a  very 
irregular  coast  with  many  reefs 
and  small  islands,  called  Jcey-s. 
This  irregular  coast,  and  in  fact 
the  whole  southern  end  of  Florida, 
has  been  the  work  of  coral  polyps. 
These  animals  live  in  countless 
numbers  in  the  warm  waters  of 
theGulf  Stream  which  flows  along 
the  Florida  coast.  They  have 
built  coral  reefs  here,  and  the  lime- 
stone of  southern  Florida  is  made 
of  the  remains  of  the  coral. 

The  climate   of  this  region   is  mnch 
better  for  farming  than  that  of  the  North- 
eastern    States.     There     is 

The  climate  .      .  in 

more  ram  m  nearly  all  parts 
except  in  western  Texas,  where  the  chief 
industry  is  grazing. 

The  temperature  is  especially  favor- 
able, for  the  winters  are  not  severe. 
During  the  cold,  disagreeable  Northern 
winter,  the  weather  in  the  South  is 
mild,  like    spring   and   autumn  in    the 


Fig.  198. 


view  at  Miami  in  Florida,  showing  the  palms  and  other 
vegetation  of  a  warm  climate. 


North.  Flowers  are  in  blossom  and 
birds  are  singing,  many  of  the  birds 
having  migrated  there  from  the  North 
for  the  winter.  Large  numbers  of 
Northern  people  also  go  South  to  spend 
the  winter. 

The  summers  too  are  more  favorable, 
for  they  are  longer  than  in  the  North- 
eastern States.  Therefore,  many  kinds 
of  plants  can  be  grown  here  that  cannot 
live  in  the  North.  It  is  easier  also  to 
raise  cattle  and  other 
live  stock.  They  can 
be  left  out  of  doors  in 
winter,  and  can  find 
grass  to  eat  when  the 
ground  in  the  North 
is  frozen  and  covered 
with  snow. 

With   its   large 
amount  of  level  land, 

its    fertile   Agriculture 
soil     and    l.     its  rank 

favorable  «« "^  i^^^ustry 
climate,  the  South  has 


Fig.  191).  —  A  cottou  field  on  a  Southern  plantation  in  the  picking  season.  great     advantages     lOr 


152 


NORTH  AMERICA 


agriculture  over  the  Northeastern  States. 
Many  people  are  engaged  in  other  occu- 
pations, but  farming  is  the  leading 
industry.  The  farms  here  are  usually 
called  2^lcLntations. 

Three  very  important  crops  are  raised 
on    the    Southern    plantations   that 
cannot    be    grown    in    the    North ; 
namely,    cotton,    sugar    cane,    and 
rice. 

The  most  important  of  these  crops, 
indeed  the  most  valuable  of  all  the 
2.   Cotton  farm  products  of  the 

(1)  Its  South,  is  cotton.    It 

importance  -^      ^^^      principal  f 

crop  in  all  ihe  states  from 

North  Carolina  to  central 

Texas.     This  region  is      /  iV^H  / 

often  spoken  of  as  the     f 

cotton  belt. 

In  1908  the 
Southern 
States  pro- 
duced about 
13,500,000 
bales  of  cotton, 
each  weighing 
a  little  over 
500  poimds. 
In  the  same 
year  the  entire 
world  pro- 
duced a  little 
over  18,000,- 
000  bales, 
which  makes  it  clear  that  the  United 
States  furnished  much  more  than  half 
of  all  the  cotton  grown.  Every  person 
has  use  for  cotton.  Dresses,  hosiery,  much 
underclothing,  thread,  and,  indeed,  hun- 
dreds of  articles  are  made  of  it.  We  see, 
then,  that  one  of  the  chief  industries  of 
the  Southern  States  is  to  help  clothe  the 


Fig. 


peoples  of  the  world.  The  amount  of 
cotton  raised  in  one  year  is  usually  worth 
more  than  all  the  gold  and  silver  mined 
in  the  whole  world  in  a  year.  It  is  also 
worth  as  much  as  all  the  wheat  produced 
in  the  United  States  in  a  year,  or  even 
more.  Even  if  there  were 
no  other  crop  raised  there, 
cotton  alone  would  make 
the  Southern  States  of  great 
importance. 

The  cotton  seeds  are  planted  in 
the  spring,  in  rows  about  three 
feet  apart,  and 
the  weeds  are   (2)  Method  of 
1        ,         ,  raising  and 

kept   out   un-    ,narketingit 
til  the  plants 

are  nearly  grown.  The  cot- 
ton plant  reaches  a  height 
of  two  or  three  feet, 
and  bears  large  blossoms 
which  produce  pods,  in 
which  the  cotton  and  cotton 
seed  are  inclosed.  When 
ripe,  the  pods  burst  open, 
showing  the  white  tufts 
of  cotton,  resembling  in  ap- 
pearance the  downy  substance 
in  the  thistle,  or  in  the  pod 
of  the  milkweed. 
When  a  great 
number  of  these 
pods  have 
opened,  a  cotton 
plantation  pre- 
sents a  beautiful 
sight,  —  much 
like  a  field 
flecked  with 
snow  (Fig.  199). 
Then  the  busy  season  for  the  pickers  begins. 
As  many  as  two  or  three  hundred  men, 
women,  and  children  may  be  at  work  in 
one  field,  carrying  bags  to  be  filled  with 
cotton,  and  singing  and  chattering  the  livelong 
day. 

When  plucked  from  the  pods,  the  cotton  is 
attached  to  seeds,  and  these  must  be  removed 
before  the  cotton  can  be  of  use.  The  seedless 
cotton  is   tightly  pressed   into   bales,  covered 


200.  —  Picking  cotton  on  a  Southern  plantation.     The  white,  woolly 
cotton  is  seen  on  the  plant  in  the  lower  right-hand  corner. 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


153 


with  coarse   bagging,  bound  with  iron  bands, 
and  shipped  to  the  warehouses,  to  be  sold. 

A   second  crop  that  is  produced   no- 
where else  in  the  United  States  but 


River  in  Louisiana ;  but  sugar  raising 
is  increasing  in  importance  in  Texas 
and  in  Georgia. 


3 .    Sugar  cane 
and  sugar 

(1)  Plants  from 
which  sugar 
is  obtained 


in  the  South  is  sugar 
cane.  There  are  a 
number  of  plants  from 
whose  sap  sugar  is 
made.  One  of  these, 
the  sugar  maple,  has  already  been 
mentioned  (p.  133) ;  another  is  the 
sugar  beet,  raised  in  great  quan- 
tities in  Europe,  and  also,  of  late, 
in  many  of  our  states.  This  beet 
is  now  a  very  important  source 
of  sugar,  because  it  can  be  raised 
in  a  cool,  temperate  climate.  For 
a  long  time,  however,  the  chief 
source  of  sugar  has  been  the  sugar 
cane,  a  plant  that  looks  somewhat  like 
corn  (Fig.  202). 

Sugar  cane  requires  a  fertile  soil,  and 
{2)  Where  sugar  grows  Only  in  Warm  regions 
cane  is  grown  where  there  is  little  or  no 
frost,  even  in  winter.       For  this  reason 


37      ,  'f  :>^,RGmiA  ^.: 

ENNESSEE 


Fia.  201.  — The  cotton  belt.    Each  dot  represents  1,000,000  pounds 
of  cotton. 


Some  single  plantations  in  these  states  have 
several   thousand   acres   in   sugar   cane.     The 
cane  is  planted  in  either  the  fall 
or  spring,  in  rows  about  six  feet    r'    °^  ^*  , 
apart.     The   stalks    grow  in  the 
summer  to  be  two  or  more  inches  in  diameter, 
and   reach   such  a  height   that   a  man  riding 
through  a  field  on  horseback  may  be  entirely 
hidden  from  view.     The  cane   is   ready  to  be 
cut  in  the  fall,  after  the  middle 
of  October.    As  soon  as  the  stalks 
are  cut,  they  are  drawn  to  the 
sugarhouse  in  wagons,  or,  on  the 
larger    plantations,    in    railway 
cars  (Fig.  203). 


Fig.  202.  —  Cutting  the  sugar  cane  on  a  plantation  in  Louisiana. 


most  of  the  cane  sugar  comes  from 
tropical  lands.  Our  most  noted  sugar 
district  is  the  delta  of  the   Mississippi     and    to    crystallize    the    sugar.      This 


In    the    sugarhouse    the 
cane  is  ground  between  rol- 
lers in  order  to  (4),,,,,,, 
squeeze  out  the  sugar  is 

rr  u        obtained 

juice.  1  n  e 
waste  cane,  left  after  the 
juice  is  pressed  out,  is  used 
as  a  fuel  to  run  the  engines 
of  the  sugarhouse ;  the  juice, 
or  sap,  is  placed  in  large  vats  and 
warmed,  to  drive  out  the   water  in   it 


154 


NORTH  AMERICA 


JiiiTMiiii 


!illll||| 


Fig.  203.  —  Carrying  the  sugar  cane  to  the  cars  which  will  take  it  to  the  sugarhouse 
A  scene  on  a  Louisiana  plantation. 


The  molasses  is  used 
for  various  purposes,  some 
of  it  being  manufactured 
into  sirup  for  the  table, 
and  some  of  it  into  rum. 
Molasses  is  a  by-product, 
like  sawdust  in  a  lumber 
mill,  and  is  not  of  great 
value  to  the  sugar  raiser. 

Rice,  a  third  South- 
ern  crop    that    is    not 
grown    in  ^    ^.^^ 
the  North,  (i)  uh  impor- 

is     onp     of    ^'^'^'^^  "*  a  food 


leaves  two  products,  a  thick  black 
molasses,  and  brown  sugar.  Some 
large  sugarhouses  produce  as  much  as 
14,000,000  pounds  of  sugar  in  a 
year. 

The  crude,  brown  sugar  is  sent  from 
the  sugarhouse  to  a  refinery,  either  in 
New  Orleans  or  in  the  North.  At  the 
refinery  it  is  changed  to  w^hite  sugar, 
from  which  the  various  grades  of  granu- 
lated, powdered,  and  lump  sugar  are 
made.  In  changing  the  brown  sugar 
to  white,  burned  bones,  called  bone 
black,  are  used  to  filter  out  the  impure 
parts.  The  bones  are  obtained  from 
Chicago,  and  elsewhere,  where  large 
numbers  of  animals  are  killed  for  meat. 


the  most  important 
foods  in  the  world  ;  it  is,  in  fact,  the 
chief  food  of  some  nations,  for  example, 
the  Chinese.  It  is  not  eaten  so  much 
in  our  country,  but  still  we  use  far  more 
than  we  raise. 

One  reason  why  we  have  raised  too  lit- 
tle rice  for  our  use  is  that  it  requires  a 
warm  climate  and  a  damp,   .g,  ^.^ 

even    a    swampy    soil.       The    may  raise  more 
T         ,       •  'x    ui      •  in  the  future 

climate  is  suitable  m  many 
parts  of  the  South,  but  the  wet  soil  is  not 
so  common.  On  the  Coastal  Plains  and 
the  river  flood  plains,  from  the  Carolinas 
to  Texas,  there  is  some  such  land.  There 
rice  culture  has  long  been  carried  on,  the 
principal  districts  being  in  South  Caro- 
lina and  Louisiana. 


^^^.liiJBHSyB^&iHLlIillii 

^ 

i^EByy  .m 

_  li^      ^       \  ^^ 

^^^^y^^^ 

m 

■ 

fT| 

J'lu.  204.  —  Threshing  rice  ou  a  large  rice  plantation  in  I^uisiaijcV. 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


155 


5.    Tobacco 


In  recent  years  rice  production  has 
been  greatly  increased  by  irrigation.  By 
leading  the  water  from  streams,  or  springs, 
it  has  been  found  possible  to  make  the 
soil  as  wet  as  necessary  even  on  some  of 
the  higher,  well-drained  plains.  With 
irrigation,  rice  culture  may  be  carried  on 
over  much  of  the  warmer  part  of  the 
South.  Some  day,  therefore,  our  country 
may  supply  all  the  rice  we 
need,  and  even  have  some 
to  spare.  Louisiana,  Texas, 
and  South  Carolina  produce 
most  of  the  rice  now  raised 
in  the  country,  though  some 
comes  from  other  Southern 
States. 

When  white  men  first 
came  to  America,  they  found 
the  Indians 
smoking  a  weed 
called  tobacco.  Thfe  white 
men  soon  learned  the  habit 
from  the  Indians,  and  in- 
troduced it  into  Europe,  so 
that  a  great  demand  for 
tobacco  arose.  From  that 
time,  one  of  the  principal 
crops  of  Virginia  has  been 
tobacco.  Kentucky  now 
raises  even  more  than  Vir- 
ginia, and  these  two  states 
together  produce  more  than  one  half  of 
the  entire  amount  grown  in  our  coun- 
try. Yet  tobacco  raising  is  an  impor- 
tant industry  in  nearly  every  one  of  the 
Southern  States,  Tennessee  and  North 
Carolina  growing  an  especially  large 
amount. 

Some  tobacco  is  raised  also  in  the 
Northern  States,  even  as  far  north  as 
the  Connecticut  Valley  (p.  117). 

The  leading  tobacco  markets  of  the 


Southern  States  are  Richmond,  Peters- 
burg, Lynchburg,  and  Danville,  Va.; 
Durham,  N.C;  Clarksville,  Tenn., 
and  Louisville,  Ky. 

Besides   the   crops    that    have    been 
named,  almost    all   the    farm    products 
common    to    other  parts  of  e.   other  im- 
the    country   are    raised    in  portant  crops 
the  South.     For  instance,  great  amounts 


Fig.  205.  —  A  field  of  tobacco  in  Tennessee. 

of  corn,  wheat,  hay,  and  oats  are  grown, 
as  well  as  fruits  and  vegetables. 

Truck  farming  and  gardening  are  also 
profitable  industries.  In  the  warm 
South,  fruits  and  vegetables  ripen  ear- 
lier than  in  the  North,  and  these  early 
products  can  be  sent  North  for  sale  long 
before  the  season  for  them  there.  There 
is  so  great  a  demand  for  these  early 
fruits  and  vegetables,  that  gardening 
has    rapidly  developed  in  recent  years. 


156 


NORTH  AMEBIC  A 


Whole  trainloads  of  tomatoes,  straw- 
berries, peaches,  green  peas,  potatoes, 
and  other  fruits  and  vegetables  are  sent 


■  '  i ' 

|f- 

Ml 

n 

^^m 

^L 

um 

.^JS^RI 

Wm^^^^^^X      /i 

jKl 

9  ^^^^^^K^^^^^^RraJTjl 

B^l 

Hi 

HnLr    ^SMftnW 

■ 

1 

Fig.  206.  — A  field  of  corn  in  Arkansas.     Notice  how 
very  tall  the  corn  grows  in  the  warm  climate. 

to  Northern  cities  during  early   spring 
and  summer. 

In  the  most  southerly  part  of  this 
group,  especially  in  Florida,  fruits  that 
demand  an  almost  tropical  climate  are 
grown.  Among  these  are  the  orange 
(Fig.  207),  lemon,  and  grapefruit ;  and 
in  southern  Florida,  the  pineapple, 
cocoanut,  and  banana. 

Various     kinds    of     live 

Jaisinr*^^  stock,  such  as  horses,  cattle, 

sheep,  and  hogs,  are  raised, 

each  plantation  usually  having  some  of 


these  animals.  Large  numbers  of  cattle 
are  reared  also  in  the  open  pine  forests 
of  the  Coastal  Plains,  especially  in 
Florida  and  Georgia. 

An  important  draft  animal, .  well 
suited  to  the  warm  climate,  is  the  mule. 
On  the  fertile  plains,  especially  in  Ten- 
nessee and  Kentucky,  there  are  stock 
farms  where  particular  attention  is  paid 
to  raising  mules  and  fine  breeds  of 
horses. 

Kentucky  is  famous  for  its  fine  stock, 
especially  horses  and  mules,  raised  in 
the  "  Blue  Grass  Region  "  about  Lex- 
ington. The  grass  here  has  a  bluish 
color,  and  is  very  nourishing,  suited  for 
the  raising  of  stock. 

The  reason  why  this  grass  is  so  nourishing 
is  that  the  soil  in  this  section  is  made  of  bits 


Fig.  207.  —  An  orange  tree,  loaded  with  fruit,  in  a 
Florida  orange  grove. 

of  decayed  limestone  in  which  there  is  lime 
phosphate,  an  excellent  plant  food.  This  phos- 
phate comes  from  the  shells  of  small  animals 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


157 


which  lived  in  the  sea  that  once  covered  this 
region.  Dying,  they  helped  to  make  a  deposit 
of  sediment  on  the  sea  bottom.  This  sediment 
has  since  changed  to  limestone  rock,  which  is 
now  raised  above  the  sea.     As  the  limestone 


a  herd  of  cattle  or  sheep,  and  cowboys 
riding  to  and  fro. 

There   is   no  reason  for   large    cities 
here,  and  the  life  of  the  cowboys  and 


Fig.  208.  —  Cattle  grazing  on  the  broad  plains  of  western  Texas. 


CO'.OIMOO 


decays,  the  phosphate  mixes  with  other  rock 
bits,  and  thus  fertilizes  the  soil. 

Because  of  the  abundance  of  limestone  in 
this  part  of  Kentucky,  numerous  caves  are 
found  there.  These  caves  are  long  tunnels 
that  have  been  slowly  eaten  out  by  water  that 
percolates  through  the  rock,  dissolving  the 
limestone.  The  largest  of  all  is  the  Mammoth 
Cave,  which  is  said  to  have  more  than  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  of  tunnels,  or 
galleries.  These  wind  about  in  tin  ir- 
regular manner,  some  being  many  feet 
below  others,  and  all  together  forming 
a  network,  or  labyrinth,  into  which  a 
stranger  dares  not  venture  without  a 
guide. 

In  the  western  part  of  Texas, 
particularly  in  the  north,   where 
there  is  little  rainfall,  grazing  is 
the  chief  industry.     The  climate 
is  so  dry  that  the  grass  cures,  and 
becomes  hay,  while  still  upon  the 
ground,  making  excellent  feed  for 
cattle  (Fig.  208)  and  sheep.     One  may 
travel  for  miles  over  the  plains  of  west- 
ern Texas,  seeing  little  else  than  a  ranch 
house  here  and  there,  with  now  and  then 


sheep  herders  is  a  lonely  one.  It  is 
their  work  that  helps  to  supply  our 
tables  with  meat,  and  to  give  us  our 
woolen  clothing  and  our  shoes.  Explain 
how  hundreds  of  New  England  families 
depend  for  their  daily  meat  upon  the 
products  of  these  distant,  lonely  ranches. 


KANSAS      ImiSSOU'RI* 

! 


S'"^^^'-'^'''-^'"^- 


Sovthem  Pine  Retfion 

Kv'v^  Hardwood  ForcH  Regum 
Appalachian  Fori'St 


Fig.  209.  — The  forest  regions  of  the  Southern  States. 

How    much    people    depend    upon   one 
another ! 

Figure  209  shows  how  extensive  the 
forests  are  in  the  Southern  States.     Not 


168 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  210. 


■  A  view  on  the  water  front  at  Savannah,  where  much 
lumber  is  shipped. 


Lumbering 

1 .    Extent  of 
forests  ;   kinds 
of  trees 


all  the  land,  however,  marked  as  forest 
on  this  map  is  covered  with 
woods.  Farming  is  a  very 
great  industry  in  these  re- 
gions.   The  map  is  intended 

to  show  merely  that  Tnuch  timber  grows  in 

all  these  states.     As  a  matter  of  fact, 

about  twice  as  much  land  is  covered  with 

forest  as  is  taken  up  by  farms. 
There    is    a    great   amount 

of    hard    pine  —  often    called 

Georgia  pine — on  the  Coastal 

Plains.     This    timber   is   sent 

to  all  the  cities  of  the  North. 

It  is  shipped  from  the  coastal 

cities    of    Charleston,  S.C, 

Savannah    and    Brunswick, 

Ga.,  Jacksonville  and  Pen- 

SACOLA,    Fla.,    and    Mobile, 

Ala.,  as  well  as  from  other  sea- 
ports.  On  the  higher  lands  such 

hardwoods  as  oak  and  hickory 

thrive  (Fig.   211).     In  which 

states  are  these  higher  lands 

found  ?      Quantities   of  hard- 


wood are  shipped  from  Mem- 
phis and  from  other  points. 
Name  some  of  the  uses  to 
which  these  different  kinds 
of  wood  are  put.  Nearly 
one  half  of  all  the  timber 
now  cut  in  the  United  States 
comes  from  the  South. 

The   method  of    lumbering   in 
the  South  is  very  different  from 
that  of   the   North- 
eastern   States     (p.    ^, ,  ^f"?^ 
118).     In  the  South  °^l"-^-°« 
there  are  no  heavy  snows  to  level 
the  uneven  ground  and  to  cause 
floods  in  the  streams.     Therefore, 
logs  cannot  be  floated  down  to  the 
tidewater    by    means    of     spring 
freshets.      On    this    account    the 
sawmills  are  located  in  the  midst  of  the  forests, 
if  possible  on  the  river  banks.    To  them  the  logs 
are  brought,  either  by  vs^ater,  by  wagon,  or  by 
train  (Fig.  212),  and  then  are  sawed  into  lumber. 
There  is  much  fishing  here,  as  in  New  Eng- 
land, but  the  kinds  of  fish  are 
different.     Cod   and  halibut  are  Fishing 
not  found,  because  they  live  only     •  ^^'.'^'^^ 
in  the  colder  waters.     There  are, 
however,  other  kinds  of  food  fish,  among  the 


Fig.  211. 


Lumbermen  at  work  cutting  hardwood  logs  hi  the  mountains 
of  western  North  Carolina. 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


159 


most  valuable  being  oysters,  shad,  and  blueiish ; 
and  in  southern  Florida  there  are  spongfe  and 
turtle  fishing.  The  sponge  grows  in  the  warm, 
shallow  waters  of  the  coral  reefs,  and  the  im- 
mense sea  turtles  swim  about  on  the  surface  of 
the  ocean.  The  alligator,  whose  skin  is  made 
into  a  valuable  leather,  also  is 
found  in  Florida,  but  is  becoming 


Oysters  are  found  in  the 
bays  all  the  way  from  Cape 
Cod    to    the   Rio    Grande ; 

2.    The  oyster      bllt     One    of    the 

industry  best  pkces    for 

them  is  Chesapeake  Bay, 
where  the  waters  are  warm, 
,<;[iallow,  and  quiet.  .  From 
this  broad,  branching  bay  they  are  col- 
lected in  great  quantities,  some  being 
shipped  away  fresh  in  the  shell,  while 
many  are  canned,  like  fruit.  Baltimore 
and  Norfolk  are  especially  noted  for 
this  industry. 

When  young,  the  oysters  swim  freely  about; 
but  after  reaching  a  certain  age,  they  sink  to 
;  he  bottom,  fasten  themselves  to  some  solid  sub- 


water  is  so  deep  that  they  must  be  dragged,  or 
dredged,  up  with  a  long-handled  rake.  Steamers 
and  sailing  boats  are  used  for  this  purpose. 

Oysters  thrive  so  well  in  these  warm 
Southern  waters,  and  they  are  so  highly 


Fig.  212. 


COLORADO 


Fig.  213.  —The  coalfields  of  the  Southern  States. 

stance,  as  a  stone  or  an  oyster  shell,  and  never 
afterwards  move  from  that  spot.  They  depend 
for  food  upon  what  is  brought  to  their  mouths 
by  the  tidal  currents.  Sometimes  they  can  be 
picked  up  by  hand  from  a  boat ;  but  usually  the 


Lumbermen  loadini;  logs  on  a  train  in  the  forest  of  eastern 
North  Carolina. 


prized  for  food,  that  the  culture  of  oys- 
ters is  given  careful  attention.  There 
are  many  "  oyster  farms "  ;  that  is, 
patches  of  shallow  water  in  which 
young  oysters  are  planted,  as  seeds  are 
planted  in  a  garden,  to  be  gathered 
when  they  have  grown  to  full  size. 
These  "  farms  "  are  fenced  in  by  stakes, 
and  are  owned  and  cared  for  as  care- 
fully as  ordinary  farms  are. 

From  what  has  been  said,  you 
can  see  that  farming  and  lumber- 
ing are  among  the  Growth 
leading  industries  of  of  the  South 
the  South.  Yet  neither  of  these 
requires  a  dense  population,  or 
causes  the  growth  of  large  cities. 
From  this  it  is  clear  why  people 
are  more  scattered  in  the  Southern 
than  in  the  Northeastern  States. 

Of   late   years,  however,  other 
industries   have  been  rapidly  de- 
veloping in  the  South;  the  popula- 
tion has  been  increasing  very  fast,  and 
seems  likely  to  increase  much  more  in 
the  near  future. 

Mining  is  one  of  the  occupations  that 


"O;-  > 


160 


NOHTH  AMERICA 


have  been  rapidly  developing,  and  many 
valuable  minerals   are   found.     Among 

these  minerals  the  most  im- 
ining  portant  is  soft  or  bituminous 

coal,  which  is  mined  in  large 
quantities.  The  states  where  this  coal 
is  found  are  shown  on  the  map  (Fig. 
213).  What  are  their  names?  Note 
also  what  states  have  lignite,  or  brown 
coal.  This  is  not  so  good  as  the  bitu- 
minous coal,  but  is  of  much  value.    One 


3.    Oil  and  gas 


Fig.  214.  —  A  marble  quarry  near  Knoxville,  Tennessee. 


fourth  of  the  coal  of  the  country  now 
comes  from  these  states. 

Iron  ore  is  mined  in  several  of  the 
Southern  States,  especially  Tennessee 
and  Alabama ;  but  Alabama 
supplies  nearly  as  much  as 
all  the  others  together.  Only  two  other 
states  in  the  country,  Minnesota  and 
Michigan,  produce  more  iron  ore  than 
Alabama.  The  most  noted  mining  re- 
gion in  the  South  is  that  around  Bir- 
mingham, Ala.,  near  the  southern  end  of 


2.    Iron  ore 


the  Appalachian  system.  Here  iron  ore, 
coal,  and  limestone,  the  three  materials 
necessary  for  the  production  of  iron  and 
steel  (p.  128),  are  found  very  close  to- 
gether. 

There  is  not  much  natural  gas  pro- 
duced in  the  Southern  States,  though 
it  is  found  in  several  of 
them.  The  greatest  quan- 
tity comes  from  Oklahoma.  Petroleum, 
however,  is  of  very  great  importance. 
Vast  quantities  have  been 
found  in  Texas  and  in 
Louisiana,  near  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico,  and  this  is  now  one 
of  the  most  noted  oil  regions 
in  the  world.  Millions  of 
barrels  of  oil  are  produced 
there  every  year.  Much  is 
also  found  in  West  Virginia, 
in  Oklahoma,  and  some  in 
Tennessee. 

There  are  valuable  deposits 
of  granite  in  several  of  the 
states,  especially 
North  and  South 
Carolina,  Georgia, 
Arkansas,  and  Texas.  Excellent 
sandstone  for  building,  and  lime- 
stone for  various  uses,  are  also 
widely  distributed.  Among  the 
important  uses  of  the  limestone 
here,  as  in  the  North,  is  the  manufacture  of 
Portland  cement  (p.  131). 

There  is  much  beautiful  marble  in  Texas, 
Georgia,  and  Tennessee.  The  Georgia  marble 
is  widely  known  for  its  great  beauty ;  and  near 
Knoxville,  in  eastern  Tennessee,  marble  of 
different  colors  is  quarried  (Fig.  214).  What 
city  in  Vermont  is  likewise  noted  for  marble 
(p.  123)  ? 

Clays  of  fine  quality  for  bricks,  tiles,  etc., 
are  found  in  many  places. 

The  soil  of  farms  often  becomes  worn 
out  and  needs  a  fertilizer.     There  are  va- 


4.    Building 
stones  and  clays 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


161 


rious  kinds  of  fertilizers,  such  as  manure 

and  bone  dust,  which  furnish  the  plant 

food  needed  by  crops;    but 

6.     Phosphates  (•    xi  x    •  x       x 

one  01  the  most  important 
kinds  is  mineral  phosphate.  This  is 
found  in  great  quantities  in  Florida, 
Tennessee,  and  South  Carolina;  and 
from  these  states  much  phosphate  is 
now  obtained.  Besides  being  used  in 
the  South,  it  is  shipped  from  Charles- 
ton, Jacksonville,  and  Tampa  for 
use  on  farms  in  the  North. 

The  phosphate  is   composed  largely  of  the 
fossil  remains  of  animals,  such  as  the   teejih 
of  sharks,  and  the  bones  and  teeth 
of  larger   land  animals  that  lived 
in  this  country  in  former  ages. 

The  South  produces  a  variety  of 
other  minerals.     Salt,  for  instance, 

is  obtained  in  Texas 
e;J'*o1ul°"     and     Louisiana 

Bauxite,  the  mineral 
from  which  aluminum  is  made,  is 
found  in  Georgia,  Alabama,  and 
Arkansas.  Gold  is  mined  in  North 
and  South  Carolina,  Georgia,  and 
Alabama  ;  silver  in  Texas  and  Ten- 
nessee; and  copper  in  Tennessee. 
Some  precious  stones,  such  as  the 
sapphire  and  the  diamond,  are  also 
found.  The  South  is,  therefore,  a 
rich  mineral  region,  and  mining  is 
rapidly  growing  in  importance. 


in   the   form  of  furniture.     Very   little 
iron  ore  or  coal  was  mined  in  those  days. 

The  situation  is  now  greatly  changed. 
Indeed,  the  advance  made  in  manufac- 
turing since  the  Civil  War  has  been 
wonderful.  This  is  shown  in  Figure  215, 
for  a  single  one  of  the  products  of  the 
South.     Explain  this  figure. 

There    are    so    many    valuable    raw 
products  in  the   South,  that  there  are 
great  opportunities  for  man-  ^    conditions 
ufacturing.      Among    these  favorable  to 

1       ,  XX  manufacturing 

products    are    cotton,   sugar 

cane,  corn,  wheat,  cattle,  sheep,  lumber, 


1  Wr^'y-^Yh-oportion  exported 
^^^^^Proportion  sent  to  Northern  Hates 
3  ^^^^Prn2}ortion  coniumed  in  South 


Fig.  215. —Diagram  to  show  what  was  done  with  the  Southern  cotton  in 
liKX),  as  compared  with  1880. 


Before  the  Civil  War  there  was  little 
manufacturing  in  the  South.  The  ne- 
groes, who  did  most  of  the 
hand  labor,  lacked  the  train- 
ing necessary  to  handle  ma- 
chinery. The  raw  materials 
were  shipped  away,  and  the 
manufactured  articles  were  brought 
back.  Thus  cotton  went  to  England, 
New  England,  and  elsewhere,  some  of 
it  to  be  returned  in  the  form  of  cloth ; 
and  lumber  was  shipped  to  various 
Northern  cities,  often  to  be  sent  back 


Manufac- 
turing 

1 .     Great  ad 
vances  in 
this  industry 


and  iron  ore.  There  is  also  an  abun- 
dance of  coal  for  power,  and  there  are 
many  rivers  and  mountain  streams  that 
can  furnish  water  power. 

In  some  cities  there  are  many  cotton 
mills ;  for  example,  in  Charlotte,  N.C, 
there  are  twenty-three,  and  g    cotton 
in  and  near  Spartanburg,  manufacturing 
S.C,  thirty-seven.    In  many  (i)^^,,^,„^ 
other  towns  there  are  one  or  cotto7i  manu- 

,  -n  -r\  Ml         TT  facturinq,  and 

two.       From     Danville,     Va.,    leading  centers 

to  Atlanta,  Ga.,  cotton  mills 

are  very  numerous,  and  there  are  others 


162 


NORTH  AMMRICA 


throughout  the  cotton  belt.  Indeed,  the 
Piedmont  Plateau  has  become  one  of  the 
greatest  cotton  manufacturing  sections 
in  the  world.  The  map  (Fig.  216) 
shows  the  distribution  of  these  mills 
in  a  number  of  the  Southern  States. 


Fig.  21G.  — A  map  to  show  the  extent  of  cotton  manufac- 
turing in  the  South.    Each  dot  represents  one  mill. 

While  hundreds  of  Southern  cities  and 
towns  now  manufacture  cotton  cloth  and 
cottonseed  oil,  Charlotte,  N.C,  Colum- 
bia, Greenville,  and  Spartanburg, 
S.C.,  and  Augusta,  Columbus,  and  At- 
lanta, Ga.,  lead  in  these  industries. 
What  cities  in  New  England  are 
noted  for  cotton  manufacture  (p.  131)  ? 
Where  does  their  raw  cotton  come  from  ? 

The  following  facts  from  an  Alabama  cotton 

mill  give  some  idea  of  the  size  and  output  of 

these  mills.     This  particular  mill 

(2)mamngof    ^,^^^^^^   goO     hands,     including 

men,  women,  boys,  and  girls,  and 
pays  them  about  $2000  a  week  in  wages. 
Every  day  this  mill  consumes  15  bales  of  cotton, 
each  weighing  about  600  pounds.  Since  the 
average  yield  per  acre  of  land  is  about  250 
pounds,  you  can  easily  figure  out  how  many 
acres  of  cotton  are  required  in  one  year  to 
supply  this  single  mill. 

In  this  mill,  as  in  many  others,  white  people 
are  employed  to  do  the  work.  While  many  of 
the  mills  are  in  cities,  others  are  in  the  country ; 
and  there  villages  have  sprung  up  near  the 
mills.     Some  of  these  new  villages  are  already 


so  large  that  they  have  their  own  schoolhouses 
and  churches. 

In  the  early  days  the  cotton  seeds 
were  slowly  picked  out  of  the  cotton 
by  hand  and  thrown  away.  (S)  -ffaiue  of 
Whitney's  invention  of  the  th^  cotton  gin 
cotton  gin,  in  1793,  made  it  possible  for 
one  laborer  to  separate  as  much  as  a 
thousand  pounds  from  the  seed  in  the 
same  time  that  five  or  six  pounds  could 
be  cleaned  by  hand.  That,  of  course, 
made  cotton  raising  far  more  profitable, 
and  led  the  planters  to  raise  more. 

•  The  seeds  have  also  been  found  to  be 
of  value,  and  are  no  longer  thrown 
away.  Oil  is  pressed  out  of  (4)  yaiue  o/ 
them,  which  is  used  in  mak-  ^''""'^  *^^^ 
ing  soap,  imitation  lard  and  butter,  and 
a  substitute  for  olive  oil.  There  are 
from  two  to  three  pounds  of  seed  to 
one  pound  of  cotton,  and  since,  on  the 
average,  one  acre  produces  two  hundred 
and  fifty  pounds  of  cotton,  the  value 
of  the  cotton  seed  from  a  large  planta- 
tion is  not  small.     The  part  of  the  seed 


Fig.  217. — A  cotton  mill  at  Huntsville,  Alabama.  There 
are  many  others  as  large  as  this,  and  many,  also,  that 
are  even  larger. 

that  is  left,  after  the  oil  is  pressed  out, 
has  been  found  to  be  an  excellent  food 
for  cattle,  and  a  good  fertilizer.  Thus 
the  cotton  plant  now  produces  two  valu- 
able substances  besides  the  cotton  fiber. 


THE  SOUTHERN   STATES 


163 


Birmingham  has  devel- 
oped such  extensive  iron 
,    „     ,         manufacturing 

4.    Manufac-  .       .  ^ 

ture  of  iron  and     that    it    IS    Olten 

steeigoods  called  the 
••  Pittsburg  of  the  South." 
What  special  advantages  has 
it  (p.  160)  ?  In  and  near  this 
city,  as  at  Pittsburg,  the 
iron  ore  is  reduced  to  iron 
in  blast  furnaces  (p.  128)  and 
then  manufactured  into  steel 
and  various  other  useful  ar- 
ticles. 

Baltimore,  in  Maryland, 
and  Wilmington,  in  Dela- 
ware, are  likewise  important 
in  this  industry.  To  each 
of  these  cities  both  coal  and  iron  can 
be  easily  shipped.  Baltimore  makes 
many  kinds  of  iron  goods;  Wilming- 
ton is  noted  especially  for  the  manu- 
facture of  cars,  heavy  machinery,  and 
ships. 

Other  centers-  of  iron  manufacture 
are  Richmond,  in  Virginia ;  Wheeling, 
in  West  Virginia  ;  Atlanta  and  Rome, 
in  Georgia;  Louisville,  in  Kentucky; 


Fig.  218.  —  Interior  of  a  cotton  mill  in  the  South.    There  are  scores  of 
machines,  each  one  weaving  the  cotton  fiber  into  cloth. 


and    Knoxyille,   Chattanooga,    and 
other  cities  in  Tennessee. 

Although  much  of  the  pine,  oak,  and 
other  lumber  is  sent  North,  a  great  deal 
of   it    is   made    into   doors,   .    _,     , 

'    5.    Manufac- 

blinds,    furniture,    etc.,    at  turesfrom 
factories  in  Macon,  Mont-  ^"^°''"^* 
GOMERY,  Mobile,  Chattanooga,   Mem- 
phis, Little  Rock,  and  Atlanta  (Fig. 
220).      Locate    each    of     these    cities. 


II  II  iliilHiiitiuiii  ,1111111111  luniiii 

II  II  iiniiiliiiiiiiii  iiiiiiimnimiu^^- 

II  11  tLiiitiiiiiuiiii  iiaiuiiMimiii 

II  II  iiiiniiimiiiii  mimm  Mil  imuii 

II  11  Ih.  —    ""• 


Fig.  219.  —  A  Southern  cotton  mill  at  nighttime.    Power  is  obtained  from  the  river. 


164 


NORTH  AMERICA 


High  Point,  in  North  Carolina,  "the 
Grand  Rapids  of  the  South,"  is  now 
one  of  the  most  noted  furniture  manufac- 
turing centers  of  the  Southern  States, 
although  a  few  years  ago  it  was  hardly 
known.  There  are  now  eighty  manu- 
facturing plants  there. 

The  Southern  forests  are  of  value  in  several 
other  ways.  From  them  are  obtained  turpentine 
and  tannic  acid  (p.  132).  Turpentine  is  made 
from  the  sap  of  the  long-leafed  pine.    The  bark 


Fig.  220.  —  A  pliuiing-  inill  in  eastern  North  Carolina. 
Notice  the  great  piles  of  boards  in  the  yard  behind 
the  mill. 


is  cut  through  near  the  base  of  the  tree,  when 
the  liquid  from  which  turpentine  is  made  oozes 
forth.  Other  products  from  the  pine  are  rosin, 
tar,  and  wood  alcohol. 

Some  of  the  other  articles  manufac- 
tured in  the  South  have  already  been 
6    oth  r  mentioned ;     for     example, 

manufactures      tobacco  (p.  155)  and  sugar 

in  the  south  ^p^    ^^^y         j^  ^^^^  ^^gg  ^^^ 

work  is  confined  mainly  to  the  sections 
from  which  the  raw  material  comes. 
Thus,  New  Orleans,  near  the  sugar 
plantations,  has  large  sugar  refineries. 
Raleigh,  Durham,  and  Winston-Salem, 
in  North  Carolina,  Louisville,  in  Ken- 
tucky, and  Lynchburg,  Danville,  and 
Richmond,  in  Virginia,  manufacture 
tobacco. 

Key   West,  on   a   small    coral    key 


south  of  the  Florida  peninsula,  is  also 
noted  for  its  tobacco  factories.  It  is  so 
near  Cuba  that  the  Havana  tobacco,  so 
much  prized  by  cigar  smokers,  is  easily 
obtained.  There  is  also  cigar  manufac- 
turing at  Tampa.  Why  there  ?  Besides 
the  articles  mentioned,  the  South  makes 
a  great  variety  of  other  goods  from  the 
products  of  the  farm,  ranch,  forest,  and 
mine. 

The  irregular  coast  line  of  parts  of  the 
Southern  States  suggests  that  there  are 
many  harbors  there.     Good  Transoor- 
harbors    are    especially   nu-  tation 
merous  in  the  northern  part.  ^-  Harbors 
Observe  how  far   the  waters  of  Chesa- 
peake and  Delaware   bays  extend   into 
the  land.     The  cities  of  Baltimore  and 
Wilmington,  on  these  bays,  have  much 
the  same  advantages  for  shipping  goods 
that   Philadelphia   has.     Norfolk  aud 
Richmond,   in  Virginia,   are  also  good 
shipping  points. 

Farther  south,  although  the  water  in  some 
of  the  bays  is  shallow,  and  sand  bars  are  com- 
mon, there  are  many  good  harbors;  and  the 
United  States  government  is  spending  much 
money  in  deepening  and  improving  others,  so 
that  the  largest  ships  may  enter  them. 

The  commerce  of  the  states  bordering 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico  is  greatly  aided  by 
the  Mississippi  River.  This  mighty 
stream,  together  with  its 
tributaries,  drains  a  vast 
area,  inhabited  by  millions  of  people. 
Name  the  principal  tributaries,  and  tra(>e 
them  to  their  sources.  On  Figure  402 
note  how  far  up  these  rivers  boats  can 
go.  "  Since  transportation  of  goods  is 
cheapest  by  water,  a  large  amount  of 
freight  is  sent  up  and  down  these  water- 
ways (Fig.  226).  No  wonder,  therefore, 
that   the  United  States  government   is 


2.    Rivers 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


165 


spending  large  sums  of  money  in  im- 
proving them. 

In  addition  to  the  waterways,  there 

are   railways    connecting  all  important 

points    in 

3.    Railroads      \ 

these  states, 
and  reaching  out  to  all 
parts  of  our  country. 
These  carry  great  quan- 
tities of  freight,  as  well 
as  many  passengers. 
Among  the  most  im- 
portant railroads  are 
the  Southern,  the 
Southern  Pacific,  the 
Louisville  and  Nash- 
ville, and  the  Baltimore 
and  Ohio. 

The  principal  cities 
in  the  South,  as  in  the 
Principal  North,  are 

cities  those    that 

have  grown  up  at  the 
best  shipping  points,  or 
at  points  most  favor- 
able to  manufacturing. 

Baltimore,  the  larg- 
est of  all,  is  the  seventh 
c i  t  V     in 

1 .    Baltimore  .        ".         , 

Size  m  the 
United  States,  having 
over  half  a  million  in- 
habitants. It  has  an 
excellent  harbor,  far 
inland,  in  the  fertile 
state  of  Maryland,  near 
the  head  of  Chesapeake 
Bay.  Coal  and  iron 
can  easily  reach  it  from 
Pennsylvania,  Maryland,  and  West  Vir- 
ginia ;  and,  like  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia, it  has  a  large  amount  of  manu- 
facturing and  commerce.     It  is  further 


noted  as  a  center  of  oyster  fishing  and 
shipping.  Baltimore,  besides  being  one 
of  our  busiest,  is  also  one  of  our  most 
beautiful,  cities. 


Map  to  show  the  location  of  Baltimore  aud  Washington. 


A  few  miles  south  of  Baltimore,  at  An- 
napolis, is  the  United  States  Naval  Acad- 
emy, which  prepares  officers  for  the  navy, 
as  West  Point  prepares  them  for  the  army. 


166 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  2*22. 


■  Peuiisylvania  Avenue,  in  Washington,  sliowini 
at  the  farther  end. 


Southwest  of  Baltimore,  on  the  Poto- 
mac River,  is  the  District  of  Columbia, 
where  Washington,  our 
national  capital  (Fig.  221),  is 
situated.  This  site  was  chosen  for  the 
capital  long  ago,  when  it  was  near  the 
center  of  the  settled  part  of  the  country. 
On  Figure  367  you  will  find  a  star  showing 
where  that  center  is  now.  The  District 
of  Columbia  does  not  form  k  a  part 
of  any  state,  but  is  controlled  A  direct- 
ly by  the  national  govern     S    ment. 


the  Capitol 


gress, 


Washington  is  unlike  other 
cities  in  two  respects.  In 
the  first  place,  since  it  was 
certain  that  it  would  one  day 
be  very  large,  it  was  carefully 
planned,  with  wide  streets 
and  many  parks.  For  that 
reason  it  is  more  beautiful 
than  most  cities.  In  the 
second  place,  the  people,  un- 
like those  of  other  large  cities, 
are  not  chiefly  interested  in 
manufacturing  and  commerce. 
Here  reside  the  President  and 
his  cabinet,  members  of  Con- 
and    the    foreign    ambassadors 


and  other  representatives  of  the  great 
nations  of  the  world.  Besides  these 
there  are  many  thousands  of  men  and 
women  at  work  in  the  different  depart- 
ments of  the  government.  The  chief 
buildings,  therefore^  are  not  factories  and 
private  offices,  but  government  buildings 
(Fig.  223). 

Wilmington,  on  the  Delaware  River, 
is  the  largest  city  in  Delaware.  Explain 
the   advantage   of    its   location.      Like 


Fig    223.— The  National  Capitol  Building  at  Wasliingtou. 


THE  SOUTHERN   STATES 


167 


Camden,    New    Jersey, 

it  should  be  associated 

with   Phila- 

3.  Wilmington       i    i    ,  • 

delphia  as 
an  important  manufac- 
turing center.  (See 
p.  142.) 

The  mouth  of  Chesa- 
peake Bay  has  already 

4.  Cities  of  been  referred 
Virginia  to  as  the  sitc 
of  important  harbors. 
The  principal  city  at  this 
point  is  Norfolk,  a 
manufacturing  and  ship- 
ping center  for  cotton, 
lumber,  iron,  and  other 
products.  It  is  one  of 
the  leading  Southern 
ports,  and  has  been  ad- 
vancing rapidly.  Near 
by  are  other  important 
ports.     Name  two. 

The  winter  climate  in 
this  section  is  so  mild 
that  many  people  from 
the  North  go  there  for 
the  winter  season.  Nor- 
folk, Newport  News, 
and  Old  Point  Comfort 
are  popular  winter 
resorts. 

The  largest  city  of 
Virginia  is  Richmond, 
the  capital  of  the  state, 
at  the  head  of  tidewater  on  the  James 
River.  It  is  important  as  a  tobacco 
market,  and  as  a  rapidly  growing  manu- 
facturing center.  What  other  important 
cities  of  Virginia  have  already  been 
named  ? 

Among  Southern  cities,  the  one  next 
to  Baltimore  in  size  is  New  Orleans, 


Fig.  224. —  Map  to  show  location  of  New  Orleans,  Memphis,  Birmingham, 
and  Atlanta. 


on    the    Mississippi    River    about    one 
hundred    miles    above    its    mouth.     At 
this    point    the    Mississippi 
makes  a  great  bend  in  the  Orleans 
form  of  a  half  circle,  which   (D  ^^«  ^'^^ 

^  and  location 

explains  the  name  Crescent 
City,  comnionly  given  to  New  Orleans. 
Large   ocean   vessels   caii   reach  this 


168 


NORTH  AMERICA 


By  courtesy  of  Mississippi  River  Coiimiission. 

Fig.  225.  —  The  embankment,  or  levee,  along  the  Mississippi,  built  to  prevent 
the  river  from  overflowing  the  flood  plain. 


port,   and 


(2)  Its  connec- 
tion by  water 
and  rail 


river  boats  (Fig.  226)  can 
travel  from  it  as  far  up  as 
Pittsburg  on  the  Ohio  River, 
and  a  great  distance,  also, 
up  the  Mississippi  and  Missouri  rivers. 
On  Figure  138  measure  the  distance  from 
New  Orleans  to  Pittsburg.  To  St.  Paul. 
To  Kansas  City.  How  do  these  dis- 
tances compare  with  those  from  New 
York  to  Chicago  and  to  Duluth  ?  Also, 
how  far  apart  are  Pittsburg  and  Kansas 
City?  Much  of  the  country  between 
these  cities  is  within  easy 
reach  of  the  Mississippi  or 
some  of  its  branches. 

Like  New  York,  New  Orleans 
is  connected  with  the  interior  of 
the  country  by  rail  as  well  as  by 
water.  The  Illinois  Central  Rail- 
way extends  all  the  way  to  Chi- 
cago, running  parallel  to  the  river 
for  much  of  the  distance ;  the 
Louisville  and  Nashville  reaches 
Louisville,  St.  Louis,  and  other 
cities;  and  the  Southern  Railway 
runs  from  Washington  to  Altanta, 
with  connections  to  New  Orleans ; 
and  thence  the  Southern  Pacific 
Railway  extends  westward,  across 
Texas,  to  California. 

Much  of  the  land  on  which 
New  Orleans  is  built  is  frequently 


below  the  level  of  the  river.  In 
fact,  from  Memphis  southward, 
a  large  part  of  the  land  on  either 
side  of  the  Mississippi  is  a  low 
flood  plain,  spreading"  out  for 
many  miles,  and  often  threatened 
with  floods.  The  mighty  river, 
receiving  tributaries  from  regions 
thousands  of  miles 
apart,    is    charged   (3)  Difficulties 

.,,  n  1      caused  by 

With  yellow  mud,  the  river 
which  gradually 
sinks  to  the  bottom  as  the  current 
becomes  slower  toward  the  mouth. 
This  has  built  up  the  bed  of  the 
river,  so  that  at  high  water  the 
floods  would  spread  out  over  the 
low  land  if  they  were  not  shut  in  by  strong 
walls  of  earth,  called  levees  (Fig.  225). 

In  spite  of  their  strength,  these  embank- 
ments sometimes  give  way,  especially  in  the 
springtime,  when  the  snows  are  melting  in  the 
North ;  then  the  destruction  to  life  and  prop- 
erty is  appalling.  At  such  times  hundreds  of 
men  patrol  the  levees,  night  and  day,  to  check 
the  slightest  leak.  Even  a  hole  made  by  craw- 
fish may  be  the  beginning  of  a  destructive  flood. 
Because  the  land  near  the  river  is  so  low,  the 
soil  on  which  New  Orleans  stands  is  very  damp. 
Indeed,  in  digging  foundations  for  buildings, 
water  is  reached  a  short  distance  below  the  sur- 
face.    On  that  account  it  has  been  difficult  to 


Fig.  226.  —  Loading  Mississippi  River  boats  from  the  leve©. 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


169 


provide  proper  drainage.  A  system  of  drainage 
and  sewerage  has,  however,  been  established  at 
great  expense. 

New  Orleans  once  belonged  to  France 

(4)  People,  (P-    1^^)'  ''^.^  ^"^^   P^''^^''  ^"^ 

and  climate  six  in  the  citj  is  of  French 
0/  the  city         ^^^^^     French  is  still  spoken 

by  some  of  these. 

Frost  seldom   reaches   this   city,  and 

the  midwinter  weather  is  rarely  colder 

than   the  early  autumn  of   the  North. 

What  must  be  the  effect  of  this  climate 

upon  the  style  of  houses  ?    Also  upon  the 

presence  of   birds,  flowers, 

and  fruits  in  winter  ? 

Far  up  on  the  Ohio  River 

is  Louisville,  the  fourth 
city  in  size  in 
the  Southern 
States,  and  the 
largest  in  Ken- 
tucky. There 
in  the   river  at 

this  point,  but  a  canal  leads 

around  them.     Louisville  is 


of  a  splendid  farming  country,  it  is  a  dis- 
tributing point  for  supplies  to  the  sur- 
rounding towns  and  farms.  It  is  also  one 
of  the  educational  centers  of  the  South. 
Chattanooga  is  situated  on  the  rug- 
ged plateau  west  of  the  Appalachians. 
It  is  on  the  Tennessee  River  (Fig.  227), 
at  a  point  which  makes  it  an  important 
gateway.  There  is  much  manufacturing 
here,  especially  of  articles  made  of  iron 
and  wood.  Another  busy  manufactur- 
ing city,  near  by,  is  Knoxville,  which  is 
a  little  smaller  than  Chattanooga. 


6.    Other  cities 
on  the  Missis- 
sippi River  and 
tributaries 

(1)  Louisville 
and  Memphis 


are 


rapids 


a  leading  center  for  tobacco 
manufacture  and  trade,  as 
well  as  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron  goods  and  other  articles. 

On  the  Mississippi  River,  midway  be- 
tween New  Orleans  and  Louisville,  is 
Memphis,  the  largest  city  in  Tennessee. 
It  is  in  the  midst  of  the  cotton  and 
hardwood  sections,  and  is  noted  for  its 
cotton  and  lumber  trade.  It  is  situated 
on  a  high  bluff,  with  the  Mississippi 
River  at  its  base.  Give  reasons  why 
that  is  a  favorable  location. 

Nashville,  the  capital  of  Tennessee, 
has  sawmills,  furniture  fac- 
tories, and  flour  mills.  There 

Chattanooga         ^^^    ^^^.^    ^^^^^    ^-^   hundred 

factories  in  this  city.     Being  in  the  midst 


(3)  Other  cities 


(2)  Nashville, 
Knoxville,  and 


Fig.  227.  —  Moccasin  Bend  in  tJie  Tennessee  River,  as  seen  from  Lookout 
Mountain.  Chattanooga  is  situated  on  the  river  banli  just  to  the  right 
of  the  middle  of  the  picture. 

Find  Baton  Rouge,  in  Louisiana ; 
ViCKSBURG  and  Jackson,  in  Mississippi ; 
Little  Rock,  in  Arkansas ; 
and  Guthrie,  in  Oklahoma. 
These  are  all  centers  of  trade  in  the 
states  where  they  are  situated.  Which 
of  them  are  state  capitals  ? 

Atlanta  (Fig.  228),  the  "  Gate  City," 
is  one  of  the  few  large  cities  not  located 
upon  a  water  route.  North-  Atlanta 
east  of  it,  for  over  three 
hundred  and  fifty  miles,  there  is  no 
easy  pass  across  the  mountains,  and  un- 
til 1880,  in  all  that  distance,  no  railway 
crossed     the    Appalachian     Mountains. 


170 


NOBTFI  AMERICA 


Fig.  228.  —  A  view  of  Atlanta. 


Near  Atlanta,  however,  there  is  a  good 
route ;  and  railways  reaching  westward 
from  the  Carolinas,  or  northern  Georgia, 
come  together  here,  making  Atlanta  a 
great  railway  center. 

Owing  to  its  favorable  situation  as  a 
railway  shipping  point,  Atlanta  is  the 
leading  interior  wholesale  market  of  the 
South ;  and  it  surpasses  all  Southern 
cities  in  the  number  and  variety  of  its 


Copyright,  liUKI,  by  Detroit  Pliotographio  Co. 

Fig.  229. — Tbousancjs  of  bales  of  cotton  on  one  of  the  wharves  at  Savannah, 
ready  for  shipment. 


manufactures.  Among  its  factories  are 
lumber,  cotton,  and  iron  mills.  It 
is  one  of  the  most  progressive  cities  in 
the  country,  and,  like  other  Southern 
cities,  is  growing  rapidly. 

The  coast  cities  are  engaged  chiefly 
in  shipping  cotton  and  lumber,  and  most 
of  them  are  located  near  the  „    ^      _, 

.  8.     Seaports 

mouths    of    rivers,   so   that  east  of  the 
these  goods  may  be  brought  Mississippi 

to  them  by  water  as  well  as 
by  rail.  In  them,  also, 
there  is  important  manufac- 
turing, especially  of  cotton 
goods  and  lumber.  Two  of 
the  best-known  seaports  are 
Charleston  and  Savan- 
nah, both  long  noted  as 
-  shipping  points  for  cotton 
(Fig  229),  lumber  (Fig.  210), 
and  other  goods.  Charleston 
is  the  leading  lumber  port 
in  the  South.  Mobile,  on 
Mobile  Bay,  is  another  im- 
portant Southern  port. 

In  Florida  are  Tampa  and 
PensacolAj  both  with  ex- 


TEE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


171 


cellent  harbors,  and  both 
rapidly  growing.  Besides  its 
cigar  manufacturing  (p.  164), 
Tampa  has  a  growing  trade 
with  the  West  Indies.  It  is 
the  terminus  of  important 
railways,  and  is  the  nearest 
port  in  the  country  to  the 
Panama  Canal.  When  this 
canal  is  finished,  Tampa, 
Pensacola  and  other  Southern 
seaports  will  no  doubt  have 
a  still  greater  trade. 

Galveston  ranks  third  in 
importance  among  the  sea- 
o    «.,.     -^      portsof  the  Southern  States; 

9.    other  cities     r  r  r\ 

west  of  the  Mis-  only  Baltimore  and  New  Or- 
sissippi  River      igg^j^g   j^^^yg   niorc    shipping. 

It  is  the  outlet  for  a  great  amount  of 


Fig.  231.  —  A  view  of  Oklahoma  City  as  it  appeared  April  22,  1889 


Fig.  230.  —  Even  the  small  streams  and  canals  are  nsed  for  M,.j.,.,i,^  w,  i-ut. 
Here,  for  example,  are  six  thousand  bales  of  cotton  on  a  barge  in  the 
Houston  Canal,  in  Texas,  bound  for  the  seacoa.st,  to  be  placed  on 
vessels  for  shipment  to  England. 

It  is  a  state  of  splendid  resources,  and 
as  soon  as  the  government  opened  the 
land  to  settlement  by  white  men,  large 
numbers  of  settlers  went  there.     Within 
a  few  years  so  many 
people  have  made  their 
homes    in    Oklahoma 
that    it     has     been 
changed  from  a  terri- 
tory to  a  state.     It  al- 
ready has  three  thriv- 
ing cities,  —  Guthrie, 
Oklahoma,  and  Shaw- 
nee ;     and    there    are 
other   rapidly   growing   towns.     Which 
is  the  capital  ? 

1.   What  states  are  included  in  this  group  ? 
2.   What  can  you  say  about  their  area  and  pop- 


cotton  and  other  goods  produced  north 
and  west  of  it.  Houston,  Dallas, 
Fort  Worth,  San  Antonio,  and  Aus- 
tin are  other  leading  cities  of  Texas. 
Locate  El  Paso,  the 
leading  city  in  western 
Texas. 

Oklahoma,  one  of 
our  newest  states, 
includes  what  was 
formerly  called  Indian 
Territory,  a  region  re- 
served as  the  home  of 

several    Indian    tribes.  Fig.  232.  — a  view  of  a  part  of  Oklahoma  City  in  1908. 


172 


NORTH  AMERICA 


ulation  ?  3.  Name  and  locate  the  principal 
mountains.     4.    State  the  principal  facts  about 

the  Coastal  Plains.  5.  The  Pied. 
OuIsTons  mont  Plateau.    6.  The  Fall  Line. 

7.  The  other  plains  found  in  these 
states.  8.  The  coast  line.  9.  Describe  the  cli- 
mate. 10.  How  does  agriculture  rank  in  com- 
parison with  the  other  industries  ?  11.  Give 
facts  showing  the  importance  of  the  cotton  crop. 
12.  What  is  the  method  of  raising  and  market- 
ing it?  13.  Tell  about  the  sugar  industry. 
14.  Rice.  15.  Tobacco.  16.  Other  farm  products. 
17.  Ranching.  18.  Lumbering.  19.  Kinds  of 
fishing.  20.  The  oyster  industr3^  21.  What 
about  coal  mining?  22.  The  production  of  iron 
ore?  23.  Oil  and  natural  gas?  24.  Build- 
ing stones  and  clays  ?  35.  Phosphates  ? 
26.  State  the  advances  recently  made  in  manu- 
facturing. 27.  How  are  conditions  very  favorable 
to  manufacturing?  28.  Show  the  extent  of 
cotton  manufacture.  29.  Explain  the  value  of 
the  cotton  gin ;  of  the  cotton  seed.  30.  Give 
some  idea  of  the  importance  of  iron  and  steel 
manufacture,  and  name  some  of  the  principal 
centers  for  such  work.  31.  State  similar  facts 
in  regard  to  manufactures  from  the  forest. 
32.  Name  and  locate  other  kinds  of  manufactur- 
ing in  these  states.  33.  What  advantages  does 
the  South  enjoy  for  transportation  of  goods  ? 

34.  Recall  the  leading  facts  about  Baltimore. 

35.  Washington.  36.  Wilmington.  37.  Cities 
of  Virginia.  38.  New  Orleans.  39.  Louis- 
ville and  Memphis.  40.  Nashville,  Knoxville, 
and  Chattanooga.  41.  Other  cities  on  the  Mis- 
sissippi    and     its     tributaries.      42.   Atlanta. 

43.  Seaports   east   of   the   Mississippi    River. 

44.  Other  cities  west  of  the  Mississippi  River. 
Delaware  (Del.)  1.   Which   is  the   principal 

city  in  this  state  ?     2.    For  what  is  it  noted  ? 

3.  Why  is  it  especially  well  situ- 
ReviewQues-  ated  for  that  industry  ?  4.  Com- 
tions  by  States  .^       .^,       »m 

pare    it    with    Albany   in    size. 

5.  The  principal  industries  of  the  state  are 
fruit  raising  and  farming.  What  two  reasons 
can  you  give  for  this  fact  ? 

Maryland  (Md.).  6.  In  ,  which  section  is 
farming  most  important?  Why?  7.  What 
products  can  you  expect  from  the  mountains  ? 
Why  ?  8.  Notice  how  branching  Chesapeake 
Bay  is.  Why  is  it  so  irregular?  9.  What 
influence  must  this  have  upon  the  number  of 
oysters  found  there  ?  10.  Why  is  Baltimore 
favorably  situated  for  receiving  coal  and  iron 


from  Pennsylvania?  11.  For  canning  fruit, 
vegetables,  and  oysters  ?  12.  What  might  be 
the  effect  upon  the  growth  of  Baltimore  if  the 
land  should  rise,  so  that  Chesapeake  Bay  disap- 
peared and  the  Susquehanna  flowed  through  it  ? 
13.  Compare  the  size  of  Baltimore  with  that  of 
Boston. 

Virginia  (Va.).  14.  In  what  other  state 
was  the  capital  the  most  important  city  ? 
15.  Locate  the  fertile  Great  Valley  that  is 
found  in  Virginia  (Fig.  221).  16.  What  kinds 
of  agriculture  are  carried  on  here  ?  17.  What 
river  separates  Virginia  from  Maryland  ? 
What   river   crosses  the  middle  of  Virginia? 

18.  Compare  Richmond  in  size   with  Albany. 

19.  How  does  Virginia  rank  in  iron  produc- 
tion (Fig.  393)?  20.  Of  what  importance 
are  the  branching  bays  that  enter  Virginia? 
21.  If  goods  are  to  be  shipped  across  the  ocean 
from  Kentucky  (see  map,  Fig.  138),  is  it  nearer 
to  send  them  to  Norfolk  or  to  New  York  ? 

West  Virginia  (W.  Va.).  22.  What  disad- 
vantage is  it  to  this  state  that  it  has  no  sea- 
coast  ?  23.  How  could  we  reach  the  ocean  by 
water  from  West  Virginia  ?  24.  Where  is  the 
largest  city?  Why  there?  25.  How  does 
this  city  compare  in  size  with  Pittsburg? 
26.  Should  you  expect  to  find  much  forest  in 
this  state  ?  Why  ?  27.  Much  farming  ? 
28.  Coal,  iron,  petroleum,  and  natural  gas  are 
found  here.     Of  what  value  are  these  ? 

North  Carolina  (N.C.).  29.  Which  part  is 
mountainous  ?  Name  and  locate  the  highest 
peak  east  of  the  Mississippi  River.  30.  What 
are     the     surface     features     of     this     state  ? 

31.  Which  cities  are  mentioned  in  the  text  ? 
Where  is  each  ?     For  what  is  each  important  ? 

32.  What  capes   do  you   find   on  the  coast? 

33.  What  are  the  leading  industries?  (See 
Figs.  371-397.) 

South  Carolina  (S.C).  34.  Describe  the  sur- 
face features  of  the  state.  35.  What  are  the 
principal  industries  ?  36.  What  city  is  on  the 
Fall  Line?  On  the  seacoast?  For  what  is 
each  important  ?     37.   Which  city  is  largest  ? 

Georgia  (Ga.).  38.  Where  are  the  moun- 
tains ?  39.  The  plains  ?'  40.  What  are  the 
industries  ?  41.  Trace  the  Fall  Line  across 
the  state  (Fig.  196).     What   cities  are  on  it? 

42.  Why   is   Atlanta    situated    where   it   is  ? 

43.  How  does  it  compare  in  size  with  the  larg- 
est city  in  each  of  the  three  states  just  men- 
tioned ?     44.    How  does  it  compare  in  size  with 


THE  SOUTHERN  STATES 


173 


Kew  Orleans,  Buffalo,  and  Providence? 
45.  Name  the  two  seaports.  What  do  they 
ship  ? 

Florida  (Fla.).  46.  What  about  the  relief 
of  this  state  ?  47.  Explain  the  irregular  south- 
ern coast  and  the  Florida  Keys.  48.  Describe 
the  climate.  How  does  this  influence  the 
crops  ?  49.  What  Florida  cities  were  men- 
tioned, and  how  is  each  important  ?  Locate 
each.  50.  What  mineral  product  comes  from 
Florida  ? 

Alabama  (Ala.).  51.  Trace  the  Fall  Line 
across  this  state.  What  cities  are  situated  on 
it?  52.  Where  is  Mobile  ?  How  is  it  impor- 
tant ?  53.  Describe  the  location  and  industries 
of  Birmingham.  54.  What  crops  are  raised  in 
Alabama?  55.  What  cities  are  engaged  in 
manufacturing  cotton  ?  56.  In  lumber  manu- 
facturing ?  57.  Compare  Mobile  in  size  with" 
Atlanta  and  Birmingham. 

Mississippi  (Miss.).  58.  Why  is  there  no 
city  on  the  coast  ?  59.  In  what  way  can  the 
products  of  the  state  be  shipped  by  water  ? 
60.  From  what  cities  ?  61.  W^hat  are  the  prod- 
ucts? 62.  Why""  no  raining?  63.  W^hat 
about  the  extent  of  cotton  raising  in  this  state 
(Figs.  375,  376)  ? 

Louisiana  (La.).  64.  State  the  reasons  for 
the  great  importance  of  Kew  Orleans. 
65.  Why  has  it  a  better  location  than  Mobile 
or  Charleston  ?  66.  Compare  it  in  size  with 
those  cities.  67.  With  Boston  and  Baltimore. 
68.  What  large  tributary  enters  the  Missis- 
sippi in  Louisiana  ?  69.  What  crops  are  raised 
in  Louisiana  ?     Why  there  ? 

Texas  (Tex.).  70.  Where  are  the  moun- 
tains ?  71.  Where  are  the  forests  ?  Why 
there?  72.  What  are  the  industries  on  the 
western  plains?  73.  W^hat  city  lies  in  the 
western  pg,rt?  Why  there?  74.  What  cities 
are  in  eastern  Texas  ?  75.  For  what  is  Galves- 
ton noted  ?  76.  Compare  it  in  size  with  New 
Orleans  and  Charleston.  77.  Texas  is  how 
many  times  as  large  as  Pennsylvania?  (For 
area,  see  table  in  Appendix.)  78.  Add  to- 
gether the  areas  of  all  the  Northeastern  States, 
and  compare  the  total  with  the  area  of  Texas. 
79.  Compare  the  population  of  Texas  with  that 
of  Massachusetts.     (See  Appendix.) 


Oklahoma  (Okla.).  80.  What  about  the 
climate  of  the  western  part  ?  81.  What  crops 
are  raised  here  ?  82.  Into  what  river  does  the 
state  drain?  83.  Name  and  locate  the  chief 
cities. 

Arkansas  (Ark.).  84.  What  large  river 
enters  the  Mississippi  in  this  state  ?  85.  There 
is  much  forest  in  Arkansas ;  in  what  part  (Fig. 
209)?  86.  Is  Arkansas  in  the  cotton  belt? 
(See  Fig.  201.)  87.  The  capital  is  the  largest 
city.  Compare  it  in  size  with  Memphis.  Why 
is  it  less  favorably  situated  than  that  city  ? 

Tennessee  (Tenn.).  88.  Where  are  the 
mountains  ?  The  plains  ?  89.  Name  two  cities 
among  the  mountains.  For  what  is  each  impor- 
tant ?  90.  State  facts  about  two  other  cities 
in  Tennessee.  91.  Which  city  is  the  largest  ? 
(See  Appendix.)  92.  What  large  rivers  drain 
the  state?  93.  What  are  the  leading  in- 
dustries in  this  state  ? 

Kentucky  (Ky.).  94.  Why  should  this  state 
be  better  adapted  to  tobacco  raising  than  Ohio  ? 
95.  Of  what  importance  is  the  limestone  of 
Kentucky  ?  96.  Where  are  most  of  the  cities  ? 
Why  there  ?  97.  What  products  from  Ken- 
tucky are  mentioned  ?  98.  Which  is  the  lar- 
gest city  ?  For  what  important  ?  99.  What 
other  cities  are  mentioned  ? 


Suggestions 


1.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  these  states. 
Add  the  principal  rivers  and  cities,  and  the 
state  boundaries.  2.  Kepresent 
this  group  of  states  in  sand,  show- 
ing the  mountains  and  plains.  3.  Make  a 
collection  of  articles  manufactured  from  cotton, 
and  add  them  to  the  school  collection.  4.  Make 
a  collection  of  different  kinds  of  wood  grown 
in  the  Southern  States.  5.  Raise  some  cotton 
and  rice  in  the  schoolroom.  6.  Name  other 
advantages  that  the  mild  climate  of  the  South 
brings ;  for  instance,  in  regard  to  clothing ; 
coal  for  heating  houses ;  and  kinds  of  houses. 
Do  you  see  any  disadvantages  in  such  a  climate  ? 
7.  How  are  the  people  of  New  England  and 
those  of  the  South  dependent  upon  each  other 
in  the  work  that  they  do?  8.  What  two 
letters  stand  for  District  of  Columbia? 
9.  Name  and  locate  the  capital  of  each  state  in 
the  Southern  group.  10.  Write  the  abbrevia- 
tions for  each  of  these  states. 


174 


NORTH  AMERICA 


4.   The   Central   States 

1.  Name  the  states  in  this  group.  2.  Which 
of  them  border  on  the  Great  Lakes  ?  3.  Name 
the  Great  Lakes.  4.  Which  of 
ap  s  u  y  these  lakes  is  highest  above  the 
level  of  the  ocean  ?  How  can  you  tell  ?  How 
does  the  name  of  this  lake  suggest  that  it  lies 
highest  ?  5.  By  what  river  do  the  waters  of 
these  lakes  reach  the  ocean  (Fig.  134)  ?  6.  Re- 
membering what  was  said  about  the  Erie  Canal 
(p.  136),  show  how  goods  can  be  shipped  by 
water  from  Duluth  and  Chicago  to  New  York 
City.  7.  Measure  the  distance  on  the  map 
from  Duluth  to  New  York  City.  8.  Name  the 
three  principal  rivers  in  the  Central  States. 
Trace  each.  9.  How  do  these  rivers  compare 
in  length  with  the  largest  in  the  Northeastern 
States  ?  10.  Trace  the  divide  between  the 
Mississippi  Valley  and  the  valley  of  the  Great 
Lakes.  11.  Which  state  drains  entirely  into 
the  Great  Lakes?  12.  Which  states  drain 
mainly  into  the  Ohio  River?'  Into  the  Missis- 
sippi River  ?  Into  the  Missouri  River  ? 
13.  Which  state  drains  partly  into  the  Arctic 
Ocean  ?  14.  Where  are  mountains  found  in 
these  states  ? 

The  area  of  these  twelve  states  is  some- 
what smaller  than  that  of  the  sixteen 
Area  and  Southern  States  just  studied, 

population  but  it  is  more  than  four 
times  that  of  the  Northeastern  States. 

A  century  ago  there  were  scarcely  any 
people  living  here,  excepting  Indians 
and  a  few  scattered  trappers.  Now  there 
are  more  than  twenty-six  million  per- 
sons, or  more  than  live  in  either  the 
Northeastern  or  the  Southern  States. 
There  are  also  many  large  cities,  including 
Chicago,  the  second  largest  in  the  United 
States,  and  St.  Louis,  the  fourth  in  size. 

Let  us  see  what  has  attracted  so  many 
people  here,  what  their  chief  occupations 
are,  and  how  these  compare  with  the  oc- 
cupations in  the  sections  already  studied. 

Agriculture  is  the  most  important  of 
these  occupations.     Indeed,  this  is  one 


of  the  best  farming  sections  in  all  the 

world.      Millions  of  persons    Agriculture 

in  Europe  and  in  our  coast  i-  itsimpor- 
cities  look  to  these  states  for 
their  bread,   meat,  and   other   food,  as 
they  look  to  the  South  for  cotton. 

There  are  several  reasons  for  this.     In 
the  first  place,  throughout  g    conditions 
almost  the  entire  section  the  favorable 
land  is  a  level  plain,  or,  at  (°i)"^.°a< 
most,  gently  rolling.  amount  of 

In  western  South  Dakota  ^'''^  '""'^ 
and  in  southern  Missouri,  low  mountains 
rise  above  the  plains.  There  is  a  hilly 
region  around  the  western  end  of  Lake 
, Superior,  in  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and 
Minnesota ;  and  in  eastern  Ohio  there 
is  also  hilly  land,  for  the  Appalachian 
Plateau  extends  into  this  state.  What 
are  the  names  of  the  mountains  of  the 
Central  States  ? 

With  the  exception  of  these  small 
areas  of  mountains  and  hilly  lands,  most 
of  the  region  is  a  vast  level  tract.  This 
is  very  different,  as  you  remember,  from 
most  of  the  land  of  the  Northeastern 
States.  The  level  surface  makes  it  pos- 
sible to  cultivate  large  tracts  of  land 
easily  (Fig.  236),  as  in  the  Southern 
States.  The  soil,  also,  is  very  deep  and 
fertile. 

In   most   parts  of   the   Northeastern 
and  of  the  Southern  States  forests  were 
once  extensive ;  indeed,  there  ^2)  Absence 
is  still  much  forest  left,  as  we  of  forests  and 
have  seen.      In   many  sec-  ^^''"^^'•^ 
tions  of  New   England  weeks  of  hard 
labor  were  required  to  remove  the  trees 
from  a  single  acre,  and   to  drag  away 
or  bury  the  bowlders. 

Over  a  large  part  of  the  Central 
States,  however,  such  work  was  unnec- 
essary, for  there  were  no  trees  or  rocks. 


CENTRAL  STATES 

^WESTERN  SECTION) 

.         I  Syale  »f  Miles 


0       25       60  100  150  200      '         251 

Ct(ie<  with  over  1.000,000 CHICAGO 

Cities  with  500,000  (o  1,000,000 

Cities  with  100,000  to  600,000- St. Paul 

aties  with  25,000  to  100,000 „ lopeka  ^     ArdSfere 

Smaller  Places .Canton 

CajiitaU  ivithleaa  <Aan  25,000 _jEFFERSON  CITY;       "ff^^ 

Capttalt  ®                              Other  Cities  ' 
Wmitin.  Einr«'i»«  Co..  N.T. 


Longitude  West  from  Ureeawiob 


FIG.  233. 


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176 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  236.  — The  very  level,  fertile  plain  in  the  Red  River  Valley  of  North  Dakota,  one  of  the  finest  wheat  regions  in 
the  world.    For  hundreds  of  miles  there  is  just  such  level  land  as  this. 


It  was  prairie  land,  covered  only  with 
luxuriant  grass,  and  all  ready  for 
plowing  and  planting.  A  good  crop 
could  be  raised  the  first  season.  This 
fact  had  much  influence  in  causing  the 
rapid  settlement  of  these  states. 

While  this  section  lies  north  of  the 
states  last  studied,  and  has  a  more 
severe  climate,  the  summers 
are  long  and  hot  enough  to 
raise  many  kinds  of  crops.  Also, 
while  the  rainfall  is  less  than  that 
farther  south  (Fig.  408),  it  is  sufficient 
for     farming     throughout    almost    the 


(3)  Sufficient 
heat  and  rain 


j^^K^^^HUi 

gjH 

jM 

^^5f-^ 

Fig.  237.  —  A  farmer  feeding  his  chickens  and  turkeys. 


entire  section.  This  fact  is  suggested  by 
the  great  number  of  rivers.  The  rain 
is  brought  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean  by  the  winds  which 
frequently  blow  from  the  south  and  east. 

Only  on  the  very  western  border  is  there 
too  little  rain  for  agriculture  without  irrigation. 
The  reason  for  this  lack  of  rain  in  the  extreme 
west  is  that  the  winds  lose  most  of  their  mois- 
ture before  they  reach  the  western  part  of  North 
and  South  Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kansas. 
There  is,  however,  enough  rain  for  the  growth 
of  nourishing  grass  for  cattle,  sheep,  and  horses. 

The  farms  vary  greatly  in  size,  from 
a  few  acres  to  several  thousand;  but  the 
greater  part 
contain  from 
80  to  160  acres. 
In  the  main, 
they  resemble 
the  one  in  Ohio  that  is  here 
described.  On  this  Ohio 
farm  of  160  acres  is  a  house 
in  which  the  family  lives, 
with  a  barn  near  by  for 
liorses,  milch  cows,  and 
hay,  and  with  sheds 
it  for  storing  grain 
farming  implements. 

A  windmill    in  the  rear 


3.    A  farm  in 
central  Ohio 

(1)  The  house 
and  its 
surro^indings 


near 
and 


THE  CENTRAL   STATES 


177 


of  the  house  keeps  the  milk  house  well 
supplied  with  cold  water,  and  also  fills 
the  water  troughs  in  the  barnyard.  Near 
the  house  is  an  orchard  (Fig.  238)  of 
apple,  peach,  and  pear  trees,  with  a  few 
rows  of  berry  bushes  in  one  part,  and  a 
chicken  house  in  another  (Fig.  237). 
Here  chickens  are  raised,  and  supply  all 
the  eggs  that  are  needed,  with  some  to  sell. 
On  one  side  of  the  front  yard  are  a 
few  beehives,  and  back  of  them,  between 
the  orchard  and  the  barn,  is  a  garden 
of  vegetables.  Still  back  of  that  are 
several  pigpens,  in  which 
hogs  are  fattened  for  home 
use,  and  also  for  the  market. 
Farther  away  from  the 
house  are  fields  in  which  at 

least    three    or 

four      different 

kinds  of  crops 
Every  farmer 
in  that  region  expects  to 
raise  corn,  —  perhaps  sixty 
acres  of  it,  —  some  grdiss  for 
grazing  and  for  hay,  and 
wheat  or  some  other  kind 
of  grain. 

After  these  crops  are 
harvested,  they  are  either  sold  or  fed  to 
stock  —  horses,  cattle,  hogs,  or  sheep  — 
upon  the  farm.  The  latter  plan  is  often 
followed,  chiefly  because  it  pays  better  to 
fatten  stock  and  sell  it,  than  to  sell  the 
crops  themselves.  There  are  generally 
several  good  milch  cows  on  the  farm, 
which  supply  the  family  not  only  with 
fresh  milk  and  butter,  but  furnish  some 
cream  or  butter  to  sell. 

Since  there  are  only  three  houses  in 
(3)  Contact  sight  of  this  farmhousc,  and 
with  neighbors  there  is  no  store  or  post 
office  within  two  miles,  the  farmer  and 


his  family  may  not  meet  other  persons 
for  several  days  at  a  time,  although 
they  often  see  friends  driving  by.  In 
the  busiest  season,  from  spring  till  fall, 
they  make  few  trips  to  town.  How- 
ever, they  have  a  telephone  by  which 
they  can  talk  with  neighbors,  and  with 
friends  and  merchants  in  town,  while 
the  postman  brings  the  mail  to  their 
doors. 

Some  persons  would  not  care  for  such 
a  life  as  this,  because  it  is  too  lonesome, 
and  there  is  too  much  hard  work  con- 


(2)  The, fields, 
and  what 
is  done  icith 
their  crops 

are   raised 


Fig.  238.  — A  farmer  and  his  family  in  the  orchard  near  tlie  house. 

nected  with  it.  But  this  farmer  enjoys 
it  greatly,  becaus^^Jie  likes  (4)  Attractions 
to  take  care  of  his  stock,  to  "-^  *'"'^'^ « ^'^^ 
work  in  the  soil,  and  to  watch  his  crops 
grow.  In  addition,  he  is  able  to  raise 
most  of  his  own  food,  and  his  whole 
life  is  more  independent  than  that  of 
persons  in  a  town  or  city. 

Corn  (Fig.  239)  is  raised  in  most  of 
the  states  of  the  Union,  and  4.  Indian  com, 
you    have    already    learned  or  maize 

1  .  1        i     -i     •      •       ji        (1)  Extent  to 

how  important  it  is  m  the  which  it  is 
South.     It  is  in  the  Central  ™^*«^ 
States,    however,    that    we    find    the 


178 


NOBTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  239. 


-View  in  a  cornfield  in  Xebraslca.    Notice  how  very  tall  the 
corn  grows  in  this  fertile  soil. 


greatest  amount.  The  corn  belt  of  the 
country  (Fig.  371)  extends  from  Ohio 
to  central  Kansas  and  Nebraska,  with 
smaller  quantities  raised  north,  south, 
east,  and  west  of  it.  Fanners  within 
this  belt  usually  expect  to  devote  from 
one  third  to  one  half  of  their  land  to 
corn ;  therefore,  in  traveling  across 
these  states  in  summer,  one  sees 
cornfields  in  every  direction. 

The  seed   is   planted  in  rows  in  the 
springtime.    Soon  the  little  stalks  appear 
above  ground,  and  grow  rapidly  dur- 
ing the  hot  summer  months,  until  they 
reach  a  height  of  from  seven  to  ten  feet 
(Fig.  239).     In  order  to  keep  the  soil 
loose,    and    kill    the 
weeds,  the   ground 
between  the  rows 
is  plowed  when 
the  corn  is  young ;   but  as  it 
grows  higher,  the  shade  o^ 
its  leaves  protects  the  soil 
from    both    drought    and 
weeds. 

A  cornfield  usually 
presents  the  most  beau- 
tiful    appearance     in    ^la 


"tassels  out"  (Fig.  239).  The 
plants  then  entirely  hide  tlie 
ground  from  view,  and  the  rich 
green  stalks,  with  their  long, 
slender  leaves,  bend  to  the  breezes 
in  the  most  graceful  manner. 

If  the  stalk  is  to  be  used  as 
fodder  for  cattle  in  winter,  it  is 
cut  before  frost,  when  the  kernels 
on  the  cob  are  still  somewhat  soft 
and  milky.  If  left  until  after 
frost,  the  grain  hardens,  and  then 
the  harvest  season  begins.  Men 
drive  into  the  fields  in  wagons  and 
tear  the  husks  from  the  ear,  spend- 
ing day  after  day  at  that  kind  of 
work. 

Corn  is  put  to  many  uses. 
Much  that  is  raised  is  fed  to 
cattle   and    hogs, 
as  already  stated.     Some  is 
made  into  hominy  or  breakfast  foods, 
or  into  corn  meal.     Starch  is  another 
product  of  corn.      It  is  also   very   ex- 
tensively    ^    used  in  the  manufacture 
of  whisky  A^L  in     distilleries.        There 
are  niany^^J^  distilleries  in  St.  Louis, 
Louisville,  Peoruv, 
and  other  cities  with- 
in the  corn  belt. 
Wheat,  like  corn, 
is  produced  in  all  the 
Central   ,    ^,,    , 

5 .    Wheat 

States,    {l)J£xtento/ 
„„    wpll    its  production 

as  in  other  parts  of 
the  country  (Fig. 
373).  It  is  an 
especially  important 
product  in  Kansas, 
Ohio,  and  Indiana ; 
but  the  section 
which  at  present  is 
most  noted  for 
wheat  is  the  valley- 

-  -  J.1U.  240.  —  Two  ears  uf  corn,  the  one  on  the  left  with  the         p   1 1       T)    j   T)'  £ 

July,    when    the    corn       husk  turned  down  to  show  the  kernels  of  corn  on  the  cob.       01  the  Ked  KlVCr  01 


(2)  How  it  is 
cultivated  and 
harvested 


THE  CENTRAL   STATES 


179 


the  North  (Fig.  236).  In  this  valley 
there  is  a  broad  plain,  including  western 
Minnesota,  eastern  North  and  South 
Dakota,  and  a  portion  of  Manitoba, 
which  is  one  of  the  finest  wheat  regions 
in  the  world. 

The  land  here  is  almost  as  level  as  the  sur- 
face of  the  sea ;  it  is  so  level,  in  fact,  that  after 
a  rain  the  water  stands  in  sheets  on  the  fields. 
It  is  necessary  to  build  the  roads  a  foot  or 
more  above  the  surrounding  land  and  to  make 


sow  the  seed  on  each  division.  One  takes  the 
lead,  another  follows  close  behind;  then  come 
a  third,  a  fourth,  and  so  on.  The  grain  is  har- 
vested on  a  similar  plan.  One  hundred  and 
twenty  men,  and  three  hundred  horses,  are  em- 
ployed in  the  planting  season,  and  three  hun- 
dred men  during  the  harvest.  Since  one  acre 
usually  produces  from  fifteen  to  twenty  bushels 
of  wheat,  an  immense  amount  of  the  grain  is 
obtained  from  this  single  farm. 

The  great  quantity  of  wheat  produced 
in  the  Red  River  Valley  and  the  neigh- 


FiG.  241.  —  A  farmer  threshing  wheat  in  the  harvest  season.    On  the  left  is  an  engine  which  furnishes  power  to  run 
the  threshing  machine  where  the  men  are  standing. 


ditches  on  either  side ;  otherwise  they  would  be 
muddy  much  of  the  time.  In  every  direction 
there  is  nothing  to  break  the  view  except  an 
occasional"  farmhouse  with  a  few  trees  aroiind 
it.  Over  this  open  plain  the  wind  sweeps  with 
terrific  force,  somewhat  as  upon  the  ocean  ;  and 
in  winter  fierce,  blinding  snow  squalls,  or  bliz- 
zards, are  not  uncommon. 

One  may  ride  on  the  train  northward 
toward  Winnipeg  all  day  long,  and 
(2)  Hoio  ^^®  scarcely  a  crop  besides. 

cultivated  on  a  wheat.  Most  of  the  farms 
arge  arm  ^^^^  ^^  moderate  sizc,  but 
some  are  enormous.  For  example,  one 
farm  in  North  Dakota  contains  over 
thirty  thousand  acres.  How  many  square 
miles  is  that  ? 

This  farm  is  divided  into  six  parts,  with  farm 
buildings  upon  each.  To  prepare  the  ground, 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  men  at  a  time  plow  and 


boring  region  has  helped  the  growth  of 
the  cities  of  Minneapolis,  St.  Paul, 
and   DuLUTH.     It  has  also   ,,,  .  ^ 

(3)  Influence  of 

caused  the  development  of  wheat  on 
cities  in  the  midst  of  the  -^--'^ ''/ -'*«« 
Avheat  fields,  notably  Fargo  in  North 
Dakota  g-nd  Sioux  Falls  in  South 
Dakota./  Since  most  of  the  grain  is 
shipped  to  the  East  or  South,  it  has 
influenced  the  growth  of  scores  of  other 
cities  along  the  Great  Lakes,  the  Missis- 
sippi River,  and  even  on  the  Atlantic 
coast.     State  how  this  can  be. 

Each    farm    in    the    Central    States 
usually  has  a  small    orchard,  like  that 
on  the  Ohio  farm ;   but  fruit  g    ^^.^^  ^^^ 
raising  is  a  special  industry  vegetables 
in  those  sections  where  the  ^^^  '^''■"''* 
climate   and   soil   are   favorable,  as   in 


180 


NORTH  AMERICA 


the  neighborhood  of  the  Great  Lakes. 
The  immense  area  of  water  in  these 
lakes,  which  do  not  freeze  over  in 
winter,  makes  the  summers  cooler,  and 
the  winters  warmer,  than  they  would 
otherwise  be.  This  is  one  reason  why 
the  grape  belt  of  western  New  York 
(p.  117)  extends  westward  along  the 
shores    of  Lake  Erie  far  into  Ohio. 

The  Michigan  peninsula,  which  has 
Lake  Michigan  on  the  west,  and  Lakes 
Huron  and  Erie  on  the  east,  is  also  a 


and  celery  are  also  raised  in  all  of  the 
Central  States.  Some  of  these  are 
grown  for  use  at  home,  some  for  can- 
neries, and  some  for  sale  in  the  cities. 
The  fact  that  there  are  so  many  cities 
makes  truck  farming  profitable,  as  is 
the  case  in  New  England. 

Tobacco  is  another  valuable  farm  prod- 
uct in  the  Central  States  (Fig.  378). 
While  it  is  raised  in  many 

,,  ,       ,  •^7.    Tobacco 

sections,  the  greatest  quan- 
tity comes  from  Missouri,  which  ranks 


l^>     00^^'^'            - 

M 

Fig.  242.  —  Sheep  grazing  in  a  pasture  in  a  hilly  part  of  the  Central  States,  in  Missouri. 


noted  fruit-raising  region.  Here  great 
quantities  of  peaches,  apples,  and  other 
fruits  are  produced.  With  what  part  of 
the  Atlantic  coast  can  this  fruit  region 
be  best  compared  (p.  117)  ? 

While  these  regions  are  especially 
noted,  the  raising  of  fruits  is  common 
in  all  the  Central  States.  Among  the 
kinds  raised  are  peaches',  grapes,  apples, 
pears,  cherries,  plums,  and  berries. 

Vegetables  of  many  kinds,  such  as 
sweet  corn,  potatoes,  turnips, 
beets,  cabbages,  tomatoes, 
peas,  beans,  lettuce,  pumpkins,  squashes. 


(2)  Vegetables 


with  Virginia,  Kentucky,  North  Caro- 
lina, and  Tennessee  (p.  155)  as  a 
leading  tobacco  state.  St.  Louis  is  an 
important  tobacco  market.  What  other 
.cities  have  the  same  industry  (pp.  155 
and  164)? 

Some  domestic  animals  are  raised  on 
almost  every  farm.  Among  these  the 
most  important  are  horses, 
cattle,  sheep,  hogs,  hens, 
and  turkeys.  Some  farms,  however, 
are  mainly  devoted  to  one  or  a  few 
kinds  (Fig.  243).  For  example,  in  the 
more  hilly  sections,  where  it  is  not  easy 


8.    Domestic 
animals 


THE  CENTRAL  STATES 


181 


to  cultivate  grain,  cattle  and  sheep  are 
numerous  (Fig.  242),  and  dairying  is  im- 
portant. Ohio  is  one  of  the  foremost 
sheep-raising  states.  More  horses  are 
raised  in  Illinois  than  in  any  other  state 
in  the  Union,  more  hogs  in  Iowa,  and 
more  milch  cows  in  Iowa  than  in  any 
other  state  except  New  York. 

Great  quantities  of  oats 
and  barley  are  raised  in  the 
9.  other  farm  Central  States. 
products  The  former  is  a 

common  food  for  horses,  and 
the  latter  is  largely  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  beer. 
The  great  breweries,  found 
in  every  large  city,  consume 
immense  quantities  of  barley 
in  order  to  obtain  the  malt 
which  is  needed  in  making 
beer.  In  Cincinnati,  St. 
Louis,  and  Milwaukee,  beer 
making  is  one  of  the  impor- 
tant industries. 

Another  farm  crop  in  some 
sections  is  flax.  From  the 
bark  of  the  flax  stem  a  fiber 
is  obtained  which  is  used  in 
making  linen,  while  linseed 
oil  is  made  from  the  flax  seed. 
It  is  chiefly  for  the  latter  pur- 
pose that  flax  is  raised  in  the 
United  States.  Hops,  used  with  barley 
in  making  beer,  are  also  raised ;  and 
rye  and  buckwheat  are  produced  on 
many  farms.  Sugar  beets  are  now 
cultivated  in  many  states,  and  they 
supply  a  part  of  the  sugar  consumed 
in  our  country. 

Finally,  a  vast  amount  of  hay  is 
grown ;  some  of  it  is  fed  to  farm  ani- 
mals, but  much  is  sold  in  the  cities  for 
the  use  of  the  horses  there.     The  hay 


crop  is  one  of  the  most  valuable  in  the 
Central  States. 

Passing  westward    from   the    fertile 
valley  of  the  Red  River  of  ^^    Farmin 

the      North,     one     finds     the    by  irrigation  on 

farmhouses     decreasing     in  *^«  G''^**  ^^^ins 
number,  and  the  country  becoming  more 


.-V  -^,-V| 

-^1 

■'TIH 

t3  ■ 

5^^  i' 

5t  ^^™5Br^*"'  ^  \  \ 

*  ■_  —  •  y^ 

"^ 

-irr   '^^ 

HHBfe&^yi^HI 

t    1 

^^1^ 

Fig.  243.  —  A  scene  on  a  chicken  farm  iu  Southern  Missouri. 


and  more  arid,  until,  finally,  in  western 
North     Dakota,     there      is 

1  ,  £  •  -J.!        i.    (1)  Meaning 

almost  no  larmmg  without  and  extent 
irrigation.       At     the     same  <>-^  *^^  ^^e«* 

.  1  ,    .  in       Plains 

time,  the  plains  gradually 
rise  higher  and  higher,  until,  near  the  base 
of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  an  elevation  of 
fully  a  mile  above  the  sea  is  reached. 
This  arid  plateau,  extending  from  Canada 
to  southwestern  Texas  (p.  150),  is  com- 
monly known  as  the  Great  Plains. 


182 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  244. 


■An  artesian  well  supplying  water  for  use  in  irrigation  in 
western  United  States. 


The  soil  is  excellent,  and  where  irri- 
gation is  possible,  there  are  fine  farms, 
(2)  irri  ated  ^^  many  places  the  streams 
sections,  and      fumish  water  for  irrigation; 

their  products      •  ii,  j.  •  x      j.u 

in  others,  water  rises  to  the 
surface  when  wells  are  driven  into  the 
earth.  Such  wells,  from  which  the  water 
often  gushes  forth  as  in  a  fountain,  are 
called  artesian  wells  (Fig.  244),  The 
water  comes  from  the  rock 
layers  underground,  and  by 
its  help  much  land  is  now 
cultivated  which  a  few  years 
ago  was  of  little  use. 

Every  year  the  amount  of  land 
cultivated  in  this  section  is  in- 
creasing ;  and  now  that  the  gov- 
ernment is  building  reservoirs  to 
store  the  waters  that  run  off 
through  the  rivers  in  spring,  there 
will  be  still  more  land  under  ir- 
rigation. These  irrigated  farms 
produce  the  same  crops  as  other 
parts  of  the  Central  States. 
Crops  that  will  grow  in  a  dry 
climate  are  also  being  introduced 
(called  "  dry  farming  "),  and  this 


is  another  reason  why. farming  is 
increasing  here. 

Most  of  the  arid  region  of 
the  Great  Plains  is  un  suited 
to  farming.  For  n.  Ranching 
that  reason  there  (i)  ^<«  «^<^«< 
are  few  towns  and  no  large 
cities,  as  you  can  see  on  the 
map  (Fig.  233).  The  western 
third  of  North  and  South 
Dakota,  Nebraska,  and  Kan- 
sas, as  well  as  the  Great 
Plains  farther  west,  is  given 
over  mainly  to  cattle  ranching 
(Fig.  245). 

This    industry    is    carried 
on   in    much    the   same  way 
throughout  all 
parts  of  the  arid  West.     In  J^^ ^ZncZia'!^ 
western  North  Dakota,  for  ^o^seand 

,1  .     T ,  ,  1  corrals 

instance,  there  is  little  water 
except  in  the  widely  separated  streams, 
and  there  are  almost  no  trees  except 
along  the  stream  banks.  Since  the 
ranchman  must  have  both  water  and 
wood,  he  locates  his  house,  sheds,  and 
stockades,  or  corrals  (Fig.  246),  within 


Fig.  245.  —  Cowboys  and  cattle  on  a  ranch  in  western  United  States. 


I 


THE  CENTRAL   STATES 


183 


(3)  Why  few 
fences 


easy  reach,  of  these  two  things.  If  there 
is  no  neighbor  within  several  miles,  it  is 
all  the  better,  for  his  cattle  are  then 
more  certain  to  find  abundant  grass. 

Few    fences    are     built, 
partly  because  most  of  the 

region  is  owned 

by  the  govern- 
ment, not  by  ranchmen. 
Very  often  they  own  only 
the  land  near  the  water; 
but  this  gives  them  control 
of  the  surrounding  land,  for 
it  is  of  no  use  to  any  one 
else  if  his  cattle  cannot 
reach  the  water.  Another  reason  why 
fences  are  not  common  is  that  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  cattle  to  roam  far  and  wide 
in  their  search  for  food.  The  bunch 
grass,  upon  which  they  feed,  is  so  scat- 
tered that  they  must  go  a  long  distance 
each  day  to  find  enough  to  eat. 

A  single  ranchman  may  own  from  ten 
to  twenty  thousand  head  of  cattle,  and 


ranch  house ;   but  sometimes  they  may 
stray  a  hundred  miles  away. 

Twice  a  year  there  is  a  general  collec- 
tion, or  round-up  (Fig.  247),  of  cattle, — 


^ 

^ 

=5 

"'^  rr^    -"  1 

^^E^ 

i 

B^E 

^m 

^^llpfflSi 

Hjf\^ 

ip^^H 

BL.A—i-ri -.■.;■■.■? 

^i 

i 

^^i 

w   ^ 

Fia.  246.  —  Cattle  in  a  corral  on  a  western  cattle  ranch. 


the    first    round-up   coming   in   May  or 
June,  and    the  other   early 
in  the  fall.     One  object  of  %?riund%p, 
the    first    is    to    brand   the  and  how 

-  1.1  1  1  accomplished 

calves  that  have  been  born 
during  the  winter. 

Since  there  are  few  fences,  cattle  belonging 
to  ranches  that  are  even  a  hundred  miles  apart 
become  mixed  during  the  winter ;  and  those  in 


Fig.  247.  — A  round-up  od  the  Great  Plains.     AH  the  cattle  in  the  front  of  the  picture  belong  to  one  ranchman  ; 

those  in  the  distance  to  another. 


yet  they  may  all  be  allowed  to  w^ander 
about  upon  public  land,  called  "  the 
range "  (Fig.  245).  Usually  they  keep 
within  a  distance  of  thirty  miles  of  the 


a  large  herd  may  belong  to  a  score  of  different 
ranchmen.  Each  cattle  owner  has  a  certain 
mark,  or  brand  (Fig.  248),  in  the  form  of  a  lettei-, 
a  cross,  a  horseshoe,  or  some  other  figure,  which 
is  stamped  upon  every  calf  with  a  hot  irou. 


184 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Very  often  the 
cattle  have  found 
so  little  water,  and 
such  poor  pastur- 
age, that  they  have 
failed  to  fatten 
properly,  and  must 
be  fed  for  a  time 
before  being  slaugh- 
tered. This  may 
be  done  upon  ir- 
rigated fields  near 
the  rivers  in  the 
ranch  country ;  or 
the  cattle  may  be 
sent  for  this  pur- 
pose to  farms  fur- 
ther east,  as  in  Kan- 
sas, Missouri,  Iowa,  and  Nebraska. 

The  lives  of  ranchmen  and  cowboys  are 
interesting  and  often  exciting,  the  greater 
part  of  each  day  being  spent 
in  the  saddle  (Fig.  249).  They 
are  so  far  separated  from  other 
people  that  they  must  depend  upon  them- 
selves much  more  than  most  people  do.  For 
instance,  a  ranchman  must  build  his  house, 
kill  his  beef  and  dress  it,  store  his  ice, 
raise  his  vegetables,  do  his  blacksmithing, 
find  his  fuel,  and  even  teach  his  children  if 
they  are   to   receive  a  school  education.     He 


Fig.  248.  —  This  animal  bears  the  brand  of  the  owner.    The  cowboy  is  trying  to  catcli  tlie 
calf  that  is  following  its  mother;  and  when  he  does,  he  will  place  the  same  brand  on  it. 

A  round-up,  which  lasts  several  weeks,  is 
planned  by  a  number  of  ranchmen  together.  A 
squad  of  perhaps  twenty  cowboys,  with  a  wagon 
and  provisions,  a  large  number  of  riding  horses, 
or  "  ponies,"  and  a  cook,  go  in  one  direction  ; 
and  other  wagons,  with  similar  "outfits,"  set 
out  in  other  directions.  Before  separating  in 
the  morning,  the  members  of  a  squad  agree  upon 
a  certain  camping  place  for  the  night,  and  they 
then  scour  the  country  to  bring  the  cattle  to- 
gether, riding  perhaps  sixty  or  eighty  miles 
during  the  day. 

Each  ranchman  knows  his  own  cattle  by  the 
brand  they  bear ;  and  since  the  calves  follow 
their  mothers  (Fig.  248),  there  is  no  difficulty 
in  telling  what  brand  shall  be  placed  on  them. 
After  branding  the  calves,  each  ranchman  drives 
his  cattle  homeward,  to  feed  during  the  summer 
within  a  range  of  a  few  dozen  miles  of  their 
owner's  home. 

The  second  great  round-up  is  similar 
to  the  first,  except  that  its  object  is  to 
(6)  Second  ^^^^o  together  the  steers,  or 
round-up,  and    male  Cattle,  and  ship  them 

what  follows  ,  1      ,        •  1    •     1.1 

away  to  market ;  it  is  there- 
fore called  the  beef  round-up.  A  ranch- 
man who  owns  twenty  thousand  cattle 
may  sell  nearly  half  that  number  in  a 
season.  As  the  steers  are  collected,  they 
are  loaded  upon  trains  and  shipped  to 
distant  cities  to  be  slaughtered  (p.  193). 


(6)  Life  of  the 
ranchman 


Fig.  249.  —  A  cowboy  and  his  pony.     The  rope  in  his  hand 
is  his  lariat,  witli  which  he  lassoes  the  cattle. 


THE  CENTRAL  STATES 


185 


affords  a  good  illustration  of  the  pioneer  life 
which  was  so  common  in  early  days. 

A  large  portion  of  the  Central  States 

produces    little   lumber :    first,    because 

much  of  the  land  never  had 

Lumbering  c  ,  ^  i    i 

any  lorest ;  and  second,  be- 
cause much  land  that  was  once  wooded 
has  now  been  cleared.  The  timber 
cut  from  it  has  been  used  for  building, 
or  other  purposes,  and  the  cleared 
sections  have  become  productive  farm 
land. 

The  largest  area  that 
was  covered  with  timber, 
when  first  discovered,  was 
in  Michigan,  Wisconsin, 
and  Minnesota,  near  the 
Great  Lakes.  Here  the 
land  is  more  hilly  than  in 
most  parts  of  the  Central 
States,  and  it  was  clothed 
with  dense  forests. 

In  these  forests  were 
many  kinds  of  trees  be- 
longing to  the  north,  espe- 
cially the  evergreens,  such 
as  hemlock,  spruce,  white 
pine,  and  cedar.  There 
were  also  some  hard  woods,  such  as  oak, 
birch,  and  maple. 

Although  much  of  the  timber  has 
been  removed  (Fig.  250),  lumbering 
is  still  carried  on  in  this  section,  as  well 
as  in  some  other  parts  of  the  Central 
States. 

The  excellent  water  power  in  the 
Mississippi  Kiver,  at  Minneapolis  (Fig. 
268),  early  led  to  the  building  of  saw- 
mills there,  and  made  that  city  famous 
for  lumber.  There  are  also  a  consider- 
able number  at  Dulutii,  in  Minnesota, 
and  at  Superior,  which  is  just  across 
the  state  line  in  Wisconsin. 


Fishing 


Since  the  Central  States  have  no  seacoast, 
all  the  oysters,  and  other  sea  food  eaten  in  this 
section,  must  be  brought  from 
the  Atlantic,  or  the  Pacific,  or  the 
Gulf  coast.  Thus,  while  the  people  of  these 
states  supply  meat  and  grain  for  those  living 
in  other  parts  of  the  country,  they,  in  turn, 
depend  upon  others  for  some  of  their  food. 

The  Central  States,  however,  are  not  entirely 
dependent  upon  the  sea  for  their  fish.  In  the 
rivers  there  are  some  excellent  fish,  quite  dif- 
ferent from  those  in  the  ocean ;  and  in  the 
lakes  there  are  still  other  kinds.  There  is, 
therefore,  considerable  fishing  here,  especially 
on  the  Great  Lakes  ;  but  the  fishing  industry 


Fig.  250. 


A  sawmill  in  Wisconsin.     The  logs  are  floated  from  the  forest  by 
the  river,  and  sawed  into  lumber  in  the  mill. 


is  by  no  means  so  important  as  in  the  groups 
of  states  already  studied. 

Coal,  the  most  important  fuel,  is  mined 
in  almost  all  the  Central  States.     Illi- 
nois produces  most,  ranking  y^^^^j^g 
next  to  Pennsylvania  among  i.   coai 
our  states.      West  Virginia  (i)  its  wide 
ranks  third  and  then  comes  *««<''*^«<*o?i 
Ohio.   Large  quantities  are  produced  also 
in  Indiana,  Iowa,  Kansas,  Missouri,  and 
Michigan.    There  is  so  much  coal  in  tliis 
section,  and  it  is  found  throughout  so 
large  an  area,  that  it  is  easy  to  obtain 
fuel  for  manufacturing  in  almost  every 
part.     (See  Fig.  391.) 


186 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Pennsylvania  produces  two  kinds  of 
coal,  anthracite  and  bituminous,  but  the 
/ox  IT-  ^  ^     1   Central  States  have  only  the 

{2,)  Kind  of  coal,  _        ^  'J 

and  method  latter.  It  is  bitumiuous  coal 
of  mining  i  however  that  is  used  in 
making  coke ;  and  because  coke  is  nec- 
essary in  iron  manufacture,  the  coal  of 
these  states  is  especially  important.     In 


Fig.  251.  —  A  view  in  the  oil  tields  of  Kansas.    There  is  an  oil  well  under 
each  derrick. 


some  places  the  coal  lies  near  the  sur- 
face, like  rock  in  quarries,  and  then 
the  mining  is  very  simple ;  in  others  it 
is  buried  so  deep  that  long  shafts  must 
be  sunk  to  reach  it. 

When  oil  and  natural  gas  were  first 
2.  Oil  and  gas  discovered  in  New  York  and 
{\)Wherefound  Pennsylvania,  it  was  sup- 
posed that  they  did  not  exist  elsewhere; 
but  they  have  since  been  found  in  many 
places.  Name  some  of  them  (pp.  123  and 
160).     Both  oil  and  gas  are  obtained  in 


several  of  the  Central  States,  especially 
Ohio,  Illinois,  Indiana,  and  Kansas. 
Many  farmers,  whose  soil  is  no  better 
than  that  of  their  neighbors,  have  sud- 
denly become  rich  by  the  discovery  of  oil 
or  natural  gas  in  the  rocks  far  beneath 
the  surface  (Fig.  251).  In  fact,  these  sub- 
stances are  so  abundant  in  some  places 
that  towns,  like  Findlay  in 
western  Ohio,  have  sprung 
up  there  like  mushrooms. 

The  way  in  which  gas 
and  oil  are  formed,  and  the 
uses  to  which  they  are  put, 
have  already  been  described 
(pp.  123-124). 

In  many  places  in  the 
Central    States  natural  gas 

is      in      common    ^2)  cheapness 
use,      furnishing    of  gas  as  a  fuel 

both  light  and  heat  in  the 
houses,  and  fuel  in  the  fac- 
tories. It  is  a  very  cheap 
fuel,  for,  after  the  hole  is 
bored  into  the  earth,  it 
costs  almost  nothing  to 
produce  the  gas.  The  main 
expense  is  the  cost  of  the 
pipes  through  which  it 
passes. 

Once    Pennsylvania    was 
the  chief   iron-producing   state,  having 
both    coal    and    iron    ore ; 
but    some  ^  years     ago    ex-  ^d  TheZle 
plorers      discovered      enor-  superior 
mous  beds  of  iron  ore  near 
the  western  end  of  Lake  Superior.     In 
some    places   the   ore    is   so    soft   that, 
like   gravel,   it   can    be   dug   out   with 
steam  shovels,  and  very  often  it  is  so 
near   the   surface   that    the    mines   are 
open  pits.     In  other  places  the  mining 
is  done  underground.     That  is  the  case, 


THE  CENTRAL   STATES 


187 


for  example,  at  Ishpeming,  in  northern 
Michigan  (Fig.  252). 

This  Lake  Superior  district  is  now 
the  leading  iron-producing  center  of  the 
world.  It  includes  parts  of  three  states, 
— ^  Michigan,  Wisconsin,  and  Minnesota, 
—  the  most  important  being  Minnesota 
(Fig.  393),  and  the  least  important  Wis- 
consin. These  three  states  together 
produce  fifty  times  as  much  iron  ore  as 
Pennsylvania,  and  three  quarters  of  all 
the  iron  ore  mined  in  the  entire  country. 
The  enormous  development 
(jf  mining  in  this  region 
has  caused  numerous  towns 
and  cities  to  grow  up  here. 
There  is  no  coal  in  this 
iron  district.  Therefore,  in 
order  that  the 
ore  may  be  re- 
duced to  the 
metal,  either 
coal  must  be  carried  to  the 
iron  mines,  or  else  the  ore 
must  be  moved  to  the  coal. 
The  latter  has  proved  the 
cheaper.  Accordingly,  hun- 
ilreds  of  boats  sail  every 
year  from  the  lake  ports 
of  DuLUTH,  Superior,  Ashland,  and 
Marquette,  loaded  with  ore  for  the 
manufacturing  centers  along  the  lakes. 
Fortunately  the  iron  mines  are  near 
waterways.  If  it  were  necessary  to 
haul  the  heavy  ore  a  long 
distance  by  rail,  the  expense 
might  be  so  great  as  to  check 
its  production.  As  it  is,  however,  the 
ore  is  mined,  loaded  upon  cars,  and  sent 
over  short  lines  of  railway  to  the  lake 
shore. 

Great  ore  docks  (Fig.  253),  or  piers,  reaching 
out  into  deep  water,  have  been  built  to  hold  the 


ore.  Eailway  tracks  are  laid  upon  the  docks, 
and  the  trains  run  out  upon  them  to  dump  their 
contents  quickly  into  bins.  On  a  single  pier 
there  are  scores  of  bins,  which  together  hold 
enough  ore  to  fill  several  large  vessels.  When 
a  vessel  is  to  be  loaded,  it  comes  up  to  the  pier; 
then  a  door  at  the  bottom  of  a  bin  is  opened, 
allowing  hundreds  of  tons  of  ore  to  slide  out. 
After  this,  the  next  bin  is  emptied,  and  in  this 
way  the  vessel  is  filled  in  a  few  hours. 

As  the  ore  must  reach  a  point  where 
coal  is  easily  obtained,  it  is  taken  to 
such  lake  ports  as  Chicago,  Detroit, 


(2)  Whij  the  ore 
must  be  trayis- 
fiorted,  and 
from  what 
iiorts 


(3)  How  it  is 
loaded,  and 
ii-here  sent 


Fig.  252.  —  At  work  in  an  iron  mine  at  Ishpemiiig,  Michigan. 


Toledo,  Cleveland,  and  Buffalo.  No- 
tice how  close  to  these  cities  the  coal  beds 
extend  (Fig.  391).  From  the  lake  ports 
some  of  the  ore  is  carried  by  rail  to 
Pittsburg,  and  to  many  other  places 
in  the  midst  of  the  coal  fields. 

Another  metal  found  in  the  Central 
States  is  copper,  which  is  valuable  in 
many  ways.     It  is  one    of   .    ^ 

J  J  4.     Copper  ore 

the    metals    used    to    make  (i)  uses 
bronze,  and  also  brass ;  but  ''•^  '^'^^^^^ 
of  late  years  a  new  and  even  greater 
demand  for  this  metal  has  arisen.     Elec- 
tricity passes  through  copper  more  easily 


188 


NORTH  AMERICA 


than  through  other  common  metals ;  cop- 
per is,  therefore,  the  best  material  for 
trolley  wires,  for  the  wire  of  long-distance 
telephones,  and  for  wire  used  in  electric 
lighting.  Since  the  use  of  electricity  is 
rapidly  increasing,  there  is  a  growing  de- 
mand for  copper. 

The  Indians  and  early  explorers  found 
pieces  of  copper  on  the  surface  of  the 
(2)  Where  the  grouud  in  northern  Michi- 
ore  is  found  g^n.  Later  it  was  discov- 
ered in  the  rocks  beneath  the  soil.    These 


bits  of  rock  and  leave  the  heavier  par- 
ticles of  copper.  Even  after  this,  some 
foreign  substances  are  still  mixed  with 
the  copper,  and  these  must  be  removed 
before  the  metal  is  fit  for  use.  In  order 
to  remove  them,  the  copper  is  next  placed 
in  a  large  smelter  and  melted.  The  pure 
copper  is  allowed  to  run  out  of  the  fur- 
nace and  cool  in  bars  to  be  shipped  away 
(Fig.  254).  Among  the  foreign  sub- 
stances is  a  little  silver,  which  is  care- 
fully saved. 


Fig.  253. 


-The  great  ore  docks  on  the  shores  of  Lake  Superior.    Trains  loaded  witli  ore  run  out  onto  these  docls 
and  dump  their  ore  into  large  bins,  from  which  vessels  are  loaded. 


copper-bearing  rocks  are  found  on  the 
small  peninsula  that  extends  into  Lake 
Superior  near  Houghton.  Copper 
mines  were  started  there  long  ago,  and 
for  many  years  it  has  been  one  of  the 
leading  copper-mining  regions  of  the 
world. 

Some  of  these  mines  are  very  deep, 
one  of  the  shafts  reaching  to  a  depth  of 
about  a  mile.  When  the  ore 
is  drawn  to  the  surface,  it  is 
found  mixed  with  so  much 
rock  that  it  must  first  be 
crushed  to  a  powder  under  powerful 
hammers,  or  stamps.  Then  water  is 
run  over  it,  in  order  to  carry  away  the 


(3)  How  copper 
is  obtained  from 
the  ore,  and 
where  sent 


As  in  the  case  of  iron  ore,  the  copper  is 
shipped  to  points  along  the  lakes,  and  else- 
where, by  water  or  by  rail.  Much  of  it  goes 
to  the  metal  manufactories  in  New  England 
(p.  130).  Name  some  goods  that  must  be 
shipped  into  this  copper  section,  instead  of 
away  from  it.     Why  ? 

The  largest  of  the  copper  mines  are  near  to- 
gether, and  so  many  men  are  employed  in  ob- 
taining the  ore,  and  in  getting 

out  the   pure  metal,  that   large   <*>  Population 

.    ^  , ,        dependent  on 

towns  have  grown  up  near  the   these  mines 

mines.  Within  a  few  miles  of 
the  most  important  mines  are  several  towns, 
the  largest  being  Calumet.  Many  of  the 
people  living  in  these  towns  are  miners  and 
families  of  miners ;  but  there  must  be,  of 
course,  merchants,  physicians,  teachers,  min- 
isters, and  people  of  other  occupations;   and 


THE  CENTRAL   STATES 


189 


5 .    Other  min- 
eral products 

(1)  Building 
intones,  sand, 
mid  clay 

and  cement. 


they  all  depend  for  a  living  upon  the  precious 

copper  buried  far  beneath  the  surface. 

There  is  an  abundance  of  building  stones 
in  the  Central  States.  Among 
these  are  sandstone  and  lime- 
stone, which  are  shipped  in  all 
directions  for  building  purposes. 
Limestone  is  also  used  in  iron 
smelting  and  in  making  Port- 
In  addition,  there  are  slates  and 

■ranites  in  the  hilly  and  mountainous  sections, 

as  there  are  in  Kew  England  (p.  122). 
Several  states  produce  much 

sand,  which  is  melted  and  made 

into  window  glass,  bottles,  and 

other  objects.     Clay  of  various 

kinds,   used    in    making    bricks 

and  tiles,  is  abundant  in  all  the 

states. 

Lead  and  zinc  are  mined  in 

many  places,  as  at  Joplin,  Mo., 
and   then   sent  to 

(2)  Lead,  zinc,  furnaces,  where 
a7id  gold  , ,  ,    , 

the  pure  metals  are 

separated  from  the  ore.  A  large 
part  of  our  supply  of  lead  and 
zinc  is  obtained  from  Missouri. 
What  are  some  of  the  uses  of 
these  metals  ?  Of  what  use 
should  you  think  this  lead  was 
to  the  early  pioneers  ? 

Gold  is  mined  in  the  Black 
Hills  in  the  extreme  western 
part  of  South  Dakota. 

Much  salt  is  obtained  in  the 
Central     States,     especially     in 

Michigan.        This 

(3)  Salt  .     .    ^  ■, 
^                       state    produces 

more  salt  than  any  other  in  the 

Union.    New  York  is  second,  Ohio  third,  and 

Kansas  fourth. 

The  Central  States  produce  an  abun- 
dance of  raw  materials,  and  there  is 
Manufac-  also  much  coal  oil  and  gas 
turing  for  fuel,  while  in  some  places 

there  is  water  power.  Naturally,  there- 
fore, this  section  has  become  a  great 
manufacturing  region. 

Since  this  is  our  leading  wheat-pro- 
ducing region,  the  greatest   flour   mills 


in   the  country  are  located   here.     Be- 
cause of   the  wheat  and   other  grains, 
breakfast    foods    are    made  i.  From 
in  enormous  quantities,  and  ^"™  products 
there   are  many  distilleries   and   brew- 
eries. 

The  small  fruits  and  vegetables,  such 
as  berries,  beans,  peas,  tomatoes,  and 
sweet  corn  support  a  great  canning  in- 
dustry.   Tobacco  adds  another  kind  of 


Fig.  254.- 


Bars  of  copper  on  the  dock  at  Houghton,  Michigan, 
to  be  carried  away  by  the  large  lake  steamer. 


These  are 


manufacturing,  and  the  sugar  beet  still 
another. 

A  very  important  industry  is  the  pro- 
duction of  meat.  Cattle,  sheep,  and  hogs 
are  slaughtered  by  the  tens  of  thousands, 
and  the  meat  and  other  animal  products 
are  shipped  to  all  parts  of  the  country, 
as  well  as  to  Europe.  Butter,  cheese, 
lard,  soap,  hides,  wool,  and  other  animal 
products,  besides  meat,  are  prepared  in 
this  section. 


190 


NORTH  AMERICA 


While  many  of  these  farm  products 
are  shipped  to  other  regions  for  manu- 
facture, many  of  them  are  consumed  in 
this  way  in  the  Central  States.  For  ex- 
ample, there  are  large  woolen  mills  and 
shoe  factories  here,  as  well  as  in  New 
England. 

Near  the  forests,  both  along  the  streams 
and  on  the  shores  of  the  Great  Lakes,  the 
manufacture  of  furniture  and 
other  articles  from  wood  is 
extensive.     Farming  being  the  greatest 


2.    From 
forest  products 


Fig.  255.  —  A  crowd  of  workmen  leaving  a  lactoiy  at  the  close  of  the  day, 
at  Dayton,  Ohio. 


industry,  there  is  a  demand  on  all  sides 
for  wagons,  plows,  mowing  machines, 
threshing  machines,  and  other  farm  im- 
plements. Naturally,  therefore,  they  are 
manufactured  here  in  great  numbers. 

Chicago  is  especially  noted  for  the 
manufacture  of  furniture  ;  and  on  many 
of  the  rivers  of  Minnesota,  Wisconsin, 
and  Michigan,  where  there  is  abundant 
water  power,  there  are  sawmills,  furni- 
ture factories,  and  planing  mills.  Some 
of  these  are  at  Oshkosh  in  Wisconsin, 
and  at  Saginaw,  Bay  City,  and  Giiand 


Rapids  in  Michigan.  Grand  Rapids  is 
especially  noted  for  the  manufacture  of 
school  desks,  office  desks,  chairs,  tables, 
and  other  kinds  of  furniture.  Many  of 
the  cities  are  noted  for  the  manufacture 
of  farm  implements. 

Metal  manufacturing  in  the   Central 
States  is  quite  as  important  „    _. 

J-  ^3.     From  min- 

as   in  the   states  along  the  erai  products 
Atlantic  coast,  and  the  in-  (^)Frommetuis 
dustry  is  rapidly  growing. 

The  manufacture  of  iron  ore  into 
iron  and  steel  goods  occupies 
an  enormous  number  of  men 
in  hundreds  of  cities  and 
towns.  Some  of  the  largest 
iron  and  steel  plants  in  the 
country  are  in  Ohio,  Illinois, 
and  Indiana.  Among  them 
are  the  great  steel  works  at 
Gary,  Indiana.  The  manu- 
facture of  copper  goods  is 
another  extensive  industry, 
and  many  products  are  made 
from  lead  and  zinc. 

Crude    oil    is    made    into 
many     products,  ^^^^^^^^^^^ 
as  in  the  North-  day,  and 

,  c  i      J.  limestone 

eastern    b  t  a  t  e  s . 

Name  some  of  these  products 
(pp.  123-124). 

Much  of  the  deep  soil  in  the  prairie 
states  is  a  clay  which  is  useful  in  the 
manufacture  of  bricks.  As  in  other  sec- 
tions of  the  country  (p.  130),  there  are 
many  brickyards,  especially  near  the 
large  cities.  From  this  same  kind  of  clay, 
flowerpots,  drainpipes,  and  other  articles 
are  made.  During  recent  years,  when 
drainage  of  farm  land  has  become  com- 
fhon,  the  manufacture  of  tile  for  that  pur- 
pose has  developed  into  a  great  industry. 
Many  a  small  town  has  a  tile  factory. 


THE  CENTS AL   STATES 


191 


A  very  high  grade  of  pottery,  known  as 
Rookwood  ware,  is  manufactured  in  Cincin- 
nati. The  best  of  clay  is  needed  for  this,  which 
in  this  case  must  be  brought  from  a  distance. 
The  first  step  in  making  a  vase  is  to  wet  a  lump 
of  clay  so  that  it  may  easily  be  molded.  Then 
it  is  placed  upon  a  potter's  wheel,  where  it  is 
whirled  rapidly  around  while  a  man  molds  it 
with  his  hands.  In  a  very  few  minutes  he 
changes  the  shapeless  lump  into  a  delicately 
formed  vase.  It  must  then  be  baked,  and  after 
the  baking,  flowers  or  other  orna- 
ments may  be  painted  upon  it. 
The  surface  is  finally  covered 
with  a  substance  which,  when 
l)aked,  produces  a  glaze.  One 
of  the  beauties  of  the  Rook- 
^vood  ware  is  the  peculiar  color 
of  the  glaze,  which  is  a  dark  or 
yellowish  brown. 

In  Indiana,  Kansas,  Illi- 
nois, Michigan,  and  other 
states  of  this  section,  Port- 
land cement  is  made  from 
limestone.  Pennsylvania 
produces  the  most  cement, 
but  several  of  the  Central 
States  produce  large  amounts. 

The  handling  of  so  many    fig.  25g.— The 

.    ,  ,  J.  the  light ; 

raw  materials  and  manuiac-  very  front 


that  they  are  properly  called  inland  seas. 
They  form,  in  fact,  the  most  remarkable 
inland     waterway     in     the 

-  -,     »        ,  "^  ,  1.    The  natural 

world,  lor  large  vessels  can  highways 
sail   upon   them,  and   they  (i)  '^'^^ 

t  ,  lie    Great  Lakes 

reach  into  the  very  heart  oi 
a  fertile  and  productive  country.     From 
Duluth  to  Buffalo  there  is  only  one  place 
where    navigation    is    interfered    with. 


"  Soo  "  Canal.  Boats  going  west  pass  throii,i;li  the  cauiil  on 
those  going  east  pass  through  the  canal  on  the  left.  In  the 
of  the  picture  is  the  gate  of  a  lock. 


Transporta- 
tion of  goods 


tured     products 

leads  to  extensive  commerce. 
Transportation  of  bulky  goods,  such  as 
ores,  coal,  and  wheat,  is  especially  ira- 
])ortant  in  a  region  where  the  coal  and 
iron  ore  are  so  widely  separated,  and 
where  far  more  wheat  is  raised  than  can 
l)e  consumed. 

The  highways  used  for  this  purpose 
are  of  two  kinds;  (1)  those  that  are 
natural  to  the  country,  and  (2)  those 
that  have  been  made  by  man.  The  first 
may  be  called  natural,  the  second  arti- 
ficial. 

Of  the  natural  highways,  the  Great 
Lakes  are  far  the   best,  being  so  large 


That  is  at  the  outlet  of  Lake  Superior 
into  Lake  Huron,  where  there  are  some 
rapids.  Here  a  broad  canal,  large 
enough  for  the  Great  Lakes  vessels,  has 
been  dug.  It  is  called  the  Soo  Canal 
(Fig.  256),  after  the  city  Sault  Ste. 
Marie,  located  at  this  point. 

What  canal  connects  Lake  Erie  with 
Lake  Ontario  (Fig.  183)  ?  Why  is  a 
canal  there  necessary  ?     (Fig.  149.) 

While  the  Great  Lakes  outflow 
toward  the  east,  the  Mississippi  River 
and   its   two  large    tributa-    „    „ 

r  -I    r\^   '         W  The  rivers 

ries,  the  Missouri  and  Ohio, 

flow   toward    the    south.      These   great 


192 


NORTH  AMERICA  ' 


Fig.  257.  —  Shipping  on  the  Chicago  River.  This  was  the 
first  port  at  Chicago,  but  now  breakwaters  built  out 
into  the  lake  make  a  large  harbor. 


waterways  are  highways  of  travel  for 
boats.  Every  one  of  the  Central  States 
is  reached  either  by  a  lake,  highway,  or 
by  a  river. 

Among  the  artificial  highways  are 
roads  and  canals ;  but  the  railroads 
2.  Thearti-  are  especially  to  be  noted, 
ficiai  highways  ^he  surface  of  the  land  is 
generally  so  level  that  railway  lines  have 
been  easily  built ;  and  the  country  is  so 
fertile,  and  has  become  so  fully 
settled,  that  it  is  crossed  by  rail- 
roads in  all  directions.  Most  of  the 
great  railroad  systems  that  cross  the 
continent  from  east  to  west  pass 
through  either  Chicago  or  St.  Louis. 

Since  the  Central  States  have  no 
ocean  coast,  we  naturally  find  the 
Principal  principal  cities  along  the 

cities  along  the  Great  Lakes  and  the 
Great  Lakes  i\^Yee  great  rivers,  where 
it  is  possible  to  ship  goods  by  water. 
Let  us  first  consider  those  along  the 
Great  Lakes. 

At  the  western  end  of  Lake 
Superior  there  is  a  fine  harbor,  one 
1.  Duiuth  side  being  in  Minnesota, 
and  Superior       j^]^g  other  in  Wisconsin. 

Upon    this    harbor    are    two    cities, 


DuLUTH  and  Superior,  which  together 
have  a  population  of  over  a  hundred  and 
twenty  thousand.  The  chief  products 
of  this  vicinity  are  iron,  lumber,  and 
wheat,  which  are  shipped  eastward  in 
immense  quantities  from  these  two 
ports.  Owing  to  the  nearness  of  these 
cities  to  the  Minnesota  and  Dakota 
wheat  fields,  there  are  enormous  ele- 
vators for  storing  grain,  and  flour  mills 
for  grinding  it  into  flour. 

Locate  Chicago.  At  this  point  the 
small  Chicago  River  empties 
into  Lake  Michigan  (Fig. 
257),  forming  a  small  harbor,  on  which 
a  fort  was  located  in  early  times. 

As  the  West  developed,  this  site  proved 
to  be  a  most  favorable  one ;  for  whenever 
a  railway  was  built  from  the  (d  Advantages 
East  to  the  Northwest,  it  o/ this  site 
was  necessary  for  it  to  pass  around  the 
southern  end  of  Lake  Michigan.  As  the 
city  grew  in  size,  more  railways  were  built 
to  it  because  it  was  large  j  and  now  they 


2.    Chicago 


Fig.  268.  —  A  busy  Chicago  street  crowded  with  wagons. 


THE  CENTRAL   STATES 


193 


/: 


approach  it  from  the  east,  west,  north, 
and  south  (Fig.  259).  Thus  Chicago 
has  become  a  great  railway  center. 

The  city  is  an  important  shipping 
point  for  grain,  because 
it  lies  near  the  most 
productive  grain  region 
in  the  world.  It  is  also 
within  easy  reach  of  ex- 
tensive coal  fields,  while 
lumber  and  iron  ore  are 
readily  brought  to  it  by 
boat.  These  facts  have 
caused  Chicago  to  have 
a  wonderful  growth.  In 
the  yeir  1840  there  were 
but  4470  inhabitants ; 
but  to-day  it  has  a  popu- 
lation of  2, 185,000,  mak- 
ing it  the  second  city  in 
size  in  the  New  World. 
It  has  long  since  out- 
grown its  small  natural 
harbor,  and  a  much 
larger  one  has  been 
made  by  building  long 
breakwaters  out  into 
the  lake. 

Chicago  is  not  only  a 
great  grain  market,  but 

(2)  Meat  pack.  ^^  ^^^^  ^^^ 
ing  and  related  mOSt  iuipor- 
industries  .         , 

tant    meat 
market    in    the    world. 
All    the    grazing    states 
of  the  West  ship  stock 
to  this  point,  and  in  the 
city  itself  nearly  a  square 
mile  is  taken  up  by  the 
Union  Stockyards  (Fig.  260).     In  these 
are  large  sheds  for  the  various  kinds  of 
stock,  pens  with  high  fences,  and  troughs 
for  food  and  water  (Fig.  261).     Train- 


loads  of  cattle,  hogs,  and  sheep  are  un- 
loaded here  every  day.  The  work  era- 
ploys  about  thirty  thousand  men. 

The  packing  houses  send  out  a  num- 


^3^ 

'::ki  JZJit^mOL^HH 

s- 

„.  ,    0 

'                       ,^      ^               f 

I;     1     3     3    4          6          8     J.--*5^ 

Fig.  259.  —  Map  showing  the  location  of  Chicago  and  Milwaukee. 

ber  of  products.  By  far  the  most  im- 
portant is  meat,  for  most  of  the 
cities  of  the  East  are  furnished  with 
fresh    meat    from    Chicago    and    other 


194 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  2(50.  —  A  general  view  of  the  stockyards  at  Chicago. 


western  cities.  Both  live  cattle  and 
fresh  meat  are  sent  in  large  quantities 
to  Europe  also.  It  may  be  several  weeks 
after  the  meat  is  prepared  for  food  be- 
fore it  .  reaches  the  table  ;  yet  all  this 
time  it  is  kept  fresh  by  the  use  of  ice. 
Special  refrigerator  cars  are  built  for  the 
sole  purpose  of  carrying  it. 

Besides  the  meat  that  is  sold  fresh, 
much  is  canned.  The  fat  of  the  hog  is 
made  into  lard,  and  not  a  little  beef  fat 
is  made  into  imitation  butter,  called  oleo- 
margarine.     Many   of    the    bones    are 


FiG.  261. 


-A  view  of  a  small  part  of  the  stoc  kyan 
cattle  in  tlie  pens. 


burned  and  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  sugar  (p.  154);  and  the  horns  and 
hoofs  are  of  use  in  making  gelatin  and 
glue.  The  hides  are  made  into  shoes, 
gloves,  harnesses,  and  other  leather 
goods.  Nothing  is  wasted  in  the  pack- 
ing business ;  even  the  bristles  of  the 
hog  are  saved  and  made  into  brushes ; 
and  the  hair  from  the  hides  of  cattle  is 
valuable  in  making  plaster. 

There  are  many  companies  engaged 
in  the  making  of  iron  and  steel  goods  ; 
one  of  them  alone,  the  Illi-  (3)  other 

nois     Steel     Com-   ma}^^facturimJ 

pany,  employs  ten  thousand 
men.  An  enormous  amount 
of  furniture  is  made,  and  the 
manufacture  of  farming  im- 
plements is  also  very  exten- 
sive. Chicago  is  the  home 
of  the  National  Harvester 
Company,  which  controls  the 
manufacture  of  farming  im- 
plements in  most  parts  of 
the  country.  A  single  one 
of  its  plants  sends  out  about 
three  hundred  thousand  farm 
machines    every    year.      The 


(IMg.  2C0),  showing 


THE  CENTRAL  STATES 


195 


Pullman  Car  Works  have  made  as  many 
as  ten  thousand  freight  cars  in  one  year, 
besides  several  hundred  passenger  cars. 
As  in  New  York  (p.  138)  and  other  great 
cities,  the  making  of  clothing  is  one  of 
the  leading  industries.  These  are  but  a 
few  of  the  many  kinds  of  manufactur- 
ing in  this  great  city. 

Like  other  very  large  cities,  Chicago 
has  much  difficulty  in  providing  trans- 

(4)  Transporta.    portatiou  f Or  the 
t ion  and  sewage    people      of      the 

city.  Street  cars  are  one 
important  means,  and  many 
steam  railways  carry  pas- 
sengers to  and  from  the 
heart  of  the  city.  There 
are  elevated  railways  (Fig 
262),  also,  as  in  New  York, 
and  underground  roads,  as 
well.  But  unlike  those  in 
New  York,  the  underground 
roads  are  used  mainly  for 
liauling  freight. 


in  Wisconsin,  deals  extensively  in  grain, 
lumber,  and  leather,  packs  much  pork, 
and  manufactures  great  quantities  of 
flour  and  machinery.  It  is  a  busy  and 
rapidly  growing  city.  Locate  Racine,  a 
smaller  but  important  lake  port. 

Detroit  (Fig.  263),  the  largest  city 
in  Michigan,  is  also  on  the 
Great    Lakes    water    route. 
The  name  is  a  French  word  for  strait. 


Another  great  difficulty  was 
the  proper  care  of  the  sewage  of 
tlie  city.  For  a  long  time  it 
was  poured  into  Lake  Michigan;  but  as  the 
drinking  water  was  taken  from  the  lake,  this 
became  very  dangerous  to  the  health  of  the 
])eople.  In  order  to  carry  it  away,  an  immense 
drainage  canal  has  been  dug  (Fig.  259),  connect- 
ing Lake  Michigan  with  the  Illinois  River,  and 
1  hus  setting  the  current  toward  the  Mississippi 
and  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  This  drainage  canal, 
which  is  wide  and  deep  enough  for  boats,  niayv 
in  time  develop  into  a  ship  canal.  In  that 
case,  large  ships  may  reach  Chicago  from  the 
( rulf  of  Mexico,  as  they  now  do  from  the  Gulf 
of  St.  Lawrence.  What  effect  would  this  have 
upon  the  city  ? 

Other  large  cities  along  the  lakes  are 
3.  Milwaukee  engaged  in  many  of  the 
and  Racine  game  industries  as  Chicago. 
Milwaukee  (Fig.  259),  the  largest  city 


Fig.  262  — a  view  of  an  elevated  railway  in  Chicago  at  the  point  known 
as  the  Union  Loop. 


Why  is  that  name  suitable?  All  vessels 
going  east  or  west  must  pass  this  city ; 
and  some  of  the  railway  trains  from 
eastern  Canada  to  the  West  cross  the 
strait  at  this  narrow  point  or  pass  be- 
neath it  in  a  tunnel.  Being  at  the 
crossing  of  important  railway  and  steam- 
ship lines,  Detroit  has  become  a  great 
shipping  and  manufacturing  center.  It 
deals  in  grain,  wool,  pork,  and  ores  from 
the  West,  and  makes  iron  and  steel  goods. 
On  the  lake  shore  in  Ohio  the  chief 
cities  are  Toledo  and  Cleveland  (Fig. 
263).  The  former  has  ex-  5  Cleveland 
tensive  flour  mills  and  iron  and  Toledo 
manufactories  ;  and  the  latter,  which  is 


196 


NORTH  AMERICA 


a  much  larger  city,  being  even  larger 
than  Cincinnati,  Detroit,  or  Buffalo,  has 
an  important  trade  in  grain,  lumber,  and 
ore.  The  situation  of  Cleveland  near  the 
coal  and  petroleum  fields  has  led  to  the 
extensive  manufacturing  of  machinery, 
furniture,  and   other   goods.     Much  pe- 


FiG.  263.  —  Map  showing  the  location  of  Detroit,  Cleveland,  Ciiicnunati,  and  Pitts- 
burg, and  their  relation  to  the  trade  routes  of  the  Central  and  Northeastern 
States. 


tr oleum  is  refined  here,  and  the  build- 
ing of  ships  for  the  lake  commerce  is  an 
important  industry. 

Locate    the   principal  cities  of  the   Central 

States  that  are  situated  on  or  near  the  Great 

Lakes.    Named  in  order  of  size,  they  are  Chicago, 

Cleveland,  Detroit,  Milwaukee,  Toledo,  Duluth, 

and  Superior.    In  what  state 

is  each  of  them  ?     On  whicli 

lake  ?     Through  what  lakes 

would    one    go    in    passing 

from  Cleveland  to  Chicago ".' 

From  Cleveland  to  Duluth  ? 


The  largest  city  on 
the  rivers,  corresponding 
to    Chicago  p^^^.p^i 

on  the  lakes,    cities  along 

is  St.  Louis,  *^«  "^«" 
the  fourth  in  size  among 

our     cities    l.    St  Louis 

(Fi^.      267).    (X)  Its  location 

It  has  a  very  favorable 
position  in  the  center  of 
the  Mississippi  Valley, 
on  the  Mississippi  River 
near  the  mouths  of  its 
two  largest  tributaries. 
The  railway  bridges 
across  the  Mississippi  at 
this  point  have  also  had 
great  influence  on  the 
growth  of  the  city.  It 
is  an  important  shippi no- 
point  both  by  water  anil 
by  rail. 

Like  Chicago,  St. 
Louis  is  one  of  our  lead- 
ing markets  (2)  ns  imius- 
f or  grain  '"®* 
and  live  stock ;  but, 
being  so  far  south,  it 
handles  Southern  prod- 
ucts   also,  especially 


THE  CENTRAL   STATES 


197 


Fig.  264.—  Shipping  on  tlie  Great  Lakes.     Tlie  peculiar  ship  in  the  foreground  is  called  a  whaleback. 


Fig.  265.  —  A  railway  bridge  across  tlu-  Mi~>.'iii  i  River  above  St.  Louis. 


Copyright  by  Sweet,  V.^)5. 

Fig.  266.  —  a  general  view  of  St.  Paul,  with  the  Mississippi  River  in  tlie  toregrouiul.     The  state  capitol  of  Minnesota 

is  on  the  hill  at  the  left. 


198 


NORTH  AMERICA 


cotton  and  tobacco.  Besides  this,  it  is 
a  noted  mule  and  horse  market,  and 
manufactures     immense     quantities     of 


Fig.  267. 


Map  showing  the  location  of  St.  Louis,  Kansas  City,  Omaha, 
Minneapolis,  and  St.  Paul. 


grain  and  live  stock  in  the  West;  but 
in  later  years  several  other  cities  have 
become  prominent.     Two  of  2.   stPauiand 

these        are    Minneapolis 

the  "  twin  cities,"  Min- 
neapolis and  St.  Paul 
(Fig.  267),  both  on  the 
Mississippi  River.  The 
latter  (Fig.  266),  the 
capital  of  Minnesota, 
is  a  trade  center. 
From  it  the  products 
of  the  West  are  sent 
east  and  south,  while 
farm  implements, 
furniture,  clothing, 
and  other  articles  are 
distributed  throughout 
the  region. 

Minneapolis,  only 
ten  miles  distant,  is 
situated  at  the  Falls 
of  St.  Anthony,  which 
furnish  splendid  water 
power  (Fig.  268).  Its 
location  in  the  midst 
of  the  wheat  region, 
together  with  its  water 
power,  has  caused 
Minneapolis  to  become 
the  leading  flour-pro- 
ducing center  of  Amer- 
ica. In  the  city  are  many 
sawmills,  grain  eleva- 
tors, and  flour  mills. 

Smaller  cities  on  the 
Mississippi  River  be- 
tween this 


tobacco,  beer,  flour,  boots,  shoes,  cloth- 
ing, and  iron  and  steel  goods. 

At  one  time  Chicago   and   St.  Louis 
were  almost  the  only  noted  markets  for 


3.    other  cities 
point     and    on  the  Missis- 

St.    Louis   are   Winona,  in  "^^' 
Minnesota ;   La  Crosse,  in  Wisconsin ; 
Dubuque   and    Davenport,   in    Iowa; 
and   QuiNCY,  in   Illinois.      Find   each. 


THE  CENTRAL   STATES 


199 


Each  is  important 
either  for  lumber, 
grain,  or  farming  im- 
plements, or  for  all 
three  combined. 

The  leading  cities 
on  the  Missouri  River 
.    _.,.  are   Kan- 

4.     Cities  on 

and  near  the  SAS     CiTY 

Missouri  (Fig.  267), 

in  western  Missouri, 
and  Omaha,  in  Ne- 
braska. Each  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  fertile  farming  country, 
which  produces  much  grain.  Each  is 
also  a  market  for  cattle,  sheep,  and 
horses,  raised  near  by  and  in  the  arid 
region  farther  west.  Being  so  near  the 
ranch  country,  the  meat-packing  indus- 
tries in  both  of  these  cities  are  gaining 
rapidly  each  year.  Note  that  there  is 
also  a  Kansas  City  in  Kansas. 

On  the  river  above  Kansas  City  is  St. 


Fig.  268. 


Fig.  269.  —  River  boats  on  the  Ohio  at  Cincinnati 


The  St.  AiiLhony  i'alls  ;it  Minneapolis  —  some  of  the  factories  are  seen 
in  the  distance. 


Joseph,  in  Missouri;  and  below  it  is 
Jefferson  City,  the  capital  of  that  state. 
Farther  west,  in  Kansas,  are  Topeka, 
the  capital,  and  Wichita.  Southwest 
of  Omaha  is  Lincoln,  the  capital  of 
Nebraska  ;  and  across  the  river,  in  Iowa, 
is  Council  Bluffs,  a  center  for  the 
manufacture  of  farming  implements. 
Several  cities  northwest  of  this  point  are 
chiefly  important  as  trade  centers.  Find 
some  of  them  on  the  map. 
Locate  Des  Moines,  the 
capital  of  Iowa.  Of  what 
advantage  is  its  central 
position  in  a  level  fanning 
country  ? 

Pittsburg  and  Wheeling, 
on  the  upper  5.  cities  in  the 
Ohio  river,  the  Ohio  VaUey 
one  in  Pennsylvania  and 
the  other  in  West  Virginia, 
owe  their  importance  largely 
to  coal  and  iron,  and  to  the 
fact  that  river  boats  can 
reach  them.  Farther  down 
the  river  is  Cincinnati  (Fig. 
263),  the  largest  river 
port  in  the  state  of  Ohio, 
and  a  busy  shipping  and 
manufacturing  center  (Fig. 


200 


NORTH  AMERICA 


269).  Besides  pottery  (p.  191),  this  city 
manufactures  large  quantities  of  iron, 
machinery,  and  clothing.  Across  the 
river,  in  Kentucky,  are  Covington  and 
Newport  (Fig.  263),  both  almost  a  part 
of  Cincinnati,  as  Jersey  City  is  almost 
a  part  of  New  York. 

Farther  north  and  east,  in  Ohio,  are 
Dayton  and  Springfield,  both  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  farm  machinery. 
Dayton  is  engaged  in  manufacturing 
of  many  kinds,  including  the  making  of 
cars.  Columbus,  the  capital  of  Ohio,  is 
an  important  trade  center,  and  manu- 
factures many  carriages  and  wagons. 

EvANSviLLE,  the  largest  river  port  in 
Indiana,  is  principally  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  flour,  machinery,  and 
leather  goods.  Indianapolis,  the  capi- 
tal and  metropolis  of  Indiana,  is  in  the 
midst  of  a  fine  farming  district.  Like 
Columbus,  it  is  a  railway  and  trade 
center,  and  handles  much  grain,  lumber, 
and  furniture,  and  many  farming  imple- 
ments. 

Locate  the  principal  cities  on  the 
large  rivers,  and  tell  for  what  each  is 
important.  In  order  of  size,  they  are 
St.  Louis,  Cincinnati,  Minneapolis,  Kan- 
sas City,  St.  Paul,  and  Omaha.  In 
\vhich  state,  and  on  what  river,  is  each 
of  these  ?  How  could  you  go  by  boat 
from  Cincinnati  to  St.  Paul  ?  From 
Cincinnati  to  Omaha  ?  On  what  rivers 
would  you  travel  in  each  case,  and 
through,  or  on  the  border  of,  what 
states  ? 

1.   What  can  you  say  about  the  area  of  these 
states?     2.    The  population?     3.   The    impor- 
tance of  agriculture?     4.    What 
eview  three  conditions  have  been  very 

favorable  to  farming  ?  5.  State 
facts  about  the  farm  in  Central  Ohio ;  (1)  the 
house  and  its  surroundings ;  (2)  the  fields  and 


their  crops ;  (3)  the  neighbors  ;  (4)  the  attrac- 
tions of  such  a  life.  6.  To  what  extent  is 
Indian  corn  raised  in  these  states  ?  7.  How 
is  it  cultivated  and  harvested?  8.  Name 
several  of  its  uses.  9.  What  Central  States 
are  noted  for  wheat  production  ?  10.  Describe 
the  method  of  cultivating  it  on  a  large  farm. 
11.  Explain  its  influence  on  the  growth  of 
many  large  cities.  12.  What  fruits  are  grown 
in  the  Central  States  ?  In  what  sections  ? 
13..  What  vegetables  are  common?  14.  Which 
states  are  noted  for  tobacco?  15.  Tell  about 
the  domestic  animals.  16.  Other  farm  products 
of  these  states.  17.  Farming  by  irrigation  on 
the  Great  Plains.  18.  Where  is  ranching  the 
principal  industry  ?  Why  there  ?  19.  W^hat 
can  you  say  about  the  location  of  the  ranch- 
man's house  and  corrals  ?  20.  Why  are  few 
fences  needed  ?  21.  Tell  about  the  two  round- 
ups. 22.  Describe  the  life  of  the  ranchman. 
23.  Give  some  facts  about  lumbering  in  these 
states.  24.  Fishing.  25.  The  distribution  of 
coal.  26.  The  kind  of  coal,  and  method  of 
mining  it.  27.  Where  are  oil  and  gas  found  ? 
28.  State  the  importance  of  the  Lake  Superior 
district  for  iron  ore.  29.  Why  is  it  necessary 
to  transport  the  ore  a  long  distance  before 
manufacturing  it  into  iron  ?  30.  Name  and 
locate    several   points    to   which   it   is   taken. 

31.  What   are   some  of  the   uses   of  copper  ? 

32.  Where  in  these  states  is  copper  ore  found  ? 

33.  How  is  the  copper  obtained  from  the  ore? 
Where  is  it  sent  ?  34.  Show  that  a  large  pop- 
ulation is  dependent  on  these  copper  mines. 
35.  Tell  about  other  mineral  products  in  the 
Central  States.  36.  What  manufactures  from 
farm  products  are  very  important  in  these 
states?  37.  What  manufactures  from  forest 
products  ?  38.  From  ores  ?  39.  From  oil, 
clay,  and  limestone  ?  40.  Explain  the  value 
of  the  Great  Lakes  for  the  transportation  of  goods. 
41.  The  value  of  the  rivers.  42.  Give  a  few 
facts  about  the  importance  of  the  railroads,  also. 
43.  Explain  the  importance  of  Duluth  and  Su- 
perior. 44.  The  advantages  of  the  location  of 
Chicago.  45.  Tell  about  meat  packing  and  re- 
lated industries  in  Chicago.  46.  Other  manu- 
facturing in  that  city.  47.  The  difficulties  of 
transportation  and  sewage  there.  48.  State 
the  principal  facts  about  Milwaukee  and  Ra- 
cine. 49.  Detroit.  60.  Cleveland  and  Toledo. 
51.  St.  Louis.  62.  St.  Paul  and  Minneapolis. 
53.    Other   cities    on    the    Mississippi    Kiver. 


THE  CENTRAL   STATES 


201 


54.  Cities   on   and  near  the   Missouri  River, 

55.  Cities  in  the  Ohio  Valley. 

OJiio  (0.).    1.   Name  the  four  largest  cities 

(see     Appendix).      State    the    advantages   of 

each  location.      2.    What   other 

Review  Ques-    gj^jgg    ^f    ()\^[q    are    mentioned  ? 

tions  by  States   ^  i    i.    •  u     •  4-1.0 

•'  For   what   is    each    important  ? 

3.  Why  is  there  much  manufacturing  in  this 
state  ?  4.  What  other  industries  are  men- 
tioned in  the  text  ?  5.  Examine  the  maps 
(Figs.  371-381)  in  order  to  see  what  crops  are 
especially  important  in  Ohio.  6.  In  what  ways 
are  the  cities  of  Ohio  dependent  upon  New 
Orleans  and  New  York  ?  How  are  the  latter 
cities  dependent  upon  those  in  Ohio  ?  7.  Of 
what  service  to  Cleveland  and  Toledo  is  the 
Erie  Canal  ?  8.  Draw  a  sketch  map  of  Ohio 
like  that  of  Maine  (p.  J  46).  As  you  study  each 
state,  do  the  same. 

Indiana  (Ind.).  9.  Examine  the  maps  (Figs. 
371-381)  to  see  what  crops  are  produced  in 
Indiana.  10.  What  minerals  are  found  here  ? 
11.  Which  is  the  largest  city  ?  For  what 
noted  ?     12.    What  other  cities  are  mentioned  ? 

13.  What    are    the    industries    of    Indiana? 

14.  Of  what  importance  was  the  fact  tha:t  a 
large  part  of  this  section  was  treeless  when 
discovered  ? 

Illinois  (111.).  15.  Examine  the  maps  (Figs. 
371-381)  to  see  what  crops  are  especially  im- 
portant. 16.  W^hy  is  there  much  manufactur- 
ing in  Illinois  ?     What  kinds  are  carried  on  ? 

17.  Of  what  value  is  the  lake  to  manufacturing  ? 

18.  State  the  reasons  why  Chicago  has  de- 
veloped so  greatly.  19.  What  other  cities 
are  mentioned  in  this  state  ?  For  what  is  each 
important  ?  20.  Which  of  the  four  states  so 
far  reviewed  is  the  largest  ?  Which  smallest 
(see  Appendix)  ? 

Michigan  (Mich.).  21.  What  lakes  does  this 
state  border?  Of  what  advantage  is  this? 
22.  What  disadvantage  can  you  see  in  the  fact 
that  water  separates  the  lower  from  the  upper 
peninsula  of  Michigan?  23.  Ice  stops  canal 
traffic  in  winter.  What  effect  must  this  have  ? 
24.  Into  what  waters  does  this  state  drain? 
Contrast  this  drainage  with  that  of  the  other 
states.  25.  Where  are  most  of  the  large 
cities  ?  Why  there  ?  26.  For  what  is  each 
important  ?  27.  Give  the  reasons  for  the  lo- 
cation of  Detroit.  28.  What  are  the  im- 
portant products  of  Michigan  ? 

Wisconsin  (Wis.).     29.    Which  is  the  largest 


city  in  this  state  ?  For  what  important  ? 
30.  W^hat  other  cities  are  mentioned  in  the 
text  ?  What  is  done  in  each  ?  31.  Compare 
Wisconsin  with  Michigan  in  relief;  in  min- 
eral products ;  in  crops  ;  in  the  size  of  cities. 
32.  What  effect  must  the  lakes  have  upon 
the  climate  ?  Would  this  influence  be  greater 
or  less  than  in  Michigan  ?  Why  ?  33.  If 
there  were  coal  beds  in  northern  Wisconsin, 
what  effect  might  the  coal  have  upon  Chicago, 
Cleveland,  and  the  coal  mining  of  Pennsylvania  ? 

Minnesota  (Minn.).  34.  Where  does  the 
Mississippi  River  rise  ?  35.  What  oceans  re- 
ceive the  water  that  falls  upon  Minnesota? 
Give  proof.  36.  What  manufacturing  indus- 
tries are  carried  on  in  this  state  ?  37.  What 
crops  are  raised  ?  38.  Name  the  three  largest 
cities,  and  tell  how  each  is  important.  39.  How 
does  the  largest  compare  in  size  with  Boston  ? 
"With  Cincinnati  ? 

Iowa  (la.).  40.  Examine  the  maps  (Figs. 
371-381)  to  see  what  crops  are  raised  in  this 
state.  41.  What  other  important  industries 
are  carried  on  ?  42.  Name  the  largest  cities. 
For  what  are  they  noted  ?  43.  Much  corn  is 
raised  here  ;  what  is  done  with  it  ? 

Missouri  (Mo.).  44.  Examine  Figures  371- 
381  to  see  how  the  crops  of  Missouri  differ 
from  those  of  Minnesota.  W^hy  this  diiference  ? 
45.  Why  are  so  few  large  towns  found  in  the 
southwestern  part  ?  46.  Name  and  locate  the 
two  largest  cities.  For  what  is  each  important  ? 
47.  What  other  cities  are  mentioned  ?  48.  Find 
the  population  of  St.  Louis ;  compare  it  with 
that  of  Philadelphia  and  Boston.  49.  Give 
live  reasons  for  its  great  size. 

Kansas  (Kan.).  50.  Why  are  the  cities  in 
the  eastern  part  ?  51.  What  are  the  industries 
of  the  West  ?  Why  ?  52.  What  are  the  lead- 
ing crops  in  Kansas  (Figs.  371-381)  ?  What 
other  industries  are  important  ?  53.  Name 
the  principal  cities.     For  what  is  each  noted  ? 

Nebraska  (Neb.).  54.  How  do  the  industries 
of  Nebraska  compare  with  those  of  Kansas  ? 
Why  ?  55.  How  are  these  states  alike  in  regard 
to  location  of  cities  ?  56.  What  cities  in  Ne- 
braska are  mentioned  ?  57.  For  what  is  Omaha 
noted  ? 

North  and  South  Dakota  (N.D.  and  S.D.). 
58.  These  two  states  once  formed  the  territory 
of  Dakota.  Suggest  reasons  for  making  two 
states  out  of  the  one  territory.  59.  Compare 
the  industries  of  the  two  states  with  those  of 


202 


NORTH  AMERICA 


General 
Review 
Questions 


Nebraska  and  Kansas.  60.  Look  at  the  corn 
and  wheat  maps  (Figs.  371  and  373)  to  see 
where  most  wheat  and  corn  are  produced.  Is 
North  Dakota  more  or  less  important  than 
Kansas  as  a  corn-producing  state  ?  Answer 
the  same  for  wheat.  Why  is  this  so?  61.  Of 
what  advantage  would  it  be  to  Fargo  if  a  deep 
river  extended  from  that  city  to  Duluth  ? 
62.  How  do  the  Black  Hills  increase  the  wealth 
of  South  Dakota  ? 

63.  Which  state  is  the  largest  in  this  group 
(see  Appendix  of  Statistics  )  ?  Which  smallest  ? 
Compare  each  of  these  two  in 
area  with  Pennsylvania;  with 
Texas.  64.  Which  of  the  Cen- 
tral States  has  most  inhabitants 
(see  Appendix)  ?  Which  fewest  ?  Compare 
each  of  these  two  in  population  with  New 
York ;  with  Texas.  65.  Find  the  ten  largest 
cities  (see  Appendix). 

1.  Write  a  brief  description  of  the  ^Western 
prairies.  2.  Find  how  much  earlier  in  the 
autumn  frosts  come  in  Minneapolis  than  in 
Memphis.  3.  How  do  farms  that  you  have  seen 
differ  from  the  Ohio  farm  described  in  the  text  ? 
4.  Find  other  uses  of  corn,  besides  those  men- 
tioned. 5.  How  does  the  wind  often  help  ranch 
cattle  to  obtain  food  in  winter  ?  6.  What  are 
some  of  the  advantages  that 
cowboys  experience  ?  7.  W^hy 
are  coal  and  brick  especially  valuable  in  a 
prairie  country  ?  8.  Visit  a  brickyard,  and 
write  a  description  of  brickmaking.  9.  See 
how  long  a  list  you  can  make  of  articles  manu- 
factured partly  or  wholly  out  of  copper.  10.  Do 
the  same  with  regard  to  lead.  11.  Do  the  same 
with  regard  to  iron.  12.  From  what  animals 
do  wool,  beef,  veal,  pork,  mutton,  lard,  tallow, 
and  leather  come  ?  13.  Add  some  wheat,  corn, 
and    other   grains    to    the    school    collection. 

14.  How  are  the  advantages  of  the  location  of 
Chicago  somewhat  similar  to  those  of  Atlanta  ? 

15.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  great  water  route 
from  Duluth  to  New  York  City,  and  put  in  the 
leading  cities  located  upon  it.  What  states 
border  on  this  route  ?  16.  Make  a  drawing  of 
the  Mississippi,  Missouri,  and  Ohio  rivers,  and 
include  the  leading  cities.  What  states  do  these 
rivers  border  or  cross  ?  17.  Make  a  sketch  map 
of  the  Central  States,  including  the  principal 
lakes,  rivers,  and  cities.  18.  Name  and  locate 
the  capital  of  each  of  the  Central  States. 


Suggestions 


5.    The  Western  States 

1.  Name  the  states  in  this  group.  Write 
the  names.  2.  In  what  direction  do  the 
mountain    ranges    cross    them  ?   „ 

3.  Name   the   principal    ranges.         ^        ^ 

4.  Name  and  trace  the  chief  rivers.  5.  In 
what  section  do  you  find  very  few  rivers  ? 
What  does  that  suggest  about  the  rainfall  ? 
6.  Find  some  rivers  emptying  into  lakes  with 
no  outlet.  Are  those  salt  or  fresh  water  lakes  ? 
Why  ?  7.  How  far  is  it  across  these  states, 
measuring  from  the  northern  to  the  southern 
boundary  of  the  United  States  ?  8.  How  far 
is  it  from  New  York  City  to  San  Francisco  ? 

9.  Measure  the  length  of  California.  Com- 
pare  its   length   with    that   of    Pennsylvania. 

10.  Compare  the  area  of  California,  also  of 
Colorado,  with  that  of  Pennsylvania.  (See 
Appendix.)  11.  What  one  of  our  states  is 
larger  than   California  ?     How  much  larger  ? 

12.  What  states  border  on  the  Pacific  Ocean  ? 

13.  How  does  the  Pacific  coast  compare  in  reg- 
ularity with  that  of  the  Northeastern  States 
(Fig.  144)  ?  14.  On  Figure  138  note  whether 
San  Francisco  is  farther  north  or  south  than 
New  York  City.  15.  On  the  same  map  find 
out,  as  nearly  as  you  can,  the  point  that  is  mid- 
way between  New  York  City  and  San  Fran- 
cisco. 16.  Name  those  states  whose  waters 
drain  mainly  or  entirely  into  the  Pacific ;  into 
the  Atlantic  ;  into  the  Great  Basin. 

These  eleven   states   are  larger  than 
the  Northeastern  and    Southern    States 
combined.        Indeed,     they 
make  np  much   more  than 
one   third   of    the    entire   area    of   the 
United  States. 

Little  was   known  about  them  until 
1848,   when   gold  was   dis- 

T  .      ,1         ,  1      Population 

covered  in  the  stream  gravels  ^    ^^^^^  ^^ 
of    California.     As   the  dis-  discovery  of 
covery  became  known,  how-  ^^ 
ever,  tens  of  thousands  of  persons  in  the 
East  left  farms,  factories,  and  homes  in 
a  mad  rush  for  the  gold  fields.     Some 
sailed  all  the  way  around  South  Amer- 
ica;   others    crossed    the     Isthmus    of 


S'O  L.vet 


F,-<im  2,000  to  8,000  ft. 

from  500  to  2,000  /«, 
_  from  100  «o500-/t. 
_  From  OtolOO/t. 

from  0«o660/t. 

fromtio  to  6,600  ft. 

Below  ii,600/(. 


115^  Longitude 


110°  from 


Greenwloh  105° 


FIG.   272. 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


203 


Fig.  271. 


204 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Panama ;  but  many  traveled  overland, 
running  the  risk  of  attack  from  In- 
dians and  of  death  from  hunger  and 
thirst.  There  were  then  no  railways 
west  of  the  Mississippi,  and  the  journey 
was  long  and  dangerous. 

The  discovery  of  gold  quickly  drew 
many  settlers  to  California;  and,  as  the 
search  for  the  precious  metal  was  car- 
ried farther  and  farther,  the  entire  West 
soon  became  explored  and  settled.  Hail- 
ways  were  built  across  the  mountains 
(Fig.  403),  and  many  industries,  such  as 


Fig.  273.  —  A  lake  in  the  picturesque  Rocky  Mountaius  of  Montana 


farming,  lumbering,  and  manufacturing, 
followed  mining. 

Yet  the  population  of  these  states  is 
now  only  seven  million,  while  that  of  the 
2.  Present  Northeastern  and  Southern 
population  States  together  is  over  fifty- 

five  million.  This  means  that  the 
Western  States  are  very  thinly  settled ; 
in  fact,  this  is  the  most  thinly  settled 
part  of  our  country. 

Let  us  find  some  of  the  reasons  for  this 
Reasons  condition.    One  reason  is  the 

for  small  far  western  position  of  these 

population  states.  Most  of  the  early 
settlers  in  this  country  came  from  Europe, 


and  settlements  were  made  first  along 
the  eastern  coast.  It  was  a  long  dis- 
tance from  there  to  the  Mis-  i  xheirposi- 
sissippi  River,  and  it  was  tion  so  far  west 
only  after  the  Eastern  States  were  fairly 
well  occupied  that  many  people  crossed 
the  Mississippi  to  go  farther  west.  Now 
that  the  East  is  so  fully  settled,  more 
and  more  people  go  to  live  in  the  Far 
West. 

Another  reason  why  there  are  so  few ' 
people  is  the  mountainous  condition  of 
the   country.     The   Appala-  „    „,  . 

•^     .  ^^  ^         2.    Their  many 

chian  Mountains  mountains  and 
greatly  hindered  p^*®*"^ 
early  settlers  from  reaching 
the  fertile  valley  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. The  mountains  of 
the  West  are  far  more  exten- 
sive, and  more  difficult  to 
cross,  than  the  Appalachians. 
Instead  of  one  mountain 
chain,  there  are  four  great 
mountain  systems  extending 
north  and  south,  and  between 
them  are  broad  plateaus,  some 
of  which  are  more  than  a 
mile  above  the  level  of  the 
sea.  A  large  portion  of  the  Western 
States  is  plateau  country. 

In  traveling  westward  from  the  Mis- 
sissippi, one  passes  first  over  the  Great 
Plains,  whose  height  above  the  level  of 
the  sea  gradually  increases  to  about  a 
mile.  Then  come  the  Hocki/  Mountains, 
which  rise  from  five  to  ten  thousand  feet  ^ 
higher.  Note  the  states  that  they  cross. 
The  name  J^ock(/  suggests  how  difficult 
it  is  to  travel  over  them,  for  they  are 
high  and  very  rough. 

Extending  from  these  mountains  for 
nearly  a  thousand  miles  to  the  west  is  a 
plateau,  with  one  part,  called  the  Great 


THE   WESTERN   STATES 


205 


Basin,  lower  than  the  rest. 
On  the  western  side  of  the 
Great  Basin,  in  California, 
are  the  Sierra  Nevada 
ranges;  and  farther  north, 
in  Oregon  and  Washington, 
are  the  Cascade  Ranges.  Be- 
fore the  Pacific  is  reached, 
still  a  third  system  of 
mountains,  called  the  Coast 
Ranges,  must  be  crossed. 
They  are  separated  from  the 
Sierra  Nevada  by  a  broad 
valley.  All  these  Western 
mountains  together  are 
known  as  the  Western  CordUlera.  Their 
highest  peak  is  Mount  Whitney,  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  loftiest  mountain  in  the  United 
States  outside  of  Alaska. 

A  third  reason  for  the  sparse  popula- 
tion is  the  lack  of  rain.  We  have  al- 
ready learned  that  the  western  parts  of 
3.  Their  lack  Texas  (p.  157)  and  the  states 
of  rain  farther   north    (p.   176)    re- 

ceive too  little  rain  for  agriculture. 


A.  H.  Barnes 


Fig.  274. 


Fig.  275.  —  Desert  lamlscape  in  southwestern  United  States. 
scattered  plants  grow  in  this  sandy  waste. 


Mount  Rainier,  in  Washington,  one  of  the  most  beautiful  volcanic 
cones  of  the  West.    It  is  plainly  visible  from  Tacoma. 


There  are  two  reasons  for  this  dry- 
ness. In  the  first  place,  in  the  southern 
portion  of  these  states  the  winds  blow 
from  the  land  toward  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
not  frmn  it.  They  cannot,  therefore, 
carry  much  vapor,  and  part  of  the  coun- 
try is  a  true  desert  (Fig.  275). 

In  the  second  place,  although  the 
winds  farther  north  blow  from  the 
Pacific,  they  soon  lose  their  moisture  as 
they  move  eastward.  They  have 
plenty  of  vapor  when  they  reach 
the  coast,  but  as  they  rise  over 
the  mountains,  much  of  this  falls 
as  rain  or  snow.  The  rainfall  is 
therefore  very  heavy  on  and  near 
the  Coast  Eanges.  Continuing 
eastward,  the  winds  blow  over 
the  Sierra  Nevada  and  Cascade 
ranges,  and  are  there  robbed  of 
more  moisture.  The  air  then 
becomes  so  dry  that  a  large  part 
of  the  country  farther  east,  as 
far  as  the  Rocky  Mountains, 
receives  very  little  rain. 

Again,  on  crossing  the  lofty 
Rocky  Mountains,  these  west 
winds   lose   still   more   of   their 


Only 


206 


NORTH  AMERICA 


moisture.  This  is  suggested  on  the 
map  by  the  number  of  large  rivers 
that  find  their  sources  in  these  moun- 
tains. Name  and  trace  some  of  them. 
As  a  result,  if  winds  from  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico  and  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
did  not  bring  some  vapor  for  rain,  the 
country  east  of  the  Rockies  might  be 
as  dry  as  the  Sahara  Desert.  As  it  is, 
some  rain  falls  even  close  to  the  eastern 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  so  that  this 
region,  though  arid,  is  not  a  true  desert. 


sufficient  rain 


Fig.  276.  —  The  desert  near  Great  Salt  ]^ake  in  Utah. 


In  the  plateau  and  Great  Basin  region,  which 
lies  between  the  Sierra  Nevada-Cascade  System 
and  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  climate,  for  the 
most  part,  is  dry  or  arid.  Note  the  states 
that  are  included.  In  places  the  climate  is  so 
dry  that  the  country  is  a  real  desert  (Fig.  276). 

On  these  deserts  one  may  travel  for  scores 
of  miles  without  seeing  vegetation  of  any  kind 
excepting  cactus,  scattered  blades  of  grass,  and 
such  other  plants  as  grow  in  dry  soil.  There 
are  no  trees,  because  of  lack  of  water  ;  and  there 
is  little  to  be  seen  except  sand  and  rock.  It 
was  very  difficult  for  early  settlers  to  cross 
these  arid  and  desert  regions,  for  there  was 
often  no  water  to  drink,  and  there  was  little 
game  for  food.  Almost  one  fifth  of  the  United 
States  is  unfit  for  agriculture  without  irriga- 
tion, and  most  of  this  arid  land  is  in  these 
Western  States. 

Some  parts  of  this  section,  however, 
are   well    watered.     Along    the   Pacific 


coast,  in  particular,  from  central  Cali- 
fornia to  Canada,  there  is  abundance  of 
rain    (Fig.  407).      Measure 
this    distance.     In    western  ,     ,  ^. 

1 .     In  the 

Washington,  where  the  west  region  of 
winds  rise  to  pass  over  the 
mountains,  the  heaviest  rainfall  in  the 
United  States  occurs. 

This  rainy  region  has  also  a  mild 
climate  and  a  fertile  soil,  and  is,  there- 
fore, a  very  rich  farming  country. 
Fruits  of  many  kinds  are  raised,  mainly 

peaches,  plums, 
apricots,  pears, 
apples,  grapes, 
and  berries;  and 
farther  south,  in 
California,  or- 
anges, lemons, 
grapefruit,  and 
figs  thrive.  In 
Washington  (Fig. 
278)  and  Oregon, 
east  of  the  moun- 
tains, and  in  the 
Great  Valley  district  of  California, 
wheat  growing  is  an  important  industry. 
The  farmers  here  enjoy  one  peculiar 
advantage.  Very  little  rain  falls  during 
the  harvest  season,  so  that  grain  may  be 
left  out  of  doors  for  weeks  with  little 
danger  of  being  spoiled.  Walla  Walla, 
Wash.,  Lewiston,  Ida.,  and  Pendle- 
ton", Ore.,  are  situated  in  this  great 
wheat  region.  Large  quantities  of  hay, 
barley,  corn,  o^ts,  and  vegetables,  and 
many  farm  animals  also,  are  raised  in 
this  well-watered  section. 

There  are  other  smaller  sections 
where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  for  agri- 
culture;  but  the  only  way  in  which 
farming  is  possible  in  most  other  parts 
of  the  West  is  by  means  of  irrigation. 


PRAIRIE  DOG 


ThEM.N.CcBuri-ALo. 


GRIZZLY  BEAR 


Fig.  277.  —  Some  of  the  wild  animals  of  the  Far  West. 


208 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fk; 


ilH.  —  Catting  wheat  i •.  ^  .  Washington.     By  this  large  macliine,  drawn  by 

thirty-two  mules  and  liorsos,  the  wheat  is  cut,  threshed,  and  put  into  sacks  ready  for  shipment. 


The  southern  half  of  California,  being 
near  the  ocean,  might  be  expected  to 
2  In  Southern  I'^^eive  abundant  rainfall. 
California  Indeed,    during    the    winter 

(1)  The  plan /or  scasou  the  raiu  often  pours 

obtaitiinq  loater     -,  . .,  ,  .  , 

down  until  rushing  torrents 
are  formed  among  the  hills  and  moun- 
tains. In  the  summer  season,  how- 
ever, when  plants  most  need  moisture, 
the  winds  no  longer  blow  from  the  ocean. 
On  that  account,  no  rain  falls  in  sum- 
mer, and  the  southern  part  of  California 
is  then  a  true  desert.  This  is  the  case 
even  within  sight  of  the  ocean,  and 
w^here  the  soil  is  very  fertile. 

Why  can  not  some  of  the  rain  that  falls 
in  winter  be  stored  up  then  for  use  in  summer, 
when  it  is  needed  ?  That  was  the  question 
that  men  asked,  and  they  set  to  work  to  store 
up  the  water. 

Dams  were  built  among  the  hills  and  moun- 
tains, collecting  the  winter's  floods  into  ponds 
and  lakes,   and  holding   the  water  there  till 


summer  came.  Then  ditches  many  miles  long 
were  dug  (Fig.  282),  or  pipes  were  laid,  leading 
the  water  down  from  these  reservoirs  to  the  fer- 
tile plains.  Smaller  ditches  were  dug  from  the 
main  ones,  leading  to  the  farms  in  various 
directions.  From  these  each  farmer  could  turn 
the  water  into  still  smaller  ditches  on  his  own 
land,  and,  when  he  wished  to  do  so,  could 
flood  his  fields  (Fig.  283). 

Thus,  as  often  as  was  necessary  during  the 
long,  dry  summer,  the  crops  could  be  given  the 
water  that  they  needed. 

This  is  what  is  meant  by  irrigation.  It  is 
expensive,  but  it  is  even  better  than  rain,  because 
it  supplies  the  exact  quantity  of  water  that  is 
needed,  and  at  the  time  when  it  is  wanted. 

Irrigation  has  changed  much  of  south- 
ern California  from  a  barren  desert  into 
a  paradise  of  flowers,  fruit 
trees,  and  beautiful  homes 
(Figs.  280  and  281).  This  is  the  land 
from  which  we  get  many  of  our  oranges 
(Fig.  279)  and  lemons,  the  other  impor- 
tant source  being  Florida.  Seedless  or 
navel  oranges  come  mainly  from  Calif or- 


(2)  The  products 


THE   WESTERN   STATES 


209 


nia.  Nearly  every  home  has  its  orange 
trees,  and  in  many  cases  the  house  is 
entirely  surrounded  by  them  (Fig.  280). 
Also,  quantities  of  peaches,  plums,  apri- 
cots, pears,  apples,  grapes,  figs,  olives,  and 
nuts  are  raised  here,  as  well  as  grain, 
vegetables,  and  other  crops. 


the  trees,  sorted  according  to  size,  then 
packed  in  boxes  and  shipped  away. 

Immense  quantities  of  peaches,  prunes, 
apricots,  grapes,  tigs,  and  other  fruits 
are  dried.  In  the  Eastern  States  fruit 
would  soon  decay  if  left  out  of  doors, 
but  in  the  sunny   climate   of   the    arid 


Fig.  279.  —  Picking  oranges  in  the  irrigated  country  of  southern  California,  near  Pasadena. 


The  groves  of  all  kinds  are  planted 
in  straight  rows,  and  the  ground  is  kept 
(Z)  Care  of  the  ^^  clcan  by  frcqueut  plow- 
fruit,  and  what  ing  that  scarccly  a  weed  is 

is  done  with  it       ,       -i  t      ^i  •  j_ 

to  be  seen.  In  this  respect 
the  groves  present  a  very  different  ap- 
pearance from  the  orchards,  overgrown 
with  grass  and  weqds,  that  are  often 
seen  upon  farms  of  the  East. 

The  winter  season  is  the  harvest  time 
for  oranges,  which  are  picked  from  about 
the  middle  of  November  until  February, 
or  later  (Fig.  279).     They  are  cut  from 


lands  it  dries  quickly.  Much  fruit  is 
also  canned,  and  many  grapes  are  made 
into  wine.  California  wine  is  of  such 
high  quality  that  it  is  sent  not  only  to 
the  East,  but  even  to  Europe. 

The  value  of  irrigation  is  well  shown 
here.  Before  irrigation  was  introduced 
into  southern  California,  this  region 
could  support  very  few  people.  Now, 
in  Los  AivGELES  and  vicinity,  there  is  a 
population  of  several  hundred  thousand. 

One  of  the  chief  agricultural  regions 
of  the  West  is  the  Great  Valley  of  Call- 


210 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fio.  280.  —  An  orange  grove  in  southern  California  on  land  which  not  many  years  ago  supported  only  the  sparse 

vegetation  of  an  arid  climate. 


"TT^^^TS^SJ? 


Fig.  281.  —  This  view,  near  Pasadena,  California,  shows  the  barren  arid  lands,  in  the  midst  of  which  are  extensive 
orange  groves,  irrigated  by  water  from  the  mountains. 


THE   WESTEBN  STATES 


211 


3.    In  the 
Great  Valley 
of  California 

the  south. 


fornia  which  lies  between  the  Sierra 
Nevada  and  the  Coast  Ranges.  In 
the  north  there  is  rainfall 
enough  for  agriculture,  but 
irrigation  is  necessary  in 
In  the  central  and  southern 
parts  of  this  valley  there  are  groves  of 
oranges,  lemons,  olives,  and  figs,  as  well 
as  other  trees  that  thrive  only  in  warm 
climates.  Sacramento,  Stockton,  and 
Fresno  are  the  leading  cities  of  the 
Great    Valley,    which,    throughout    its 


Platte  River,  from  which  a  ditch,  as 
large  as  a  canal,  is  led  out  upon  the 
plain  (Fig.  282).  The  river  itself  has  a 
rapid  fall,  but  just  enough  slope  has 
been  given  the  ditch  to  allow  the  water 
to  •  flow.  Thus  the  ditch  runs  on  a 
higher  level  than  the  river,  and  the 
land  between  the  ditch  and  the  river  is 
lower  than  the  ditch. 

Water  from  the  ditch  may  therefore 
be  led  out  over  these  fields  to  irrigate 
them.  For  this  purpose  ditches  branch  off 


Fig.  282. 


•  Au  irrigating  ditch  near  Denver.     The  water  is  led  from  a  river,  and  by  it  the  land,  otherwise  useless  for 
agriculture,  is  made  to  yield  rich  harvests. 


whole  length,  is  occupied  by  a  succession 
of  wheat  fields,  vineyards,  orchards,  and 
nut  and  fruit  groves.  California  fresh 
fruit  is  shipped  in  enormous  quantities 
to  Eastern  cities,  while  dried  and  canned 
California  fruits  are  to  be  found  in  most 
of  our  groceries. 

The  influence  of  irrigation 
is  well  illustrated  also  in  the 
region  near  Denver,  which 
lies  in  the  midst  of  an  afid 
plain.  This  plain  is  crossed, 
however,   by   the    South    Fork   of    the 


4.    In  Colorado 
and  Wyoming, 
by  irrigation 

(1)  How  irri(/a- 
tion  is  planned 
near  Denver 


from  the  main  canal,  and  each  of  these 
is  divided  and  subdivided  to  supply 
farms  along  its  course.  When  a  field 
needs  water,  one  of  the  smaller  ditches 
is  tapped  and  the  field  is  flooded ;  or 
else  the  water  is  led  into  little  furrows 
a  few  feet  apart  (Fig.  283).  The  method 
followed  depends  upon  the  kind  of  crop 
that  is  under  cultivation. 

Each  farmer  must  pay  for  his  water 
at   a   certain   rate,   as  each  (2)  Expense  of 
tenant  of  a  house  in  the  city  ^"^'^  irri(,ation, 

"^     and  its  advan- 

pays  for  his  water  or  gas.  tages 


212 


NORTH  AMERICA 


That  a  farmer  can  afford  to  pay  for 
water,  however,  is  well  shown  in  this 
case ;  for  on  the  upper  side  of  the 
ditch,  which  cannot  be  reached  by  the 
water,  the  land  is  fit  only  for  grazing, 
while  on  the  lower  side  there  are  rich 
fields  of  grain,  vegetables,  and  alfalfa. 
The  latter,  like  clover  and  grasses,  is 
fed  to  stock.  It  is  one  of  the  most 
important  crops  of  the  arid  regions, 
where  there  is  much  demand  for  fodder 
for  cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  and  horses. 


Fig.  283.  —  A  fiirmer  iiTigating  his  tield.  Tlie  water  from  the  irrigathig 
ditch  i.s  allowed  to  run  along  the  furrows  and  tiius  wet  the  seeds  that 
have  just  been  planted.  • 


Without  irrigation,  crops  could  not  be 
grown  in  this  vicinity.  It  would  then 
be  necessary  to  bring  farm  products  from 
Kansas,  Nebraska,  and  other  states,  a  dis- 
tance of  several  hundred  miles.  It  is 
evident,  therefore,  that  irrigation  must 
have  had  a  great  influence  on  the  settle- 
ment of  the  West.  Without  it  Denver 
and  Pueblo  would  not  be  so  important 
as  they  are ;  and,  because  of  the  expense 
of  carrying  food  so  far,  scores  of  mining 
towns  would  not  exist.  Wherever  the 
waters  of  the  rivers  are  led  out  over  the 


fields,  people  form  settlements,  and  even 
towns  and  small  cities.  That  is  the  case 
at  Greeley,  in  Colorado ;  Cheyenne 
and  Laramie,  the  principal  cities  in 
Wyoming ;  and  scores  of  other  places. 

The  region  around  Salt  Lake  City, 
in  Utah,  is  another  irrigated  section 
similar  to  that  just  de-  5  inutah, 
scribed.  A  large  part  of  by  irrigation 
that  state  was  once  a  desert.  But  ex- 
tensive areas  have  been  entirely  changed 
by  the  Mormons,  a  religious  sect  founded 
in  New  York,  in  1830,  by 
Joseph  Smith. 

Under  the  leadership  of 
Brigham  Young  these  people 
mio-rated  into  the  then  un- 
known  W^est  and  settled  a 
few  miles  from  Great  Salt 
Lake.  Here  they  built  Salt 
Lake  City,  which  is  now 
the  capital  of  Utah,  and  is 
one  of  the  beautiful  cities  of 
the  country. 

The   mountains,    not    far 
away,  supply  water  for  ir- 
rigation; and  fruits,  alfalfa, 
and  many  other  farm  prod- 
ucts are  produced  in  abun- 
dance.    Besides    Salt    Lake 
City  there  are  many  smaller  places  near 
by   and   also   the  city   of    Ogden,   the 
second  city  in  size  in  Utah. 

Great  Salt  Lake  is  the  largest  lake  in  tlie 
Great  Basin.  Although  many  streams  flow  into 
it  from  the  neighboring  mountains,  so  much 
water  evaporates  in  this  arid  region  that  the 
lake  does  not  rise  high  enough  to  overflow.  It 
has  therefore  grown  more  and  more  salt,  until 
now  its  water  is  much  salter  than  the  ocean 
itself.  It  is  so  salt,  and  on  that  account  so 
dense,  that  a  person  cannot  sink  in  it. 

The  description  of  these  few  places  serves 
to  show  the  importance  of   irrigation   in  the 


THE    WESTERN  STATES 


213 


6.    In  other  irri 
gated  sections 


West.  It  is  not  to  be  under- 
stood, however,  that  these  are 
the  only  noted  ir- 
rigated sections, 
for  there  are  many 
others.  Most  of  the  larger  and 
better  known  are  along  the  prin- 
cipal rivers.  For  example,  irriga- 
tion is  extensively  employed 
along  the  Yellowstone  and  Mis- 
souri rivers  and  their  tributaries 
in  Montana;  along  the  Snake 
River  and  its  tributaries  in 
Idaho;  along  the  Yakima  River 
(Figs.  284  and  285),  and  other 
streams  tributary  to  the  Colum- 
bia River  in  Washington,  Ore- 
gon, and  Idaho ;  along  the  Gila 
and  Salt  rivers  in  Arizona ;  along 
the  Rio  Grande  and  Pecos  rivers 
in  New  Mexico;  and  along  the 
Sacramento,  San  Joaquin  and  other  rivers  in 
California.  The  map  (Fig.  380)  shows  that 
there  are  many  irrigated  sections. 

In  spite  of  all  these  facts,  the  amount 
of  irrigated  land  in  the  West  is  small 
compared  with  the  amount 
that  is  still  either  desert  or 
dry  enough  to  be  called  arid. 
Much  of  this  land  will  prob- 
ably always  remain  arid,  because  no 
water  can  be  obtained  for  it. 

There   is,   however,  much  land,  now 


Fii. 


7.    Work  of  the 
United  States 
government  in 
irrigation 


Fig.  285.  —  Land  in  the  Yakima  Valley  which  only  a  few  years  ago  was 
covered  with  sagebrush  like  that  in  Figure  284.  Now,  being  reached 
by  an  irrigation  ditch,  it  supports  a  flourishing  young  peach  and  apple 
orchard  and  is  worth  $1000  an  acre. 


_'.sl.  Di  snt  land  in  the  Yakima  Valley,  covered  with  the  worthless 
sagebrush.  Such  land  is  of  almost  no  value ;  but  compare  this  picture 
with  Figure  28.5. 


almost  useless,  that  might  be  irrigated 
if  the  expense  could  be  met.  Most  of 
this  land  still  belongs  to  the  United 
States  government,  and  it  is  very  im- 
portant that  water  be  brought  to  it, 
so  that  settlers  may  occupy  it  and 
make  it  produce  valuable  crops.  For 
these  reasons  the  United  States  gov- 
ernment is  now  spending  millions  of 
dollars  in  building  extensive  irriga- 
tion works  in  the  West.  Some  of  the 
largest  are  in  Idaho  and  Arizona. 

One  of  the  completed 
works  is  the  Roosevelt  dam 
in  the  Salt  River  in  Arizona, 
which  will  supply  water  for 
a  large  area  near  Phcenix. 

Enormous  dams  are  being 
built  elsewhere  (P'ig.  286), 
forming  large  lakes  in  the 
mountain  valleys,  from 
which  water  may  be  led  in 
summer,  when  needed  by  the 
crop.  This  is  one  of  the  most 
important  works  in  which 
our  government  is  engaged. 


214 


NORTH  AMERICA 


While  the  greater  part  of  the  arid 
lands  is  without  irrigation,  and  for  that 
o    _     ,.         reason  is  not  cultivated,  it 

8.    Ranching  ,  ' 

(1)  Kinds  of      is  by  uo  meaus  entirely  use- 

animals  raised     ]ggg_        y^^^^     ^f     i|.     reCeiveS 

rainfall  enough  for  a  crop  of  nourishing 
grass.  This  vast  arid  section,  therefore, 
is  valuable  for  grazing.     It  is  the  land 


Fig.  286.  —  A  masonry  dam  built  by  the  United  States  government,  forming 
large  lake  in  which  water  is  stored  for  use  in  irrigation  during  the  summer 


of  the  cattle  ranch  (Fig.  245)  and  of  the 
cowboy,  who  spends  most  of  his  time  in 
the  saddle  looking  after  his  herds.  Be- 
sides cattle,  many  sheep  and  horses  are 
raised,  and  also  goats  in  regions  where 
there  is  least  grass. 

The  manner  in  which  cattle  ranching 
-a,  „      .         is  carried  on  in  Dakota  was 

(2)  How  sheep 

ranching  is  described  ou  pagcs  182-184, 
carrie  on  ^^^  much  the  Same  plan  is 
followed  for  cattle  and  horses  in  all 
the  Western  States.  Sheep  ranching 
is  somewhat  different,  as  may  be  seen 
from  the  ranches  about  Billings, 
Montana. 


A  good-sized  sheep  ranch  has  from  twenty- 
five  thousand  to  forty  thousand  head  of  sheep. 
These,  like  cattle,  may  feed  partly  upon  gov- 
ernment land,  or  the  "range,"  and  partly  on 
land  fenced  in  and  owned  by  the  ranchman. 
During  the  coldest  winter  weather,  when  the 
snow  may  be  so  deep  that  the  sheep  cannot  ob- 
tain food,  they  are  often  driven  into  protected 
corrals  and  fed  on  alfalfa.  The  fierce  winds  of 
the  open  plains  help  them,  however,  by  drifting 
the  snow,  thus  leaving  open 
patches  where  they  can  find 
grass. 

When  the  sheep  are  feeding 
on  the  range,  one  man,  with  a 
dog  (Fig.  287),  can  herd  twenty- 
five  hundred;  and  if  he  has  a 
horse  to  ride,  he  sometimes 
takes  care  of  five  thousand. 
Selecting  a  spot  near  water  for 
a  camp,  the  herder  drives  his 
sheep  out  each  morning,  and 
back  at  night,  going  each  day  a 
distance  of  two  or  three  miles 
from  camp.  When  the  grass 
in  one  place  has  been  eaten  the 
camp  is  moved ;  then,  from  the 
new  point  as  a  center,  the  sheep 
wander  out  as  before. 

The  life  of  the  herder  is  very 
lonely,  both  day  and  night  being 
spent  with  the  sheep.  Once  a 
week  a  man  brings  him  food ; 
but  for  weeks,  and  even  months 
at  a  time,  the  only  company  he  has,  aside  from 
his  sheep,  is  his  dog,  and  possibly  his  horse. 

After  the  winter  is  over,  the  first  in- 
come to  the  ranchman  comes  from  the 
sale  of  the  skins,  or  pelts,  of  (S)  sources 
sheep  which  have  died  dur-  of  profit 
ing  the  cold  weather.  Each  year  he  ex- 
pects to  lose  from  this  cause  about  one 
sheep  in  twenty. 

Next  comes  the  harvest  of  wool  (Fig. 
288).  Men  who  make  it  their  busi- 
ness to  shear  sheep  travel  in  squads  of 
about  twenty-five.  They  erect  sheds 
and  pens  near  some  sheep  center,  such 
as  Billings,  and  shear  all  the  sheep  that 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


215 


Fig.  287.  —  A  Montana  sheep  herder  with  his  dogs  and  his  flock. 


are  brought  to  them.  Sometimes  sheep 
are  sheared  at  the  ranch,  but  many  ranch- 
men prefer  to  drive  them  near  to  a  mar- 
ket before  they  are  sheared.  This  saves 
the  expense  of  hauhng  the  wool  to  the 
railway  station ;  and  besides,  the  sheep 
graze  on  the  way  to  and  from  the  market. 

In  the  Southwestern  States  sheep  are 
often  sheared  twice  a  year ;  but  farther 
north  only  once,  and  then  as  near  the 
month  of  June  as  possible.  Can  you 
suggest  a  reason  for  choosing  that  time  ? 
After  the  wool  is  cut,  it  is  pressed  into 
bales  and  shipped  to  various  markets  in 
the  East.  Where  should  you  think  it 
might  be  sent,  and  for  what  purposes  used? 

From  July  on,  many  sheep  are  sold 
for  mutton.  Those  that  are  from  three 
to  five  years  old,  and  that  have  already 
produced  a  quantity  of  w^ool,  are  usually 
selected  for  this  purpose.  The  hides  are 
used  for  leather  and  the  bones  for  fer- 
tilizing the  soil. 


Although  agriculture  is  the  most  im- 
portant industry  in  the  West-  j^jjjjQg 
ern  States,  it  is  for  mining  i.   Kinds  of 
that  they  are  most  noted.       minerals 

Every  one  of  them  contains  mineral 


Fig.  288.  —  Shearing  sheep  in  Montana.  The  men  hold  the 
sheep  and  the  wool  is  clipped  off  by  machinery.  There 
is  a  great  pile  of  this  wool  along  the  middle  of  the 
shed. 


216 


NORTH  AMERICA 


deposits  of  some  kind,  such  as  gold,  sil- 
ver, copper,  lead,  mercury,  petroleum, 
and  coal ;  and  together  they  form  one  of 
the  most  important  mining  districts  in 
the  world. 

Much  gold  has  been  discovered  in  the 
river  gravels.  In  many  regions  it  is 
easy  to  get  the  gold  out  of  these  gravels, 
2.  Methods  of  but  in  some  places  the  stream 
mining  gold  heds  havc  been  covered  with 
a  thick  blanket  of  hard  rock.  Then  it 
is  necessary  for  the  miners  to  tunnel  un- 
der the  rock  in  order  to  obtain  the  gold. 


Fig.  28!). — These  powerful  streams  of  water  wash  the  gia 
gold  collects  in  the  bottom  of  troughs,  or  sluices.  ' 
draulic  mining. 

The  first  miners  obtained  the  gold  in  a  very 
simple  manner.  Placing  some 
U  ""^'""'^  of  the  stream  gravel  in  a  pan  of 
water,  they  rocked  it  back  and 
forth  in  such  a  way  as  to  cause  the  heavier  par- 
ticles of  gold  to  sink  to  the  bottom  of  the  pan, 
while  the  lighter  minerals  on  top  were  washed 
out  and  thrown  away.  Most  of  the  gold  was  in 
very  small  flakes,  but  sometimes  the  miners 
found  large  lumps  of  gold,  caWed  nuggets,  worth 
hundreds  of  dollars.  This  method  of  washing 
away  the  gravel  in  pans  was  called  "  panning  " 
the  gold. 

Very  soon  the  miners  tired  of  such  a  slow 
process.  They  then  invented  the  far  more 
,„,  „  speedy  plan  of  hydraulic  minivq. 

mining  ^y  ^'^^^  method  a  powerful  stream 

of  water  from  the  nozzle   of   a 
pipe  is  turned  against  a  gravel  bank,  washing 


the  gravel  rapidly  away  (Fig.  289).  The  water, 
with  the  gravel  and  gold,  runs  into  steeply 
sloping  troughs  or  sluices,  to  the  bottoms  of 
which  many  cleats  are  fastened.  The  rushing 
water  carries  the  gravel  over  these  cleats  to  the 
end  of  the  sluice,  where  it  is  dropped  ;  but  the 
gold,  being  so  heavy,  settles  to  the  bottom  of 
the  sluice  and  is  caught  behind  the  cleats.  La- 
ter it  is  removed. 

In  this  way  much  gold  has  been  obtained 
from  the  gravels  of  California  and  other  West- 
ern States.  For  example,  even  the  gravel  out 
of  which  some  of  the  streets  of  Helena,  Mont., 
are  built  has  been  washed  for  gold  in  this  way. 

The  method  by  which  most   gold  is 
now  obtained  is  to  dig  into 

the    solid    rock,    (Z)  The  common 

as  in  the  min-  method  now 
ing  of  other  metals.  The 
shafts  and  tunnels  follow 
the  veins  in  which  the  gold 
is  found  mixed  with  other 
minerals  which  are  of  little 
or  no  value.  This  mixture 
is  gold  ore,  and  there  is  so 
little  gold  in  such  ore,  and 
it  is  in  such  small  grains, 
that  one  may  spend  days 
in  a  mine  looking  for  it 
without  seeing  any.  The  gold  ore,  like 
other  ores  already  studied,  must  be 
crushed  and  melted  before  the  gold 
itself  can  be  obtained. 

One  of  the  most  remarkable  gold-min- 
ing districts  in  the  world  is  that  of  the 
Cornstock  Lode  at  Virginia 
City,  Nev.  The  vein  is  ir- 
regular in  richness,  some 
parts,  called  "  bonanzas,"  containing 
much  gold  and  silver,  while  others  are 
quite  barren.  So  much  metal  has  been 
obtained  from  this  single  vein  that 
Nevada  at  one  time  produced  more  sil- 
ver than  all  the  other  states  put  together, 
and  more  gold  than  any  other  state  in  the 


vel  away,  and  the 
This  is  called  hy- 


3.    Noted  min- 
ing districts 

(1)  In  Nevada 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


217 


Union.  So  many  people  moved  there 
that  Nevada  territory  became  a  state  in 
1864  ;  and  Virginia  City,  though  in  the 
midst  of  a  desert,  grew  to  be  a  thriving 
city. 

As  the  mines  went  deeper,  hot  water,  with 
a  temperature  of  170°,  poured  in  causing 
unbearable  heat.  Ice-cold  air  was  forced  in, 
and  machinery  and  mules  were  made  to  do 
most  of  the  work  ;  but  even  then  men  fainted 
at  their  posts.  Partly  because  of  the  difficulty 
of  mining,  and  partly  because  of  the  failure  to 
discover  new  bonanzas,  some  of 
the  mines  were  abandoned  and 
people  drifted  away,  so  that  for 
a  while  the  population  of  Nevada 
decreased. 

With  the  discovery  of  re- 
markable new  mining  fields, 
and  the  reopening  of  old 
mines,  new  towns  have 
sprung  up,  and  Nevada  is 
again  the  center  of  great 
raining  activity.  It  is  now 
one  of  the  leading  states  in 
the  production  of  gold  and 
silver.  Tonopah,  Gold- 
field,  and  Bullfrog  are 
important  and  rapidly  grow- 
ing mining  towns. 

At  present  Colorado  produces  more 
gold  than  any  other  state  (Fig.  395),  and 
more  silver  than  any  other 
except  Montana.  In  addi- 
tion to  these  metals,  Colorado  produces 
much  copper,  lead,  and  iron.  In  the 
mountains  one  sees  many  mines  (Fig. 
290) ;  but  one  of  the  most  noted  mining 
districts  is  near  Leadville,  a  city  at  an 
elevation  of  over  ten  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea.  Gold,  silver,  and  lead  are  mined 
in  this  locality. 

Another  well-known  mining  camp  in 
Colorado   is   Cripple    Creek.     A    few 


years  ago  there  was  no  town  here,  and 
the  gold  ore,  which  later  proved  so  valu- 
able, was  not  recognized  as  ore.  Finally, 
when  some  one  discovered  the  gold,  thou- 
sands of  people  rushed  in  from  all  direc- 
tions, and  a  city  sprang  up  almost  in  a  day. 
This  has  occurred  in  many  other  places. 
Sometimes  the  cities  have  continued  to 
grow,  but  in  many  places  the  mines  have 
given  out,  and  the  towns  have  been  aban- 
doned almost  as  rapidly  as  they  grew. 


(2)  In  Colorado 


Fig.  2!X).  —  A  view  in  tlie  mining  district  of  Victor,  Colorado.  There  are 
mines  beneath  the§e  buildings,  and  the  waste  rock  removed  from  the 
tunnels  forms  huge  banks  near  them. 


The  western  half  of  Montana  is  an- 
other noted  mining  section,  and  this 
state  now  leads  in  the  pro-    ^ 

-     .,  .  \.  .       (a)  In  Montana 

duction  01  silver,  is  second  m 
copper,  and  produces  also  large  amounts 
of  lead,  gold,  coal,  and  other  minerals. 
Helena  has  already  been  mentioned 
(p.  216);  but  no  portion  of  the  state 
is  now  so  important  for  mining  as  the 
region  in  and  near  Butte  (Fig.  291). 
There  the  principal  metal  is  copper,  al- 
though some  gold  and  silver  are  mixed 
with  the  ore.  More  copper  has  been 
produced   at  the    Butte   mines  than  in 


218 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  291.  —  Smelters  iii  Butte,  Montana,  where  copper  is  obtained 
from  the  ore. 


any  other  mining  district  in  the  world. 
The  mines  are  very  extensive,  reaching 
several  thousand  feet  into  the  earth, 
and  having  tunnels  through  which  one 
might  wander  for  days  without  finding 
his  way  out. 

The  mining  industry  of  Arizona  is 
also  very  important,  much  copper,  sil- 
{^)  In  other  vcr,  lead,  and  gold  being 
Western  States  produced.  Arizoua  now 
leads  in  the  production  of  copper,  Mon- 
tana and  Michigan  being  next  in  rank. 
One  of  the  largest  cities  in  the  territory 
is  Tucson  (Fig.  292).  Another  1-arge 
city  is  BiSBEE,  the  center  of  a  noted 


copper  mining  region  that 
rivals  Butte,  Montana. 
There  is  much  smelting  at 
Douglas,  and  all  these 
cities,  as  well  as  Phcenix, 
are  trade  centers  for  neigh- 
boring mines  and  irrigated 
farms. 

There  is  much  mining, 
especially  of  gold,  silver, 
copper,  and  lead,  in  each  of 
the  other  Western  States. 
California  ranks  second 
among  our  states  in  the 
production  of  gold,  and  both  Utah  and 
Idaho  rank  high  in  the  production  of 
silver  and  lead.  The  Coeur  d'Alene 
mining  district  of  northern  Idaho  is  the 
most  important  silver-lead  district  in  the 
country  (Fig.  293).  Spokane,  in  Wash- 
ington, is  the  trade  center  for  this  noted 
mining  region,  and  this  has  had  much  to 
do  with  the  remarkable  recent  growth  of 
this  city.  In  addition  to  the  metals 
mentioned,  these  states,  as  well  as  Wy- 
oming and  New  Mexico,  produce  large 
quantities  of  other  valuable  minerals. 
There  are  many  important  mining  towns 
and  mining  camps  in  each  of  these  states. 


Fig.  292.  —  Tucson,  Arizona,  which  owes  much  of  its  prosperity  to  the  rich  mines  in  tlie  neighboring  mountains. 


THE   WESTEBN  STATES 


219 


Coal,  some  of  it  of  excel- 

jnt  quality,  occurs  in  many 

J,    ^  ,     ,       places,     and     is 

4.    Coal,  petro-     ^  .  '     . 

leum,  and  other    mined     m     mOSt 

"^""^^  of   the   Western 

States.  The  greatest  amount 
comes  from  Colorado,  which 
ranks  eighth  in  coal  produc- 
tion among  the  states  of  the 
country.  Among  Western 
States,  Wyoming  and  Wash- 
ington are  next  in  impor- 
tance in  coal  production. 

Petroleum  is  another  valu- 
able product  in  the  West. 
Enormous  quantities  have  been  found  in 
California,  and  that  state  and  Okla- 
homa now  produce  more  than  any  others 
in  the  Union.  It  is  extensively  used 
on  railway  locomotives,  in  place  of  coal. 

There  are  many  other  mineral  prod- 
ucts in  the  Western  States,  including 
building  stones  and  semi-precious  stones. 
Iron  is  found  in  several  of  these  states,  but 
as  yet  it  is  not  mined  to  a  great  extent. 


Fig. 


5      The 
prospector 


21)3.  —  Miners  at  work  underground  in  one  of  the  silver-lead  mines  of 
the  famous  Coeur  d'Alene  district  of  Idaho. 


With  increase   in   manufacturing  these 
stores  of  iron  will  doubtless  be  valuable. 

Much  of  the  mining  land  in  the  West  belongs 
to  the  government,  and  when  a  person  finds  a 
valuable  deposit  of  metal,  he  can  obtain  a  title 
to  the  land  from  the  government. 
This  has  led  many  men,  called 
lirospectors  (Fig.  294),  to  spend 
their  lives  roaming  about  over  the  Western 
plateaus  and  mountains  seeking,  or  2)^ospecting 
for,  deposits  of  metal. 

In  some  parts  of  the  West  travelers 
can  see,  even  from  the  car  windows, 
scores  of  little  tunnels  dug  into  the 
sides  of  the  mountains  by  prospectors 
who  have  been  hunting  for  ore.  It 
is  a  hard,  lonely  life  that  such  men 
lead,  and  it  is  full  of  danger.  Most 
prospectors  fail  to  find  valuable  de- 
posits; but  once  in  a  while  one  dis- 
covers a  rich  vein,  and  suddenly  finds 
himself  a  wealthy  man. 


Fig. 


2*,)4.  —  A  prospector  with  his  burros,  loaded  with  tools  and 
supplies.     In  the  mountains  of  Arizona. 


Mining  gives  rise  to  much 
lumbering  in  many  parts  of  the 
West.  Millions  of 
feet  of  lumber  are 
used  each  year 
the  Butte  mines 
alone.  In  the  mines  heavy,  up- 
right   timbers    are    placed    close 


Lumbering 
1.    The  special 
in    demand  for 
lumber 


220 


NORTH  AMERICA 


together,  on  each  side  of  a  tunnel,  to 
prevent  the  rock  from  caving  in.  Be- 
cause of  the  great  pressure  upon  them, 
timbers  more  than  a  foot  through  are 
often  broken. 

While  a  great  portion  of  the  Western 
country    is    arid,    and    can    support   no 

2.  Location  of  trccs,  the  mountains  and 
the  forests  some  of  the  higher  plateaus 
bear  extensive  forests.  Hence  the  logs 
are  easily  brought 
down  to  the  mines, 
which  are  usually 
among  high  moun- 
tains. 

The  most  noted 
lumber  region,  how- 
ever, is  on  and  near 
the  western  coast, 
from  central  Cali- 
fornia northward. 

Here,in  the  mild, 
damp   climate,  the 

3.  Kinds  of  ^a^gest 
trees,  and  t  r  C  C  S 
their  size  •         ,  i 

m  the 
world  are  found, 
and  some  of  them 
have  been  growing 
for  a  thousand  years  or  more.  Among 
these  are  the  giant  redwood,  the  fir, 
cedar,  and  spruce.  The  redwood  is 
found  only  in  California,  where  there 
are  extensive  forests  of  these  hig  trees 
(Fig.  295). 

There  are  immense  forests  of  giant 
trees  all  the  way  from  central  California 
to  Canada.  While  the  logs  in  Maine 
and  Michigan  are  rarely  more  than  two 
or  three  feet  through,  many  in  Washing- 
ton and  Oregon  are  from  six  to  fifteen 
feet  in  diameter,  and  some  in  California 
are  very  much  larger.     Some   of  these 


Fig.  205.  —  One  of  the  "Big  Trees"  of  California  —  so 
large  that  a  wagon  road  passes  through  a  tunnel  cut 
in  its  trunk. 


are  as  large  around  as  an  ordinary 
"living  room,"  and  several  have  been 
found  that  are  more  than  ninety  feet 
in  circumference,  which  is  as  great  a 
distance  as  that  around  many  a  school- 
room. The  main  limb  on  one  of  these 
trees,  called  the  Grizzly  Giant,  staffs 
from  the  trunk  two  hundred  feet  above 
ground,  and  measures  six  and  one  half 
feet   in   diameter,    or   more  than   most 

large  trees  in  the 

East. 

A  visit  to  a  kimber- 
iiig   camp   in  western 

W  a  s  h- 

,  4.     Method  of 

l^^gton   lumbering 
will  show 

that,  owing  to  the  size 
of  the  trees,  and  to  the 
climate,  the  work  is 
carried  on  very  differ- 
ently from  lumbering 
in  Maine  (p.  118).  The 
men  are  able  to  work 
both  winter  and  sum- 
mer. Selecting  a  tree, 
which  perhaps  towers 
upward  for  two  hun- 
dred feet,  —  that  is, 
higher  than  most 
church  steeples,  —  two 
men  saw  and  chop  it 
until  the  giant  begins  to  quiver;  and  when 
finally  it  falls,  a  wonderful  sight  may  be  seen. 
The  tree  bends  slowly  over,  quickens  its 
movement,  then  crashes  to  the  ground,  break- 
ing good-sized  trees  in  its  way  as  if  they  were 
twigs. 

After  the  branches  are  cut  oif,  the  tree  is 
sawed  into  sections  of  different  lengths,  and 
these  are  dragged  to  a  railway  which  leads  up 
into  the  forest.  There  the  logs  are  piled  upon 
flat  cars  and  taken  to  the  mills,  a  single  sec- 
tion of  a  log  sometimes  occupying  an  entire  car 
(Fig.  297).  From  five  to  fifteen  thousand  feet 
of  lumber,  or  enough  to  build  a  small  house, 
may  be  obtained  from  a  single  large  tree. 
From  Figure  298  you  can  see  how  thick  some 
of  these  trees  are. 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


221 


Fig.  2;Ni.  —  Lunibeiuieii  at  work  in  the  forest  of  western  Washington.     Note  in  the  foreground  the  donkey  engine 

used  for  drawing  logs. 


Many  of  the  logs  go  to  Tacoma  and 
Seattle,  where  there  are  enormous 
sawmills.     There  is  such  an  abundance 


of  wood  in  this  region  that  in  some 
places  thick  planks  are  used  for  paving 
the  streets ;    and  wood  is  burned   as   a 


Fig.  297.  —  A  train  drawing  lumber  out  of  the  forest  of  western  Washington.     Each  section  of  a  log  occupies  an 
entire  car,  and  all  the  logs  iu  the  picture  are  parts  of  a  single  tree. 


222 


NORTH  AMERICA 


5.    What  is 
done  with  the 


fuel  in  locomotives,  and  in  the  lumber 
mills.  Such  enormous  quantities  of 
lumber  are  obtained  from 
these  forests,  and  so  cheaply, 

logs  and  lumber    ,1     j.     •,     •  1  <• 

that  it  is  sent  even  as  tar 
east  as  to  the  Atlantic  coast.  The  North- 
west is  now  the  leading  lumbering  region 
in  the  country,  and  all  the  cities  there 
have  some  share  in  the  industry. 

Much  lumber  is  sent  away 
by  boat  from  Portland 
and  Astoria,  but 
even     more     goes 
from  the  cities  of 
Puget    Sound. 
Besides     Se- 
attle and  Ta- 
coma,  the  cities 
of   Everett 
and   Belling- 
HAM  also  are 
noted    for   their 
lumber    industry. 

Large   numbers 
of  cod  and   halibut 
are  caught  on 
the  banks  and 
along    the    shores    of 
British    Columbia   and 
Alaska,  and  many  fish- 
ing   vessels    go    there, 
especially  from  Seattle. 
Not  all   the   fish  that 
are    thus    caught    are 
eaten  by  the  Western  people.     For  in- 
stance,   fresh    halibut,   kept   on    ice    in 
refrigerator  cars,  are  sent  from  Seattle 
to  many  places  in  the  East. 

The  most  important  fishing  industry, 
however,  is  that  of  salmon  catching. 
This  fish,  like  the  shad  of  the  Eastern 
States,  spends  most  of  its  life  in  the 
ocean,  but  passes  up  the  rivers  to  spawn. 


Fig.  298.  —  The  end  of  a  log  cut 
from  the  forest  of  western 
Washington.  You  can  see 
how  large  it  is  by  the  men 
standing  iu  front  of  it. 


titles 


or  lay  its  eggs,  in  fresh  water.  As  they 
are  going  toward  and  up  the  rivers,  the 
salmon  are  caught  in  great  numbers. 
Many  run  up  the  Columbia  River,  so 
that  salmon  fishing  is  very  important 
there  (Fig.  299).     Trace  this  river. 

Most  of  the  salmon  caught  are  canned 
(Fig.  300),  though  some  are  sent  away 
fresh,  on  ice.     Probably  much  of 
the  canned  salmon  that  you 
have  seen  has  come  from 
the  canneries  either  near. 
Portland,  Ore.,  on 
Puget    Sound,  or 
along    the    coast 
farther    north. 
Astoria,  on  the 
'    lower    Colum- 
bia, and  Bel- 

LINGHAM,      on 

Puget    Sound, 
are   noted   espe- 
cially for  tlie  sal- 
mon industry. 
Knowing   the   raw 
products  of  the  Western 
States,  we  can  Manufac- 
tell  what  the  prin-  tunng 
cipal  kinds  of  manufacturing  are 
likely   to   be.      Name   the   chief 
raw  products. 

Wheat  is  ground  into  flour  in 
many  places,  partly  by  means  of 
water  power.     Quan- 

„  ^  ,1.     Manufac- 

01      grapes,      peacneS,    tures  from  prod- 

apples,  and  other  fruits  are  ^^^J^^^"^;^,^ 
either  canned  or  dried,  and 
many  grapes  are  made  into  wine,  espe- 
cially in  California.  Lumbering  gives 
rise  to  much  manufacture  of  boards, 
shingles,  furniture,  and  other  articles. 
In  some  of  the  larger  cities,  the  hides 
of   cattle   and    sheep  are   manufactured 


THE   WESTERN   STATES 


223 


Fig.  299.  —Salmon  fishermen  in  the  Columbia  Kiver,  near  Astoria,  showing  the  large  salmon  caught  in  their  nets. 


into  boots,  shoes,  and  gloves,  and  the 
wool  of  sheep  into  woolen  cloth;  but  still 
greater  quantities  of  these  raw  materials 
are  sent  to  the  East  for  manufacture. 

Many  iron  and  steel  goods  are  made 
along  the  Pacific  coast  and  in  Colorado 
(Fig.  301),  as  well  as  at  some 


Les^fro°m?he     Oilier  poiuts.     The  ores  of 

products  of 
the  mines 


gold,  silver,  copper,  and  lead 
are  too  heavy  to  haul  far. 
Therefore,  in  order  to  get  the  metals  from 
the  ores,  these  are  crushed  and  melted  at 
many  points.  For  example,  the  mines 
near  Leadville  send  their  ore  to  that 


city,  but  many  mines  in  Colorado  ship 
ore  to  the  smelters  at  Denver  and 
Pueblo.  The  buildings  in  which  the 
crushing  is  done  are  called  stamp  mills, 
and  those  where  the  ore  is  melted  are 
called  smelters  (Fig.  291).  Since  min- 
ing is  so  prominent  in  the  West,  this 
kind  of  manufacturing  is  carried  on 
very  extensively. 

On  the  whole,  manufacturing  has  not 
been    so    greatly   developed  3    ^he  future 
in  these  states  as  in  those  of  manufactur- 

P      ,1  ,  tj.    •  •  J^       ing  in  the  West 

farther  east.     It  is  rapidly 
increasing,   however  ;    and.   since   there 


Fig.  300.  —  Interior  of  a  salmon  cannery  on  the  Columbia  River.    A  salmon  hangs  from  the  roof ;  and  there  are 
thousands  of  cans  of  salmon  piled  up  on  the  floor. 


224 


NORTH  AMERICA 


is  much  water  power  and  coal  in  the 
West,  it  will  doubtless  continue  to  in- 
crease. Indeed,  it  seems  probable  that 
parts  of  this  region,  especially  along  the 
coast,    will,    at    no   very    distant    time, 


FiQ.  301.  —  Blast  furnaces  and  steel  works  at  Pueblo,  Colorado. 


rank  high  among  the  manufacturing 
districts  of  the  country. 

Transportation  of  goods  to  and  from 
the  Far  West  was  at  first  provided  by 
Commerce  means  of  wagons,  slowly 
1.  Harbors  tolling  across  the  country, 
or  by  ships  that  sailed  around  South 
America. 

The  harbors  along  the  Western  coast, 
such  as  make  ocean  transportation  pos- 
sible, are  not  numerous,  but  several  of 
them  are  excellent.  One  of  the  best 
is  that  of  San  Francisco.  It  has  much 
the  same  importance  on  the  Pacific  coast 
that  New  York  harbor  has  on  the  Atlan- 
tic. Southeast  of  San  Francisco  there  is 
no  very  good  natural  harbor  until  San 
Diego  is  reached.  How  many  hundred 
miles  is  that  ?  North  of  Pan  Francisco 
there  is  no  very  good  harbor  until  the 
Columbia  River  is  reached.  Here  is 
located  Portland,  a  hundred  miles 
from  the  coast  on  the  Willamette  River, 


near    its    junction    with   the   Columbia. 

Farther  north  'still,  in  Washington,   is 

Puget  Sound,  with  many  fine  harbors. 

Here  are  found  Seattle  and  Tacoma. 
Partly  on  account  of  these  excellent 
ports,    an    extensive    trade 
by    water    has  g.   Trade  with 

sprung  up  with    foreign  lands 

distant  parts  of  the  world. 
One  of  such  regions  is 
Alaska.  Thousands  of  per- 
sons have  gone  to  this 
northern  land,  and  for  sup- 
plies they  depend  mainly 
upon  the  seaports  of  our 
western  coast. 

The  trade  with  Asia  has 
also  been  rapidly  increasing. 
It  seems  probable  that,  in 
the  future,  trade  with  Asia 
will  have  much  the  same  importance  for 
cities  on  the  Pacific  coast  that  trade 
with  Europe  has  had  for  cities  on  the 
Atlantic  coast.  No  doubt  the  Panama 
canal  will  greatly  increase  the  trade  of 
the  West  with  our  Eastern  States  and 
also  with  Europe.     Why? 

For  transportation  of  goods  in  the 
interior  the  rivers  have  been  of  little 
use.  This  is  partly  because  3.  Rivers 
they  are  few  and  for  the  a^d  railroads 
most  part  shallow.  It  is  partly  because 
many  of  them  descend  rapidly  to  the 
sea,  and  therefore  have  rapids  and  falls 
that  prevent  navigation.  Notable  ex- 
ceptions are  the  lower  Sacramento  and 
the  Columbia,  on  which  rivers  boats 
carry  on  an  extensive  commerce. 

Railroads,  therefore,  are  of  special 
value  in  these  states ;  and  there  is  a 
remarkably  large  number  of  them, 
considering  the  difficulty  of  building 
them  ^Fig.  302)  and  the  recent   settle- 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


225 


ment  of  the  country.  On  Figure  403,  ob- 
serve that  each  of  the  great  cities  on  the 
coast  is  connected  by  rail,  not  only  with 
the  others,  but  also  with  the  East,  by  one 
or  more  railways.  Count  the  railroads 
that  cross  the  Western  States,  and  learn 
their  names.  Since  they  cross  the 
continent  they  are  called  transcontinen- 
tal lines  {trans  = 
across).  When  the 
Union  Pacific,  the 
first  of  these,  was 
completed,  in  1869, 
it  was  thought  to 
be  a  wonderful 
w^ork,  and  of  enor- 
mous importance ; 
but  now  there  are 
so  many  railroads 
that  people  are  apt 
to  forget  their  great 
value. 

The  largest  city 

in    the    Western 

States 

Leading  cities 
on  the  coast 
1 .     San  Fran- 
cisco and  cities 
near  by 

(1)  Names  and 
locations  of 
these  cities 


Fig.  302. 


is  San 
Fran- 
cisco 
(Fig. 
3  0  3), 
located 
on  a  remarkably 
fine  harbor,  at  the 
tip  of  the  peninsula  that  shuts  in  the 
waters  of  San  Francisco  Bay.  There  are 
other  important  cities  near  San  Francisco, 
two  of  which  are  Alameda  and  Oakland. 
The  latter,  which  is  much  the  larger,  is 
the  land  terminus  of  several  transcon- 
tinental railways,  and  the  center  of  large 
manufacturing  and  shipbuilding  indus- 
tries. Close  to  it  is  Berkeley  (Fig.  303), 
the  seat  of  the  University  of  California. 


South  of  San  Francisco  is  San  Jose  ; 
northeast  of  San  Francisco,  on  the  Sacra- 
mento River,  is  Sacramento,  the  capital 
of  California  ;  and  east  of  San  Francisco 
is  Stockton,  at  the  head  of  navigation 
on  the  San  Joaquin  River.  Trace  these 
rivers,  and  observe  the  extent  of  the  fer- 
tile Great  Valley  through  which  they  flow. 

The  enormous 
crops  of  wheat, 
fruit,  and  ^^^  ^,^^.^ 

wool      in    manu- 

the  Great  -^"^'""^ 
Valley  of  California 
suggest  some  of 
the  occupations  in 
these  cities.  Among 
them  are  the  can- 
ning of  fruit,  the 
milling  of  flour,  the 
making  of  wine, 
and  also  of  cloth. 

The  mineral 
products  in  this 
region  have  led  to 
much  smelting,  and 
to  the  manufacture 
of  metal  goods  of 
various  kinds.  In 
and  near  San  Fran- 
cisco, foundries  and 
machine  shops  are 
numerous,  and  ship- 
building is  a  great  industry.  One  of 
our  best-known  battleships,  the  Oregon, 
was  built  here. 

There  is  much  sugar  refining  here,  the 
raw  sugar  coming  from  the  Hawaiian 
Islands.  The  refining  of  petroleum  is 
another  important  industry ;  and  brew- 
ing, distilling,  and  the  manufacture  of 
boots,  shoes,  and  clothing  are  still 
others. 


—  A  railroad  in  one  of  tiie  canyons  in  tlie 
Rocky  Mountains  of  Colorado. 


226 


NORTH  AMERICA 


No  great  amount  of  coal  is  mined  in 
California,  but,  since  this  state  produces 
such  large  quantities  of  petroleum,  there 


San„FranjcTscd 


water  power  that  can  be  used  in  gen- 
erating electricity. 

San  Francisco  Bay  (Fig.  304)  is  the 
only  gap  in  the  Coast 
Ranges  for  (3)  t^.^, 
hundreds  ^'mmny 
of  miles,  either  to  the 
north  or  to  the  south ; 
and  since  it  is  one  of 
the  finest  harbors  in 
the  world,  it  is  very 
important  as  the  outlet 
to  the  Great  Valley  and 


th 


e    mining    regions 


Fig.  303.  — Map  to  show  th6  location  of  San  Francisco,  Portland,  Tacoma, 
and  Seattle. 


is  an  abundance  of  oil  for  fuel.  Coal  is 
easily  brought  by  train  and  boat  from 
the  Washington  coal  fields ;  and  in  the 
mountains   there   is   an    abundance    of 


round  about  it.  The 
principal  products 
shipped  from  here  are 
gold,  silver,  wine,  fruit, 
wool,  grain,  and  the 
various  manufactured 
goods  named  above. 
Some  of  these  go  east 
by  rail,  but  many  go  by 
boat  to  different  parts 
of  the  world.  For  all 
these  reasons  this  is  a 
great  shipping  point ; 
and,  as  our  trade  in- 
creases with  the  Philip- 
pines, the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  Japan,  China, 
and  other  countries 
bordering  the  Pacific, 
the  amount  of  shipping 
will  increase. 

Many  goods  are  sent 
from  Stockton,  Oak- 
land, and  other  points 
on  or  near  the  bay; 
but  San  Francisco  is  the  leading  center 
for  the  shipping,  as  for  the  manu- 
facturing. 

The  next  important  harbor  south  of 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


227 


Fig.  304.  —  The  Golden  Gate,  as  the  entrance  to  San  Francisco  Bay  is  called.     Outside  is  the  open  ocean,  while  within  is 
a  broad,  deep  bay,  protected  from  winds  and  waves  and  making  a  port  where  the  largest  ships  may  safely  anchor. 


San  Francisco  is  the  port  of  Los  Angeles, 
a  fine  artificial  harbor  that  has  been 
ities  ^'^^^  ^^  great  expense.  Still 
south  of  San  farther  south  is  the  fine 
Francisco  natural     harbor     of      San 

Diego.     Estimate  the  distance  of  these 
points  from  San  Francisco  (Fig.  303). 

Los  Angeles  is  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful cities  in  the  United  States  (Fig.  306). 
It  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  rich  orange 


country  (Fig.  280),  and  there  are  scores 
of  small  villages,  towns,  and  cities  round 
about  it.  Among  the  larger  of  these  are 
Pasadena,  Pomona,  Riverside,  Red- 
lands,  and  San  Bernardino.  Los  An- 
geles is  the  chief  distributing  center  for 
this  productive  region.  Both  San  Diego 
and  Los  Angeles  have  attracted  many 
people  because  of  the  climate. 

The  first  large  city  north  of  San  Fran- 


FiG.  305.  —  A  part  of  the  water  front  of  Sau  Francisco,  where  the  ferries  from  Oakland  are  all  the  time  going 

and  coming. 


228 


NORTH  AMERICA 


cisco  is  Portland  (Fig.  303)  on  the 
A\  illamette  River,  a  tributary  of  the 
3.  Coast  cities  Columbia.  Like  New  Or- 
leans, it  is  situated  about 
a  hundred  miles  from  the 
ocean,  near  the  head  of 
deep-water  navigation.  ' 

Since  good  harbors  having  connec- 
tions with  the  interior  are  lacking,  most 
of  the  other  important  towns  of  Oregon 
are  inland,  and  Portland  lias  grown  to 


north  of  San 
Francisco 

(1)  Portland 
and  vicinity 


It     is     also     an     important     shipping 
point. 

Portland,  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
cities  in  the  West,  is  growing  rapidly 
in  industry,  commerce,  and  population, 
its  recent  growth  being  most  remark- 
able. It  has  an  extensive  and  increas- 
ing trade  with  the  Orient,  and  also 
important  commerce  with  Alaska.  Port- 
land is  one  of  the  great  lumber  ports 
of   the  world,   and    one   of  the  leading 


•i^Nt: 


^v.mtx^.- 


'w^m-- 


^4^ 


Fi(i.  ;306.  —  A  street  iu  Los  Augeles  bordered  by  palms  and  otlier  wariu-c-liiiiate  trees. 


be  the  chief  shipping  point  by  water, 
and  therefore  the  largest  city  in  the 
state.  From  this  point  wheat,  flour, 
fruits,  wool,  and  lumber,  the  leading 
products  of  Oregon,  are  shipped  in  great 
quantities. 

Portland  has  extensive  manufactories 
of  woolen  goods,  flour,  and  furniture  ; 
and  Salem,  the  capital,  situated  in  the 
fertile  Willamette  Valley,  also  has  large 
woolen  and  flour  mills.  Near  the 
mouth  of  the  Columbia  is  Astoria, 
where,  as  elsewhere  along  the  river, 
the     salmon     industry     is     developed. 


wheat  and  flour  shipping  points  on  the 
Pacific  coast. 

Washington,  unlike  Oregon,  has  many 
fine  harbors.  On  two  of  these  Se- 
attle   and     TaCOMA      (Fig.    (2)  cities  on 

303)  are  situated.  Coal,  P><9et  sound 
lumber,  grain,  and  hops  are  the  prin- 
cipal exports.  There  is  also  extensive 
manufacture  of  lumber,  furniture,  and 
other  goods  along  the  shores  of  Puget 
Sound,  especially  at  Seattle  (Fig.  308) 
and  Tacoma.  There  is  a  large  smelter 
at  Tacoma,  to  which  ores  are  sent  from 
even  as  distant  a  point  as  Alaska;  and 


THE   WESTERN   STATES 


229 


shipbuilding  is  an  important 
industry  at  Seattle. 

The  cities  of  Puget  Sound, 
especially  Seattle,  have  the 
bulk  of  the  trade  with  Alaska, 
as  well  as  much  commerce 
with  the  Orient.  To  Puget 
Sound  ports  most  of  the  gold, 
salmon,  and  other  Alaskan 
products  come,  and  from  these 
ports  the  regular  Alaskan 
steamers  sail,  carrying  many 
miners  and  other  passengers, 
and  large  cargoes  of  goods 
for  use  in  that  Northern  ter- 
ritory. Seattle  is  the  place 
of  outfitting  for  most  of  the 
people  who  go  to  Alaska ; 
and  the  rapid  development 
of  that  territory  has  brought 
much  business  to  this  city.  Consequently 
its  recent  growth  has  been  remarkable. 
Both  Tacoma  and  Seattle  are  beautifully 
situated  on  the  shores  of  Puget  Sound, 
and  from  both,  the  extinct  volcano. 
Mount  Rainier,  is  plainly  visible. 

Other  important  cities  on  Puget  Sound 
are  Bellingham,  which  has  the  largest 
salmon  cannery  in  the  world,  and  Ever- 


FiG.  307. 


The  city  of  Portland,  with  tlie  lofty  and  heautiful  snow-covered 
peak  of  the  volcano,  Mt.  Hood,  in  the  distance. 


ETT.     Olympia,  the  capital  of  Washing- 
ton, is  on  a  branch  of  Puget  Sound. 

The  greatest  of  the  interior  cities  of 
the  Western  States  is  Den- 
ver, the  capital  of  Colorado.  Leading  cities 

'      ,         .^  1        *"  *"®  interior 

This  city  IS  located  on  the  i    Denver 
site  of  a  small  mining  camp.  *"^.  Colorado 
Its    growth    is    due   chiefly 
to    two   conditions:     (1)    the   numerous 


Copyright,  IS'.is,  l,y  Braas,  Seattle 

Fig.  308.  —  A  view  of  a  part  of  Seattle  from  the  water.     Note  the  great  amount  of  shipping  in  this  husy  port. 


230 


NORTH  AMERICA 


mining  towns  among  the  mountains 
near  by ;  and  (2)  the  near  presence  of 
water,  which  has  made  irrigation  on  a 
large  scale  possible  (p.  211).  The  first 
condition  calls  for  an  important  trade  and 
manufacturing  center  somewhere  in  that 
region,  and  the  second  makes  it  possible 
to  secure  food  in  the  vicinity. 

Denver  has  now  become  a  very  im- 
portant railway  and  manufacturing  cen- 
ter, where  ore  is  smelted,  and  machinery. 


Fig.  309.  —  Pike's  Teak  from  the  Garden  of  the  Gods,  near  Colorado  Sprinj^s 


flour,  and  cloth  are  manufactured.  It  is 
also  of  importance  as  a  health  resort, 
for  the  altitude  of  more  than  five  thou- 
sand feet,  and  the  dry  climate,  are  es- 
pecially favorable  to  persons  suffering 
from  diseases  of  the  lungs.  Colorado 
Springs,  south  of  Denver,  at  the  base 
of  Pike's  Peak  (Fig.  309),  is  one  of  the 
leading  health  resorts  in  the  country. 

Pueblo,  a  trade  and  manufacturing 

center,  is  situated  south  of  Denver,  where 

the  Santa  F^  Railway  meets 

the  Denver  and  Rio  Grande. 

Here    much   ore   is   smelted,   and   iron 


goods  are  manufactured  (Fig.  301).  It 
is  the  nearness  to  coal  and  iron  ore  that 
makes  the  latter  industry  profitable. 

Spokane,  in  eastern  Washington,  is 
situated  on  the  Spokane  River  at  a  point 
where  there  is  a  large  waterfall  (Fig. 
310).  This  supplies  abun- 
dant water  power,  so  that 
there  is  much  manufacturing.  Since 
the  city  lies  in  the  midst  of  the  fertile 
wheat  region  of  eastern  Washington, 
flour  milling  is  extensive, 
as  at  Minneapolis.  From 
the  forests  of  Idaho  the 
city  receives  lumber;  and, 
as  already  mentioned,  it 
has  been  greatly  benefited 
by  the  rich  mines  of  the 
nearby  Coeur  d'Alene  dis- 
trict. Spokane  is  also  an 
important  railway  center 
and  distributing  point  for  a 
wide  area  of  country.  It 
has  grown  very  rapidly, 
and  is  now  second  in  size 
among  the  interior  cities  of 
these  states.  Two  other 
cities  in  the  interior  of 
Washington     are     Walla 


Walla,  in   the  southeast,   and    North 
Yakima  in  the  Yakima  Valley. 

Much  of  the  ore  mined  at  Butte 
(p.  217)  is  crushed  and  reduced  in 
smelters     within     the     city  ^    ^^^^ 

limits.       But     much     also     is    Anaconda,  and 

sent  to  the  smelters  of  Ana- 
conda, and  a  large  part  of  the  Montana 
ores  go  to  the  smelters  at  Great  Falls. 
Butte    is    a    good    example     of    a 
flourishing  mining  center. 

When  a  rich  vein  of  metal  is  discovered  many 
men  are  needed  to  work  it ;  some  to  dig  out 
the  ore,  others  to  crush  it  in  the  stamp  mills, 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


231 


and  still  others  to  reduce  it  in  the  smelters. 
Thus  a  good-sized  town  may  quickly  spring  up 
about  a  single  rich  vein.  Very  often,  too, 
where  there  is  one  rich  mineral  vein,  there 
are  others  close  by,  so  that  a  group  of  mines 
may  be  opened  near  together.  Then  a  mere 
mining  camp  may  quickly  become  a  large  city. 
That  is  what  happened  in  the  case  of  Butte. 
It  is  a  great  copper-mining  center,  and,  since 
the  ore  contains  some  silver,  this  precious  metal 
is  also  produced. 

There  are  many  mines  at  Butte,  even  within 
the  city  limits.  Some  of  the  shafts  reach  thou- 
sands of  feet  down  into  the  earth,  and  the  tun- 
nels that  are  left  underground  when  the  ore  has 
been  removed  are,  taken  together,  hundreds  of 


Locate  Boise,  the  capital  of  Idaho,  a 
city  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile  irrigation 
district. 

In  many  places  among  the  Western 
mountains    are    scenes     that    compare 
favorably  with  those  of  the 
Alps  in  Switzerland,  which  the  West 
attract   so  many  American  i.  The  most 

,  1  oj.  ^      c  j    noted  places 

travelers,    strangely  rormed 
cliffs,    deep    canyons,  and   great  water- 
falls are  present  without  number.    There 
are    also    snow-capped    mountains    and 
wooded    valleys.      Many   of    the   won- 


Fio.  310.  —  The  falls  in  the  Spokane  River,  around  which  the  city  of  Spokane  has  grown. 


miles  in  length.  Hundreds  of  men  there  spend 
most  of  their  lives  far  underground,  coming  up 
to  the  surface  only  to  eat  and  sleep.  Many  men 
are  also  employed  in  the  smelters.  There  are 
scores  of  such  mining  centers  in  the  West,  al- 
though most  of  them  are  only  small  towns,  or 
"  camps." 

Several  other  interior  cities,  such  as 
Salt  Lake  City  and  Ogden,  have  al- 
c    ^...     .^.      ready   been    mentioned    fp. 

5.    Other  cities     on- 

and  towns  in       212).      Find  othcrs  on  the 

the  interior  ^,^^        ^^^^^     ^^     ^^^^^     ^^^^ 

their  importance  chiefly  to  mining, 
farming  by  irrigation,  and  grazing. 
Name  the  capitals  of  the  Western 
States.  Which  of  these  have  been 
mentioned,   and    in   what    connection? 


derful  gorges  (Fig.  302),  and  canyons 
through  which  the  Denver  and  Rio 
Grande  Railway  winds  its  way  across 
Colorado,  may  be  viewed  from  the  rail- 
way. Among  all  the  interesting  places 
in  the  West,  however,  are  three  that 
easily  surpass  the  others  in  grandeur. 
These  are  the  Yellowstone  National  Park, 
the  Grand  Canyon  of  the  Colorado,  and 
the  Yosemite  Park. 

The  Yellowstone  Park,  chiefly  in  Wyo- 
ming, is  a  tract  of  land  larger  2.  TheYeiiow- 
than  Connecticut,  which  the  ^^°^^  ^"^ 
government  has  set  aside  as  springs  and 
a  national  park.     It  is  often  (J«y^«^^ 
called  the  "Wonderland  of  America." 


232 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  311.  —  "  Old  Faitblul  "  geyser  in  eruption. 

A  stage  road  leads  from  the  Northern 
Pacific  Railway  to  the  Mammoth  Hot 
Springs  on  the  northern  side  of  the 
park.  There  is  also  a  stage  route  from 
the  Oregon  Short  Line  on  the  western 
side.  At  the  Hot  Springs  heated  water 
flows  from  openings  in  the  hillside,  down 
over  beautiful  colored  terraces,  which 
have  been  built  by  a  deposit  of  min- 
eral matter  carried  in  solution  in  the 
hot  water.  Farther  on  are  springs  of 
boiling  water;  also  springs  of  boiling 
mud  of  different  colors ;  and  here  and 
there  is  a  spring,  called  a  geyser,  from 
which  hot  water  and   steam  now  and 


then  burst  forth  with  great  violence, 
even  to  a  height  of  one  hundred  to  two 
hundred  feet  (Fig.  311). 

"Old  Faithful,"  one  of  the  most  regular  of 
these  geysers,  "  plays  "  at  intervals  of  sixty-five 
minutes.  Then  a  column  of  steam  and  hot  water 
shoots  upward  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred 
and  thirty  feet.  Other  geysers  discharge  at 
much  longer  periods,  as  two  to  three  hours, 
or  several  days;  and  in  some  of  the  geysers 
the  roar  of  escaping  steam  lasts  for  hours  after 
the  water  has  been  expelled.  The  outbursts 
are  really  explosions  of  steam,  the  heat  being 
supplied  from  the  depths  of  the  earth.  Some 
of  the  springs  are  on  a  level  with  the  ground, 
so  that  a  visitor  must  be  on  the  lookout  lest 
he  step  into  one ;  others  are  surrounded  by 
rims  several  feet  high. 

Beyond    the   geyser    basins    lies    the 
Yellowstone  Lake,  a  beautiful  sheet  of 


Fig.  ol'i. — Tlu"  ixn'nt  falls  of  tlie  Yellowstone,  three 
liuiulred  and  eight  feet  high. 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


233 


Fig.  313.  —  A  grizzly  bear  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park 

water,  nestled  in  the  mountains,  nearly 
eight  thousand  feet  above  the  sea.  Its 
waters  flow  northward,  form- 
ing the  Yellowstone  River, 
a  tributary  of  the  Missouri. 


(2)  Its  lake, 
falls,  and 
canyon 


To  many  persons,  the  falls  and  canyon  of  this 
river  are  the  greatest  wonders  of  the  park- 
Soon  after  leaving  the  lake,  the  stream  narrows 
and  quickens,  and  then  the  water  leaps  one  hun- 
dred and  nine  feet  directly  downward.  A  short 
distance  farther  on  it  tumbles 
three  hundred  and  eight  feet,  or 
almost  twice  the  height  of  Niag- 
ara Falls  (Fig.  312).  The  river 
then  runs  between  steep  walls, 
which  rise  one  thousand  feet 
above  it.  This  canyon  is  some- 
what winding,  with  numerous 
bold  cliffs  jutting  far  out  into 
the  abyss.  From  these  cliffs 
grand  views  may  be  obtained. 
Far  below,  one  sees  the  silvery 
stream,  too  distant  to  be  heard 
as  it  dashes  along.  Across  the 
chasm,  a  half  mile  away,  dark 
green  pines  fringe  the  bank,  and 
between  the  water  and  these 
woods  are  gorgeously  colored 
rock  walls,  having  all  the  tints 
of  the  rainbow. 


In  this  park  hunting  is  forbidden, 
and  for  that  reason  wild  animals  are 
numerous  and  quite 
tame.  When  driving  (3)  ^<«  ""i'""'* 
through,  the  park  one  can  sometimes 
see  elk  by  the  roadside ;  and  bears 
(Fig.  313),  both  grizzly  and  black, 
come  close  to  camps  and  hotels  for 
food.  There  are  many  other  animals 
here  also,  among  them  some  bison,  or 
buffalo  (Fig  314). 

One    portion    of    the    Grand 
Canyon  of  the  Colorado,  in  Ari- 
zona, may  be  reached 
by     the     Atchison, 
Topeka,   and   Santa 
Fe     Railway.     The     wonderful 
Yellowstone    Canyon,    just    de- 
scribed, and  the  canyons  on  the  Denver 
and  Rio  Grande  in  Colorado,  are  pygmies 
compared  with  this  (Fig.  315). 

As  one  first  looks  out  into  the  canyon, 
one  sees  nothing  but  rock  towers,  pin- 
nacles, many  colored  layers  of  rock,  and 
apparently  bottomless  depths.  When 
he  finally  reaches  a  point  from  which 
the  threadlike  stream  may  be  spied  at 
the  bottom  of  the  abyss,  a  mile  below. 


3.    The  Canyon 
of  the  Colorado 
River 


Fig.  314.  —  Bisou  feeding  in  the  Yellowstone  National  Park. 


234 


NORTH  AMERICA 


it  seems  almost  impossible  that  so  little 
water  could  have  wrought  such  mighty 
havoc.  Yet  this  river  has  been  slowly 
cutting  its  way  into  the  rocks  for  thou- 
sands of  centuries,  and  this  great  gash, 
or  canyon,  is  the  result. 

The  difficult  path  which  leads  to  the  bottom 
of  the  canyon  is  seven  miles  long,  and  the  trip 


Fig.  315. 


The  Canyon  of  the  Colorado,  a  gash  of  over  a  mile  in 
depth  cut  by  the.  river  in  the  solid  rock. 


down  and  back  is  a  full  day's  journey  ;  but 
without  making  it,  one  failp  to  appreciate  fully 
the  marvelous  carving,  sculpturing,  and  color- 
ing of  the  canyon  walls.  At  the  bottom  the 
scene  is  entirely  changed;  and,  as  one  looks 
upward,  to  see  himself  shut  in  by  walls  which 
seem  to  extend  to  the  very  heavens,  his  own 
littleness  and  the  immensity  of  the  works  of 
Nature  are  wonderfully  impressed  upon  him. 


For  three  hundred  miles  the  Colorado  River 
flows  at  the  bottom  of  this  deeply  cut  canyon, 
which  forms  a  very  complete  barrier  to  travel- 
ers. A  person  living  on  one  side,  where  he 
could  see  across  to  the  other  side,  ten  miles 
away,  would  need  to  travel  hundreds  of  miles 
to  reach  that  side ;  for  no  railways,  roads,  or 
paths  can  cross  it.  The  government  has  set 
aside  this  wonderland  also  as  a  national  park 
for  the  enjoyment  of  the  people. 

The  remarkable  Yoseinite  Val- 
ley, on  the  western  slope  of  the 
Sierra  Nevada  Moun-  4.  xhe 
tains,  in  California,  YosemitePark 
presents  very  different  views  from 
those  thus  far  described.  This 
is  the  region  of  the  High  Sierras, 
with  their  deep  canyons  and 
granite  peaks,  one  of  which, 
Mt.  Whitney,  14,898  feet  high, 
is  the  highest  point  in  the  United 
States,  not  including  Alaska. 
Some  of  the  most  magnificent 
views  in  the  High  Sierras  are 
formed  by  waterfalls  of  the 
Yosemite  Creek  and  Merced 
River,  in  Yosemite  Park  (Fig. 
316).  In  one  mighty  leap  the 
water  descends  fifteen  hundred 
feet,  forming  the  Yosemite  Falls, 
which  are  famed  the  world  over. 
Below  this  are  some  cascades, 
then  another  fall  of  four  hun- 
dred feet. 

Only  a  few  miles  from  the  falls 
are  the  giant  trees  of  the  world,  the 
largest  of  which  is  35  feet  in  diam- 
eter and  300  feet  high.  The  Yosemite  region, 
like  the  Yellowstone,  is  a  public  park,  and 
is  visited  every  year  by  thousands  of  people, 
including  many  Europeans. 

It  would  require  many  pages  to  describe  all 
the    wonderful   scenes    in    Wes- 


5.    Other  won- 
derful scenery 


tern  United  States,  or  even  to 
make  a  list  of  them.  But  mention 
must  be  made  of  the  Shoshone  Falls  in  Idaho, 


THE   WESTERN  STATES 


235 


Fig.  31G. — The  Yosemite  Valley,  bordered  by  lofty  granite  luciiiiici-s,  over  one  portion  of  which  the  water  leaps 

to  form  the  far-famed  Yosemite  Falls. 


Lake  Chelan  in  Washington,  Lake 
in  the  Sierra  Nevada,  and  Crater  Lake 
egon  —  the  great  crater  of  an 
extinct  volcano  in  which  a  beau- 
tiful lake  is  now  situated.  Also 
the  Rainier  National  Park,  on 
the  slopes  of  Mount  Kainier, 
deserves  mention  with  its  beau- 
tiful valleys,  large  glaciers,  and 
grand  mountain  scenery. 

Many  people  from  the  East 
are  much  interested  in  the  In- 
dians, who  live  on 
Indian  reserva- 
tions, or  land 
reserved  for  them  by  the  gov- 
ernment. Among  the  most  in- 
teresting of  these  are  the  Pueblo 
Indians  in  Arizona,  who  still 
live  after  the  manner  of  their 
ancestors.  Their  homes,  called 
pueblos,  are  built  of  sun-drted 
clay,  or  adobe,  and  in  some  cases 
are  entered  from  the  roof  by 
means  of  ladders. 

The  pueblos  were  intended  as 


Tahoe 
in  Or- 


strongholds  for  the  storing  of  grain,  and  for 
protection  against  wandering  tribes,  who  might 


6.    The 
Red  Men 


Fig. 


317.  — The  cave  dwellings  of  the  southwest.    The  Indians  dug  these 
caves  out  of  the  solid  rock  and  lived  in  them. 


236 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Review 
Questions 


attack  them  at  any  time.  Other  Indian  houses, 
the  diff  dwellings,  were  built  on  the  sides  of 
cliffs  beneath  overhanging  ledges;  and  still 
others,  cave  dwellings,  were  in  caves  dug  out 
of  the  rocks  by  the  Indians  (Fig.  317).  These 
cliff  and  cave  dwellings  are  no  longer  occu- 
pied. 

1.  What  was  the  effect  of  the  discovery  of 
gold  in  California  upon  the  population  of  these 
States?  2.  What  is  their  present 
population?  3.  Explain  how 
their  far  western  position  has 
been  one  reason  for  so  small  a  population. 
4.  Explain  how  their  many  mountains  and 
plateaus  have  been  a  second  reason.  5.  Show 
how  the  lack  of  rain  has  been  a  third  reason, 
6.  Where  are  the  heaviest  rains  in  this  group 
of  states  ?  Why  there  ?  7.  Tell  about  the 
agriculture  in  that  section.  8.  Why  is  there 
so  little  rain  in  southern  California  and 
further  east  ?  9.  How  is  irrigation  planned  ? 
10.  What  are  the  farm  products  in  Southern 
California?  11.  How  is  the  fruit  cared  for, 
and  what  is  done  with  it?  12.  What  can  you 
tell  about  the  Great  Valley  ?  13.  How  is  irri- 
gation planned  near  Denver  ?  14.  Explain  the 
expense  of  such  irrigation,  and  its  advantages. 
15.  Tell  about  agriculture  in  Utah.  16.  In 
other  irrigation  sections.  17.  How  is  our 
national  government  aiding  irrigation  in  these 
states  ?  18.  What  kinds  of  animals  are  raised 
in  the  arid  parts  of  these  states  ?  19.  How  is 
sheep  ranching  carried  on  ?  20.  What  are  the 
sources  of  profit  ?  21.  Name  the  most  valuable 
minerals  mined  in  these  states.  22.  Describe 
the  methods  of  mining  gold.  23.  Tell  about 
the  mining  in  Nevada.  24.  In  Colorado. 
25.  In  Montana.  26.  In  other  western  states. 
27.  What  about  coal,  petroleum,  and  other  min- 
erals in  these  states  ?  28.  Describe  the  work  of 
the  prospector.  29.  Why  is  there  a  special 
need  of  lumber  in  these  states  ?  30.  Locate  the 
principal  forests.  31.  Name  the  kinds  of  trees, 
and  tell  about  their  size.  32.  Describe  the 
method  of  lumbering.  33.  What  is  done  with 
the  logs  and  the  lumber  ?  ,34.  What  do  you 
know  about  the  fishing?  35.  What  are  the 
principal  manufactures  from  the  products  of  the 
farm,  forest,  and  ranch  ?  36.  From  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  mines  ?  37.  What  is  the  prospect 
for  manufacturing  in  the  West?  38.  Tell 
about  the  principal  harbors  on  our  Pacific 
coast.     39.   About  our  trade  with  distant  coun- 


tries. 40.  State  the  value  of  the  rivers  and  rail- 
roads for  transportation  of  goods.  41.  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  cities  near  San 
Francisco.  42.  What  are  the  principal  manu- 
factures in  that  section?  43.  What  can  you 
say  about  the  extent  of  the  shipping  ?  44.  Tell 
about  the  coast  cities  south  of  San  Francisco. 
45.  About  Portland  and  vicinity.  46.  The 
cities  on  Puget  Sound.  47.  Denver  and 
Colorado  Springs.     48.  Pueblo.     49.    Spokane. 

50.  Butte,     Anaconda,      and      Great     Falls. 

51.  Other   cities  and   towns    in   the   interior. 

52.  Name  and  locate  the  three  places  in  the  West 
most  noted  for  grand  scenery.  53.  Tell  about 
the  hot  springs  and  geysers  of  the  Yellowstone 
Park.  54.  About  its  lake,  falls,  and  canyon. 
55.  Its  animals.  56.  Give  your  impression  of 
the  appearance  of  the  Grand  Canyon  of  the 
Colorado  Eiver.  57.  Of  the  Yosemite  Park. 
58.  Name  and  locate  other  places  in  the  West 
where  there  is  wonderful  scenery.  59.  Tell 
about  the  Indians. 

Montana  (Mont.).  1.  What  industries  are 
carried  on  in  the  eastern  part  ?  Why  ?  2.  In 
the  western  part  ?  3.  Name  the 
chief  cities  in  Montana,  and  tell  Review  Ques- 
how  each  is  important.  4.  What  ^  y  a  es 
two  large  rivers  drain  this  section  ?  5.  Through 
what  states  do  they  flow  before  reaching  the 
Gulf?  6.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  the  state 
and,  as  each  of  the  other  states  is  studied,  do 
the  same  for  that. 

Wyoming  (Wy.).  7.  What  industries  are 
carried  on  in  this  state  ?  8.  What  cities  are 
mentioned  ?  In  what  connection  ?  9.  Find 
the  Yellowstone  Park,  and  tell  for  what  it  is 
noted.  10.  This  state  is  represented  as  having 
little  grain,  on  the  maps  showing  the  principal 
grain-producing  regions  (Figs.  371  and  373). 
Why  ? 

Colorado  (Col.  or  Colo.).  11.  Examine  Fig- 
ures 371  to  373  to  see  what  are  the  industries 
of  Colorado.  12.  Why  is  there  more  water  for 
irrigation  in  this  state  than  in  some  of  the 
others?  13.  Trace  the  divide  between  the 
Pacific  and  Atlantic  drainage  as  it  crosses 
Colorado.  Trace  it  northward  to  Canada  and 
southward  to  Mexico.  14.  Name  the  cities  in 
Colorado  mentioned  in  the  text,  and  tell  how 
each  is  important.  15.  Find  the  population 
of  Denver  (see  Appendix).  Compare  it  with 
that  of  other  large  cities  in  the  Western  States ; 
also  with  that  of  New  Orleans  and  of  Buffalo. 


THE   WESTERN   STATES 


237 


New  Mexico  (N.M.).  16.  Locate  Santa  Fe ; 
Albuquerque.  17.  What  rivers  drain  this 
state  ?  18.  Compare  its  area  with  that  of 
Pennsylvania.     19.    Its  population. 

Arizona.  (Ariz.).  20.  What  can  you  tell 
about  the  large  river  that  crosses  Arizona? 
21.  What  cities  and  industries  are  men- 
tioned? 22.  What  minerals  are  obtained 
here  ?  23.  How  does  the  largest  city  compare 
in  size  Avith  the  largest  in  New  Mexico  ?  In 
Colorado  ?     24.   Find  the  population. 

Nevada  (Nev.).  25.  For  what  mines  was 
Nevada  famous  ?  26.  Find  its  present  popu- 
lation (see  Appendix).  Why  are  there  so 
few  people  ?  27.  What  about  its  present  in- 
dustries ?  28.  How  may  the  government  irri- 
gation work  be  of  special  value  to  this  state  ? 

Utah.     29.  Why  is  the  Great  Salt  Lake  salt? 

30.  What   are   the   industries   of    this   state  ? 

31.  What  cities  are  mentioned?  Tell  about 
each.  32.  Examine  the  maps,  Figures  249  to 
274,  to  see  what  products  come  from  Utah. 

Idaho  (Ida.).  33.  What  metals  are  ob- 
tained? (See  Figs.  391  to  396.)  34.  What 
great  river  drains  Idaho  ?  35.  What  moun- 
tain range  forms  the  eastern  boundary  ? 

Washington  (\Y2k^h..).  36.  Compare  the  coast 
line  with  that  of  Oregon  ;  of  Maine.  37.  What 
about  the  rainfall  of  this  state  ?  Compare  it 
with  that  of  Montana  (Fig.  408).  Why  this 
difference  ?  38.  What  effect  has  the  rainfall 
upon  the  industries  ?  What  are  the  principal 
industries  ?  39.  What  cities  are  mentioned  in 
the  text  ?     What  can  you  tell  about  each  ? 

Oregon  (Ore.).  40.  What  advantage  do  you 
see  in  the  location  of  the  largest  city  ?  41.  Com- 
pare it  in  size  with  Denver ;  New  Orleans. 
42.  Examine  the  maps  (Figs.  371  to  397)  to 
see  what  is  produced  in  Oregon.  43.  What 
industries  are  mentioned  in  the  text? 
44.  What  cities  are  mentioned,  and  in  what 
connection  ? 

California  (Cal.).  45.  What  about  the  rain- 
fall ?  46.  What  two  rivers  drain  most  of  this 
state?  47.  Describe  the  relief.  48.  Name 
the  cities  mentioned ;  for  what  is  each  impor- 
tant ?  49.  What  industries  are  found  in  this 
state  ?  50.  What  advantage  do  you  see  in  the 
location  of  San  Francisco  ?  51.  Compare  its 
population  with  that  of  Boston;  Denver. 
52.  What  caused  the  early  growth  of  Cali- 
fornia? What  effect  has  that  had  on  other 
Western  States  ? 


53.   Which  state  has  the  largest  population 
(see    Appendix)?     The    smallest?     54.    Com- 
pare   each   of    these    two    with 
Massachusetts  and  New  York  in  general 
population.     55.    Name   and   lo-   ^      .. 
cate  the  eight  largest  cities  (see 
Appendix).    56.    Which  of  the  five  groups  of 
states  has  the  densest  population  (Fig.  367)  ? 
Which    the  least  dense  ?     What  reasons    can 
you  give  ? 

1.   Head  about  the  expedition  of  Lewis  and 
Clark  from  St.  Louis  to  the   Pacific  coast  in 
1803-1806.     2.   Find   out   about 
the  early  settlement,  and  dispute       ^ 
about  the  ownership,  of  Oregon.     3.    What  is 
the  origin  of  the   expression   "  to  pan  out "  ? 

4.  Mention  several  of  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  having  no  rain  for  several 
months  at  a  time,  as  in  southern  California. 

5.  Make  a  collection  of  minerals  for  the 
school.  6.  Should  the  ditch  that  is  to  ir- 
rigate a  certain  field  skirt  its  upper  or  lower 
edge  ?  Why  ?  7.  Which  is  the  more  easily 
irrigated,  nearly  level  land,  or  land  that  is 
rough  and  hilly  ?  Why  ?  8.  Is  southern  Cali- 
fornia as  liable  to  cold  snaps  as  Florida? 
Why  ?  9.  Make  a  list  of  articles  made  of 
wool.  10.  What  have  been  the  objections  to 
admitting  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  into  our 
Union  as  states  ?  11.  Write  a  story  describ- 
ing an  imaginary  visit  to  southern  California. 
12.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Western  States, 
putting  in  the  principal  mountain  ranges, 
rivers,  and  cities. 

1.   Name  the  principal  crops  of  the  United 
States,  and  tell  in  which  section  each  is  raised. 
(Consult    figures    249    to    259.) 
2.    Do    the    same    for    mineral   General  Re- 

view  OxicS" 
products.     3.   For  other  raw  prod-  tionsfor 

nets.  4.  For  manufactured  arti-  United  States 
cles.  5.  Name  the  ten  largest 
cities  in  their  order  (see  Appendix).  For 
what  is  each  important  ?  6.  State  some  ways 
in  which  the  rainfall  influences  the  occupations 
of  the  people.  7.  The  temperature.  8.  State 
clearly  the  influence  of  the  absence  of  forests 
on  the  prairies.  9.  Of  the  rich  mineral  deposits 
in  the  West.  10.  In  what  ways  have  the 
Great  Lakes  been  of  value  ?  11.  Name  some  of 
the  cities  that  have  been  benefited  by  them. 
12.  In  what  ways  have  the  Mississippi  River 
and  its  two  largest  tributaries  been  of  value  ? 


238 


NORTH  AMERICA 


13.  State  some  of  the  natural  advantages  that 
have  aided  the  growth  of  Boston  ;  New  York  ; 
Buffalo ;  Philadelphia;  Baltimore ;  New  Orleans ; 
Cleveland ;  Pittsburg ;  Detroit ;  Chicago ;  St. 
Louis ;  and  San  Francisco.  14.  Can  you  name 
some  other  cities  that  have  also  been  influenced 
by  their  surroundings  ?     15.    Which  is  the  larg- 


est state  (see  Appendix)  ?  The  second  in  size  ? 
The  smallest?  The  next  to  the  smallest? 
16.  Which  state  has  the  largest  population 
(see  Appendix)  ?  The  second  largest  ?  The 
smallest?  Next  to  the  smallest?  17.  What 
states  border  Mexico  ?  Canada  ?  18.  Draw  a 
map  of  the  United  States. 


SECTION  III. 


TERRITORIES  AND   DEPENDENCIES  OF  THE 
UNITED   STATES 


1.    On  the  map  of  world  (Fig.  107)  locate 

(a)  Alaska  ;  (&)  Porto  Kico ;  (c)  The  Philippine 

Islands ;     (d)      The     Hawaiian 

^  ^  Islands.  2.  On  the  map  of 
North  America  (Fig.  134)  locate  Alaska  and 
Porto  Rico.  3.  Bound  Alaska.  4.  What  large 
river  crosses  Alaska  ?  5.  Name  the  largest 
islands  in  the  Philippines  (Fig.  328). 

At  the  close  of  the  Revolutionary  War 
the  United  States  consisted  of  thirteen 
Our  increase  small  colonies,  extending 
of  territory  along  the  x^tlantic  coast  from 
Maine  to  Georgia.  Our  new  nation  laid 
claim  also  to  the  land  far  into  the  wild- 
erness, even  to  the  distant  Mississippi. 
Beyond  this  was  French  and  Spanish 
territory,  while  the  whole  Mississippi 
Valley  was  occupied  by  Indians. 

By  purchase,  by  war,  or  by  treaty,  we 
have  gained  possession  of  all  the  land 
between  the  Atlantic  and  the  Pacific, 
which  has  thus  far  been  described.  Re- 
call what  was  said  about  the  growth  of 
the  United  States  on  pages  106  and  107 
(see  also  Fig.  142). 

Our  growth  has  continued  so  that  now 
our  territory  does  not  end  with  the 
boundaries  of  the  United  States  proper. 
In  1867  we  obtained  Alaska,  and  in  1898 
we  came  into  possession  of  a  number  of 
islands,  some  of  which  are  on  the  other 
side  of  the  globe.  Since  these  lands 
form  a  part  of  our  territory,  a  study  of 
them  may  come  at  this  point. 


1.   Alaska  (Fig.  318) 

Alaska    (Fig.   318),   which   was  pur- 
chased from  Russia  in  1867  (for  $7,200,- 
000),  is  almost  one  fifth  as 
large  as  the  United  States.  SS^a^'aVd 
Measure  to  see  how  far  this  why  it  at 
territory  is  from    our  near-  ^^st  seemed 

unwise 

est  ports,  on  Puget  Sound. 

Most  people  thought  it  very  foolish  to 

buy  a  territory  so  far  away  and  so  far 

north. 

A  large  part  of  Alaska  is  mountainous 
(Fig.  319),  and  much  of  it  is  in  the 
frigid  zone,  as  you  can  see.  About  how 
much  of  it  ?  In  addition,  at  that  time 
we  already  had  more  land  than  we 
knew  what  to  do  with.  For  these 
reasons,  most  persons  thought  that  the 
purchase  of  Alaska  was  very  unwise. 
They  even  called  it  "  Seward's  folly," 
because  Secretary  Seward,  who  was  in 
President  Lincoln's  cabinet,  was  the  one 
who  chiefly  urged  the  purchase. 

As   it    has   turned   out,   however,    it 

was     a    wise     purchase,    for   Reasons  why 

Alaska  has  become  an  im-  it  was  a  wise 
portant  part  of  the  United  P^^rci^ase 
States,  and  is  developing  rapidly. 

Most  of  Alaska  is  too  mountainous  and  too 
cold    for   agriculture.      Yet  the 
summers   are  warmer   than  one   1-    Agnculture 
.    ,  T  and  lumbenng 

might  suppose,  and   some  parts 

of  the  country  are  level  enough  for  farming. 


i 


•  '    •    *    '   *•'        «  I  »•  3  »  *  i  '.* 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


239 


Fiti.  Hiy. — The  snow-covered  mountains  of  the  St.  Elias  chain,  Alaska. 


3.     Fishing 


Already  some  crops  are  raised  there,  and,  doubt- 
less, portions  of  Alaska  will  some  day  produce 
the  more  hardy  grains  and  vegetables.  Doubt- 
less, also,  grazing  will  become  important,  for 
there  are  extensive  natural  pastures  on  w^hich 
sheep  and  cattle  can  feed.  In  addition,  the 
forests  will  some  day  be  of  value,  for  there  are 
large  areas  covered  with  timber. 

At    present    the   fishing   proves   the 
wisdom  of  the  purchase   of 
Alaska  much  more  than  the 
industries  just  mentioned. 

The  catching  of  seals  was  the  first 
industry  of  consequence  there.  One 
kind  of  Alaskan 
seal,  called  the 
fur  seal,  has  a  very  fine  fur, 
which  is  highly  prized  for 
making  muffs  and  cloaks. 
The  skins  are  especially 
valued  because  of  their 
warmth  and  beauty,  and  as 
there  is  no  great  number  of 
them,  they  are  very  expen- 
sive. A  sealskin  cloak  costs 
several  hundred  dollars. 
Already    more    than    seven 


times  as  much  money  has  come  from 
sealing  as  was  paid  for  the  entire 
territory  of  Alaska. 

During  the  greater  part  of  the  year  the  fur 
seals  swim  about  in  search  of  food  ;  but  in  the 
spring,  during  the  breeding  season,  they  resort 
to  the  Pribilof  Islands  (Fig.  320).  The  United 
States  government  prohibits  all  persons  from 
killing  the  fur  seal,  except  one  company,  which 
pays  a  special  tax  for  the  privilege  of  securing 
a  certain  number  each  year.  At  the  proper 
season  the  men  select  a  number  of  seals  and 
drive  them  off  for  slaughter,  much  as  sheep 
would  be  driven.     There  are  so  few  of  these 


(1)  Sealing 


Fia.  320.  —  A  group  of  fur  seals  on  the  shore  of  the  Pribilof  Islands. 


240 


NORTH  AMERICA 


seals,  and  they  are  so  easily  killed,  that  if  the 
government  did  not  protect  them,  all  would 
soon  be  destroyed. 


More  recently  the  salmon  have  come 
to  be  of  great  value.  Here,  as  in  the 
i,2)  Catching  of  Columbia  River  (p.  222), 
salmon  and        teus  of  thousands  of  salmou 

other  fish  ,  i  , 

go   up    the    streams    every 
summer,  in    order  to  lay  their  eggs  in 


3.     Mining 


Fig.  321.  —  Miners  fording  tlie  icy  waters  of  an  Alaskan  river  on  tlie  way  to 
Klondike.  Two  of  them  are  harnessed  to  a  wagon  containing  their 
supplies. 


fresh  water.  Indeed,  people  in  that  coun- 
try, when  wanting  salmon  for  food,  often 
kick  them  out  of  the  small  streams,  in- 
stead of  catching  them  in  the  usual  way. 
These  fish  are  caught  and  taken  to 
the  canneries,  where  they  are  cooked  and 
placed  in  cans  for  shipment  to  all  parts 
of  the  world.  Already  the  salmon 
taken  from  the  Alaskan  streams  have 
yielded  more  than  ten  times  as  much 
money  as  Alaska  cost  us. 


Among  other  fish,  halibut  and  codfish  are 
common  on  the  shallow  banks  along  the  Alaskan 
coast,  and  vessels  from  our  Western  States  now 
go  there  to  catch  them. 

It  is,  however,  gold  that  has  attracted 

most  attention  to   this  territory.     The 

famous  Klondike  region,  in 

northwestern    Canada,   first 

drew  large  numbers  of  men  to  the  coun- 
try, since  the  easiest  route 
to  the  Klondike  was  across 
Alaska.  Thousands  of 
prospectors  rushed  there  in 
1896andl897,justas  they 
did  to  California  in  1849. 
Valuable  deposits  of 
gold  have  since  been 
found  at  Nome,  near 
Juneau,  in  the  Tanana 
Valley,  and  in  other  parts 
of  Alaska.  Alaska  now 
produces  two  or  three 
times  as  much  gold  each 
year  as  we  paid  to  Russia 
for  the  entire  territory. 

One  great  difficulty  has 
been  to  reach  the  gold  fields 
and  to  carry  supplies  to  them. 
The  early  miners  were  exposed 
to  great  hardships  on  their 
journey  to  the  Klondike  region. 
Now,  however,  by  the  help  of 
a  short  railway  across  the 
mountains,  one  can  go  into  the  interior  of 
Alaska  much  more  easily.  Another  railway  is 
being  built  across  the  mountains  along  the 
Copper  River  Valley.  In  summer  many  miners 
go  up  the  Yukon  River  in  boats,  but  this  is 
impossible  in  winter  when  the  river  is  frozen. 
Trace  the  course  of  this  river.  How  does  the 
Yukon  River  compare  in  size  with  the  Ohio 
(see  Appendix)? 

Besides  gold,  there  are  also  very  ex- 
tensive deposits  of  copper  and  coal ;  but 
as   yet    these   minerals    have    not    been 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


241 


mined  to  any  great  extent.  At  present 
there  are  almost  no  roads,  and  even 
very  few  trails;  and  until  better  means 
of  transportation  are  provided  there  can 
be  little  development  of  these  valuable 
mineral  resources. 

Alaska  is  justly  famous  for  its  grand 
scenery.     The   journey  along  the  Alas- 
kan coast  is  one  of  the  most 

The  scenery  i      c   i        i  i       ^ 

wonderful  steamboat  voy- 
ages in  the  world.  There  are  so  many 
islands  that,  for  a  thousand  miles,'  the 
steamers  sail  between  lofty,  forest- 
covered  mountain  walls,  with  snow- 
capped peaks  in  the  background,  and 
upon  waters  whose  surface  is  as  quiet  as 
a  lake. 

Beyond  Juneau  the  mountains  be- 
come higher,  and  many  of  the  peaks 
are  more  than  three  miles  high.  The 
loftiest  of  all  is  Mt.  McKinley,  the 
highest  mountain  on  the  continent ;  but 
Mt.  St.  Elias,  and  Mt.  Wrangell,  an  active 
volcano,  are  also  very  high. 

The  snows  are  so  heavy  that  most  of 
the  mountains  are  snow-covered  through- 
out the  year  (Fig.  319) ;  and  hundreds 
of  glaciers  descend  through  the  moun- 
tain valleys,  some  even  entering  the  sea 
and  breaking  off  to  form  icebergs.  The 
largest  glaciers  on  the  continent  are 
found  in  this  region.  One  of  the  best 
known  of  these,  the  Muir  Glacier,  is 
not  far  north  of  Sitka. 

In  such  a  new  country  there  are,  of 
course,  no  large  cities."  The  oldest  and 
Principal  best    known    is    the    quaint 

towns  town  of  Sitka,  the  former 

capital.  Juneau,  which  was  made  the 
capital  a  few  years  ago,  besides  being 
near  valuable  gold  mines,  is  on  the  route 
to  the  Klondike.  It  is,  therefore,  an  im- 
portant center.     Not  far  north  is  Skag- 


WAY,  where  miners  leave  the  steamer  to 
take  the  White  Pass  Railway  to  the 
headwaters  of  the  Yukon. 

There  are  also  many  mining  towns,  such  as 
Dawson,  in  the  Klondike  region  of  Canada,  and 
Nome,  on  Bering  Sea.  In  1898,  the  beach 
sands  at  Nome  were  found  to  contain  gold,  and 
in  a  single  season  a  good-sized  city  had  grown 
on  the  beach.  Large  numbers  of  men  lived  in 
tents,  and  others  in  rough  wooden  shanties. 
In  1900  there  were  more  than  twelve  thousand 
people  here ;  but  three  years  afterward,  there 
were  only  about  one  third  as  many.  In  such  a 
mining  district  a  town  may  grow  up  in  a  year 
and  become  deserted  in  a  single  season.  Many 
of  the  people  spend  only  the  warmer  season  in 
Alaska,  going  up  there  in  the  spring,  and  re- 
turning to  the  states  in  the  autumn. 

2    Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  (Fig.  322) 

On  his  first  voyage,  Columbus  dis- 
covered some  islands  southeast  of  the 
United  States  (Fig.  134).  These  were 
later  called  the  West  Indies,  because,  as 
you  remember  (p.  87),  Columbus  thought 
he  had  reached  India. 

The  Spaniards  took  possession  of  these 

islands,  and  long  held  the  larger  ones  as 

colonies.      The  people  were  „     ^^ 

^      ^  How  these  is- 

not  content  under   Spanish  lands  happen 

rule,  and  there  was  much  to  be  under 
trouble  and  bloodshed.  Yet  °^^  ^"*  *°*^® 
Spain  held  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  until 
1898.  At  that  time  the  Cubans  were 
fighting  a  war  for  independence,  and  the 
United  States  went  to  their  aid.  This 
quickly  brought  on  a  war  between  our 
country  and  Spain,  called  the  Spanish- 
American  War.  Spain  gave  up  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico  at  the  end  of  the  war. 
Our  government  then  took  control  of 
Porto  Rico,  and  holds  it  still ;  but  Cuba 
was  allowed  its  independence,  under  our 
protection.  It  is  not,  therefore,  a  part 
of  our  territory,  as  Porto  Rico  is. 


242 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Spanish  is  the  language  spoken  on 
both  these  islands,  and  many  of  the 
people  are  Spaniards  ;  but  there  are  also 
many  negroes  and  many  half-breeds. 


Fig.  323.  — a  native  hut  in  Cuba. 

Cuba  is  the  largest  island  in  the  West 
Indies,  being  nearly  as  large  as  Pennsyl- 
Area  and  sur-  vania,  although  much  longer 
face  features  and  narrower.  Porto  Rico 
is  somewhat  smaller  than  Connecticut. 
Each  of  these  islands  is  quite  mountain- 
ous, but  there  are  broad 
valleys  and  small,  fertile 
lowlands. 

Both  islands  lie  entirely 
within  the  tropical  zone, 
and  on  the  low- 
lands neither 
snow  nor  frost  are  known. 
On  account  of  the  warm 
climate  many  people  from 
the  United  States  go  to 
Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  to 
spend  the  winter.  There 
is  an  abundance  of  I'ain  in 
most  parts  of  the  islands ;  but  the  rain- 
fall is  especially  heavy  on  the  north- 
eastern, or  'windward,  slopes,  for  it  is 
from  this  direction  that  the  damp  ocean 
winds  chiefly  come. 


Large  portions  of  Porto  Rico  and  of 
Cuba  have  been  cleared  and  cultivated. 
This   is   especially    true   of 
Porto  Rico,  which  is  really  Ag"^^!*"'-^ 
an  island  of  farms.     Indeed,  agriculture 
is  the  chief  industry  on  both  islands. 

As  in  all  the  West  Indies,  the  princi- 
pal crop  is  sugar  cane  (Fig.  324),  and 
this  industry  is  carried  on  i  The  farm 
much  as  it  is  in  Louisiana  products 
(p.  153).  A  second  important  crop  is 
toba,cco,  for  which  Cuba  is  especially 
noted ;  and  great  numbers  of  cigars  are 
manufactured  in  these  islands. 

Upon  the  hill  slopes,  much  coffee  is 
produced,  and  some  tea  and  cocoa. 
Spices,  including  nutmeg,  cinnamon,  and 
ginger,  are  products  of  the  West  Indies  ; 
also  pepper,  cardamom,  vanilla,  and  pi- 
mento or  allspice.  Bananas,  oranges, 
limes,  pineapples*  (Fig.  325),  and  cocoa- 
nuts  are  grown  in  great  quantities,  and 
also  many  vegetables.  There  is  much 
pasture,  too,  and  many  cattle  are  raised. 


Climate 


Fig.  324. 


train  on  a  sugar  plantation  in  Porto  Kico  drawing  the  sugar 
cane  to  the  sugar  mill. 

Our  soil  and  climate  enable  us  to  raise 
almost  all  the  farm  products  g    ^j^^.^. 
that   we    need.      But   some  ciai  value  to  the 

,  1      ,  ,  .  ,  United  States 

that  we  cannot  raise  exten- 
sively   are'  produced    on   these    islands. 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


243 


Some  of  these  are  tea,  coffee, 
sugar,  spices,  and  tropical 
fruits.  The  islands  also  send 
us  fruits  and  vegetables  in 
midwinter.  Thus  it  is  of 
ureat  value  to  us  that  we 
have  such  close  relations 
with  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

In  Cuba  there  is  also 
uiuch  valuable  timber,  in- 
other  raw  eluding  mahog- 
products  any,  ebony,  and 

fustic,  which  produces  a  yel- 
low dye.     There  are  also  some  valuable 
minerals  in  Cuba,  especially  copper  and 
iron. 

The  largest  city  of  the  West  Indies  Is 
Havana,  in  Cuba,  for  a  long  time  the 


Fia.  325.  —  Pineapples  growing  in  Porto  Rico. 


center    of    Spanish    rule    in    America. 
Another  Cuban  city  is  San-  Principal 
TiAGO,   where   the    Spanish  cities 
ships  were  sunk  in  the  war  of  1898 ; 
and  a  third  is  Matanzas. 


Fig.  326. 


•A  view  along  the  Canal  route,  in  liX)9.    When  this  great  cut  in  the  earth  is  deep  enough,  it  will  be  flooded 
with  water  and  large  ocean  ships  will  then  sail  through  it. 


244 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The  two  principal  cities  of  Porto  Rico 
are  Ponce,  on  the  southern  coast,  and 
San  Juan,  on  tlie  northern.  The  latter 
is  the  largest  city  and  the  capital  of  the 
island. 

3.    Panama  Canal  Zone  (Fig.  354) 
One  of  the  most  interesting  regions 
controlled    by  the    United    States    is   a 
Its  location       strip  of  land,  ten  miles  wide, 
and  cost  across  the  Tsthinus  of  Pan- 

ama, which  connects  North  America 
with  South  America  (Fig.  134).  The 
city  of  Panama  is  at  the  southern  end, 
and  Colon  at  the  northern.  It  is  here 
that  our  government  is  now  digging  the 
Panama  Canal  (Fig.  326),  so  that  even 
the  largest  ocean,  ships  may  pass  from 
one  ocean  to  the  other. 

The  distance  across  the  isthmus,  along  the 
line  of  the  canal,  is  less  than  fifty  miles,  and  the 
elevation  but  three  hundred  feet  at  the  highest 
point ;  but  it  will  cost  our  government  several 
hundred  million  dollars  to  complete  the  work. 


This  is  one  of  the  greatest  public  works 
our  government  has  ever  undertaken, 
and  it  will  prove  of  great  Advantage 
service  to  the  entire  world,  of  the  canal 
A  steamer  bound  from  London  to  San 
Francisco  will  save  five  thousand  miles  by 
taking  this  new  route,  while  eight  thou- 
sand miles  will  be  saved  in  going  by  boat 
from  New  York  to  San  Francisco.  The 
canal  will  be  of  benefit  to  all  our  seacoast 
towns,  and  will  also  aid  in  the  distribu- 
tion of  the  products  of  the  interior. 

4.    The  Hawaiian  Islands  (Fig.  328) 

Far  out  in  the  Pacific,  between    the 
United     States     and     the     Philippines 
(Fig.    107),  lies  a  group  of  How  they 
small  islands  called  the  Ha-  came  into  our 
waiian    Islands.      Formerly  possession 
they   were   a   little    independent    king- 
dom, bat  in  1893  the  people,  who  are 
Malayans,  rebelled  and  formed  a  repub- 
lic.    Later  they  asked  to  be  made  a  part 


Fig.  327.  — The 


'  Lake  of  Fire  "  iu  the  crater  of  one  of  the  Hawaiian  volcanoes, 
or  melted  rock,  that  rises  from  within  the  eartli. 


Tliis  is  red  liot  lava. 


y    oj 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


245 


Fia.  32i).  —  Natives  cutting  sugar  cane  on  a  plantation  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 


of  the  United  States,  and  in  1898  this 
was  done. 

These  islands  are  small,  and  are 
scattered  over  a  distance  of  more  than 
^iru  *!.  a  thousand  miles.     They  are 

Why  they  are  .  «^ . 

of  special  made  of  lava,  which  has  risen 
value  to  us  from  within  the  earth,  and 
on  Hawaii  (Fig.  328),  the  largest  island, 
there  are  two  volcanoes  that  are  still  ac- 
tive (Fig.  327).  Every  few  years  one  of 
these  bursts  forth  in  eruption,  and  then 
vast  quantities  of  melted  rock,  or  lava, 
pour  down  the  slopes  toward  the  sea. 

Such  islands,  so  far  away,  might 
<eem  to  be  of  little  value.  Yet  we  have 
many  vessels  that  make  the  long  voyage 
from  our  Western  seaports  to  China, 
Japan,  Australia,  and  the  Philippines. 
They  now  and  then  suffer  serious  acci- 
dents on  the  way,  and  they  also  are 
in  danger  of  getting  out  of  coal  and 
other  supplies.  These  islands  lie  on 
the  route  that  some  of  these  vessels 
take,  about  a  third  of  the  way  between 
the  United  States  and  Asia.  For  these 
reasons   the    Hawaiian    Islands    are    of 


great  importance  to  us  ;  they  serve  as 
a  stopping  place,  where  repairs  can  be 
made,  and  where  coal  and  supplies  can 
be  obtained. 

In  what  zone  do  these  islands  lie  ? 
What  then  is  their  climate?  Many 
years  ago  white  men  intro-  chief  products 
duced  here  the  crops  of  the  and  cities 
Old  World,  and  the  larger  islands  have 
become  quite  productive.  The  princi- 
pal crop  is  sugar  cane  (Fig.  329) ;  but 


Fig.  3;50.  —  The  grass  hut  of  a  native  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands. 


246 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Fig.  331.  —  Five  native  Hawaiian  gir 


coffee,  tropical  fruits,  and  rice  are  also 
raised. 

The  two  leading  cities  are  Honolulu, 
on  the  island  of  Oahu,  and  Hilo,  on 
Hawaii. 

5.   Other  Small  Island  Possessions 

Tutuila,  one  of  the  Samoan  Islands,  together 
with  the  Manua  Group,  is  owned  by  the  United 
States.  It  is  of  little  value  to 
us  except  for  the  coaling  station 
at  the  harbor  of  Pago  Pago.  Apia,  the  chief 
city  in  the  Samoan  Islands,  is  on  the  island 
of  Upola,  which  belongs  to  Germany. 

As  one  of  the  results  of  the  war  with  Spain, 
we  obtained  the  island  of  Guam  (Figs.  107  and 
328),  one  of  the  Ladrones,  or 
Bobbers'  Islands,  some  distance 
east  of  the  Philippines.  Like  Tutuila,  Guam 
is  of  little  service  to  us  except  as  a  coaling 
station  for  vessels. 

Our  country  has  obtained  possession  of  sev- 
eral other  small  islands  in  the  Pacific.  These 
are  MarcMS  Island,  northeast  of 
Guam ;  Wake  Island,  between 
Guam  and  the  Hawaiian  Islands;  Midway  Is- 
lands, northeast  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands ;  and 
two  small  islands,  Baker  and  Rowland,  nearly 
on  the  equator  south  of  the  Midway  Islands. 
None  of  these  is  of  special  importance. 


Guam 


Other  islands 


6.    The  Philippine 

Islands  (Fig.  328) 

The  Philippine  Islands 
(Fig.  107)  were  obtained  also 
as  a  result  of  the  , 

(-,  •    1     A  How  these 

bpanish-Amer-  islands  came 

ican    War.      At  into  our 

x>     J.     ,1  possession 

nrst  they  were 
governed  entirely  by  the 
United  States,  but  now  they 
*  have  their  own  legislature, 
and  partly  govern  them- 
selves. 

Find  these  islands  on  Fig- 
nre   107 ;    also   on    a   globe. 
Name  and  locate  the  larger 
islands    (Fig.    328).      How 
would  you  reach  them  from  San  Fran- 
cisco ?      From   New    York  ?      Through 
what  waters  would  you  pass  ? 


Fig.  332.  —  A  native  Pliilippiue  girl. 


TERRITORIES  AND  DEPENDENCIES  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


24:1 


There  are  more  than  three  thousand 
islands  in  the  group,  or  archipelago, 
Area  and  soine    of   them    being   very 

population  small.  The  largest  two  are 
Luzon,  which  is  nearly  as  large  as 
Pennsylvania,  and  Mindanao,  which  is 
a  little  smaller  than  Luzon.  How  far 
apart  are  they  ?  The  area  of  all  the 
islands  together  is  about  three  times 
that  of  Pennsylvania.  Luzon 
has  more  than  half  as  many 
people  as  Pennsylvania,  and 
all  the  islands  together  have 
about  eight  million  inhabit- 
ants. 

There  is  a  great  mixture 
of  people  in  the  Philippine 
Kinds  of  Islands.        Some 

people  are       Spanish, 

some,  Americans,  and  many 
are  Japanese  and  Chinese ;  but 
most  of  the  inhabitants  are 
natives  (Fig.  332). 

There  are  several  races  among 
the  natives,  many  of  whom  are 
partly  or  wholly  civilized.  Of 
these  the  Tagalogs  are  most  ad- 
vanced, having  learned  the  arts 
of  civilization  from  the  Spaniards. 
A  number  of  small  islands  in  the 
southwestern  part  of  the  main 
group  are  occupied  by  Mohammedans,  called 
Moras.  Among  the  mountainous  parts  of  the 
other  islands,  real  savages  live  in  the  dense 
forests  of  the  interior.  Some  of  these  savages, 
called  Negritos,  or  little  negroes,  are  a  race  of 
very  small,  black  people. 

The  United  States  has  the  difficult  task  of 
governing  and  teaching  these  people  until  they 
become  able  to  govern  themselves.  While  dif- 
ferent languages  are  spoken  by  the  natives, 
Spanish  is  the  most  common  one,  as  in  Cuba 
and  Porto  Rico.  The  use  of  the  English  lan- 
guage, however,  is  rapidly  increasing. 

The  Philippine  Islands  are  the  tops  of 
^  a  mountain  range  rising  out  of  the  sea. 


Much  of  the  surface  is  therefore  moun- 
tainous, some  of  the  peaks  being  vol- 
canoes. There  are,  however,  surface  and 
many  fertile  valleys  and  nar-  climate 
row  plains.  The  climate  is  everywhere 
tropical,  and  in  most  parts  there  is  a 
heavy  rainfall. 

In  many  parts  it  is  so  damp  that  cellars  under 
the  houses  would  be  too  damp  to  be  healthful. 


Fig.  333.  —  A  house  in  the  Philippines,  huilt  of  bamboo  and  covered  with 
thatch.    The  liouse  is  raised  above  tlie  ground  because  of  the  dampness. 


For  this  reason,  the  native  house  is  usually 
raised  above  the  ground,  and  the  family  lives  in 
the  second  story  (Fig.  333).  The  lower  part  is 
often  used  for  storage,  as  a  cellar  is  in  our  country. 

Forests  cover  a  large  part  of  the  archi- 
pelago, in  many  places  forming  tropical 
jungles.  Among  the  valua-  vegetationand 
ble  woods  are  ebony,  the  rub-  animal  life 
ber  tree,  and  a  palm  from  whose  sap 
alcohol  may  be  made.  Cinnamon,  cloves, 
and  pepper  grow  in  these  islands,  and 
cocoanut  and  banana  trees  are  also  very 
common. 


248 


NORTH  AMERICA 


sea.  From  this  nut  an  oil  is 
made  that  is  used  in  lamps,  and 
sometimes  in  the  manufacture 
of  a  substitute  for  lard.  Much 
of  the  dried  meat  of  the  nut, 
called  copra,  is  shipped  to 
Europe  for  use  in  soap  making. 
The  natives  have  domesti- 
cated a  native  wild  animal,  the 
water  buffalo  (Fig.  335),  which 
is  of  great  value  as  a  draft  ani- 
mal. It  is  of  special  service  in 
the  rice  fields,  which  are  kept 
flooded  during  the  growing 
season.  The  buffalo  is  quite  at 
home  in  the  mud,  even  pre- 
ferring wet  walking  to^  dry ; 
and,  in  fact,  it  must  have  a 
daily  plunge  in  the  mud  and 
water. 


Fig.  334.  —  Native  women  of  the  Philippine  Islauds  making  cigars  in  Manila.  o        &         P     *-'^ 

islands,     there     are    many 


As  in  other  tropical  forests,  there  are  im- 
mense numbers  of  animals,  especially  insects, 
serpents,  and  beautiful  birds.  Among  the 
serpents  are  the  huge  python  and  the  deadly 
cobra  de  capello.  There  are  also  deer,  apes, 
wild  hogs,  wild  buffaloes,  huge  bats,  and  man- 
eating  crocodiles. 

Among  the  more  important  products 
are  hemp,  cocoa,  coffee,  sugar,  and  to- 
Principal  bacco,  the  latter  being  man- 
products  ufactured  into  cigars  at 
Manila  (Fig.  334).  Hemp  is  the  best- 
known  export  of  these  islands.  It  is 
made  from  the  fiber  of  the 
wild  plantain,  which  resem- 
bles the  banana  tree.  Hemp 
is  used  for  a  number  of 
purposes,  one  being  for  mak- 
ing rope.  These  islands 
supply  the  world  with  hemp 
for  making  the  better  grade, 
called  Manila  rope. 


cities  having  each  a  popula- 
tion of  more  than  ten  thou- 
sand ;  but  there  is  only  one  of  special 
importance.  This  is  Manila,  on  the 
island  of  Luzon.  This  city,  which  has 
more  than  two  hundred  thousand  inhabit- 
ants, is  situated  upon  an  excellent  har- 
bor, and  is  the  capital  of  the  Philippines. 

Alaska  :    Questions.     1.    How   was   Alaska 
obtained,  and  how  was  the  pur- 
chase at  first  regarded  ?    2.  What   Review  Ques- 
can  you   say   about    agriculture   *io^s  and 
and  lumbering?     3.    State  some    Suggestions 


Great  rafts  of  cocoanuts  are 
shipped  down  the  rivers  to  the 


Fig.  335.  —  Native  Filipino.s  plowing  with  the  huffalo. 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


249 


tacts  about  sealing.  4.  What  other  kinds 
of  fish  are  caught  ?  5.  State  the  principal 
facts  about  mining.  6.  Describe  the  scenery. 
7.   Name  and  locate  the  leading  towns. 

Suggestions.  8.  Learn  more  about  the  fur 
seal.  9.  How  does  the  area  of  Alaska  compare 
with  that  of  the  United  States  proper  ? 
10.  Measure  the  length  of  the  Yukon,  and  com- 
pare it  with  the  Mackenzie.  11.  Draw  an  out- 
line map  of  Alaska. 

Porto  Rico  and  Cuba  :  Questions.  12.  How 
do  these  islands  happen  to  be  under  our 
guidance  ?  13.  What  are  their  areas  and 
principal  surface  features  ?  14.  Describe 
the  climate.  15.  Name  the  farm  products. 
16.  How  are  these  products  of  special  value  to 
the  United  States  ?  17.  What  other  raw 
products  are  found  ?  18.  Name  and  locate  the 
principal  cities. 

Suggestions.  19.  Estimate  the  length  and 
average  breadth  of  Cuba.  20.  What  products 
of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico  are  also  raised  in  the 
United  States  ?  Where  ?  21.  Make  a  sketch 
map  of  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico. 

Panama  Canal  Zone  :  Questions.  22.  Lo- 
cate this  zone.  23.  What  can  you  tell  about 
it  ?  24.  What  advantages  will  be  secured  by 
the  canal  ? 

Suggestions  25.  What  difficulties  are  caused 
by  the  climate  in  the  work  of  digging  the 
canal  ?  26.  Read  magazine  articles  telling 
about  the  work. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  and  Other  Small 
Islands  :  Questions.  27.  Where  are  the 
Hawaiian  Islands  located  ?  28.  How  did  they 
come  into  our  possession  ?     29.    What  can  you 


tell  about  the  volcanoes  ?  30.  Why  are  these 
islands  of  special  value  to  us  ?  31.  What  are 
the  chief  products  ?  32.  Name  and  locate 
the  two  chief  cities.  33.  Name  and  locate 
other  island  possessions.  34.  How  are  they 
important? 

Suggestions.  35.  Why  should  you  expect 
much  the  same  products  in  the  Hawaiian 
Islands  as  in  Cuba  ?  36.  Explain  the  presence 
of  many  Chinese  and  Japanese  in  these  islands. 

The  Philippine  Islands  :  Questions.  37. 
How  were  these  islands  obtained  ?  38.  What 
about  their  area  and  population  ?  39.  State 
some  facts  about  the  people.  40.  Describe 
the  surface  and  climate.  41.  What  about 
vegetation  and  animal  life  ?  42.  What  are  the 
principal  products?  43.  What  about  the 
cities  ? 

Suggestions.  44.  Compare  the  latitude  of 
the  islands  with  that  of  the  West  Indies  and 
of  the  Hawaiian  Islands.  45.  Name  several 
other  places  thus  far  studied  that  have  vol- 
canoes. 46.  Collect  pictures  of  scenes  in  the 
Philippines.  47.  Find  out  about  Dewey's 
capture  of  Manila.  48.  Make  a  sketch  map  of 
the  islands. 

1.  Name  the  principal  dependencies  of  the 
United  States.  2.  Locate  each  on  the  map  of 
the  world  (Fig.  107).  3.  Walk 
toward  each.  4.  Name  the 
principal      products      of     each. 

5.  In  what  zones  does  each  lie  ? 

6.  How  did  we  obtain  each?  7.  Name  and 
locate  the  principal  cities  in  our  dependencies. 
8.  Which  of  our  dependencies  seem  to  you  most 
valuable  ?     Why  ? 


General 
Review 
Questions 


IV.    COUNTRIES   NORTH   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


1.    Canada  and  Newfoundland 


Map  study 


1.  What  parts  of  the  boundary  line  between 
the  United  States  and  Canada  are  natural 
(Fig.  134)?  2.  In  what  zones 
does  Canada  lie  ?  What  can  you 
say  about  its  climate  ?  3.  What  can  you  tell 
from  the  map  about  its  rivers  and  lakes  ? 
About  its  mountains  ?  4.  Into  what  large 
river  do  the  Great  Lakes  empty  ?  5.  What 
Falls  are  in  the  river  between  Lake  Erie  and 


Lake  Ontario  (Fig.  144)  ?  6.  How  must  these 
Falls  hinder  shipping?  7.  Which  one  of  the 
Great  Lakes  lies  wholly  within  the  United 
States  ?  8.  Which  of  our  states  border  on 
Canada?  9.  How  near  are  Detroit  and  Buffalo 
to  Canada  ?  10.  Locate  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence;  Hudson  Bay;  Greenland;  Labra- 
dor; Newfoundland;  Nova  Scotia. 

Canada    is    larger   than    the    United 
States,  even  including  Alaska  ;   yet  its 


250 


NORTH  AMERICA 


population  is  only  about  six  millions,  or 
.  about  the  same  as  that  of 

Area,  popu- 
lation, and        our    single    state    of    Penn- 
government        sylvania. 

Canada  includes  nine  provinces  that 
correspond,  in  a  way,  to  our  states. 
These  are  Nova  Scotia,  New  Brunswick, 
Prince  Edward  Island,  Quebec,  Ontario, 
Manitoba,  Saskatchewan,  Alberta,  and 
British  Columbia.  Locate  each  of  these. 
There  are,  besides,  three  territories. 
What  are  their  names  ?     Together  they 


Surface 
features  of 
southern 
Canada 


Fig.  337. 


-Lake  Louise,  nestled  among  the  snow-capped  mountains  of  western 
Canada,  along  the  line  of  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway. 


form  a  Union,  called  the  Dominion  of 
Canada,  which  is  much  like  our  own 
Union.  The  capital  is  Ottawa,  corre- 
sponding to  our  capital,  Washington. 
Although  Canada  is  a  colony  of  Great 
Britain,  the  people  make  their  own  laws, 
and  are  quite  as  independent  as  we  are. 
Newfoundland  has  refused  to  join 
the  Dominion,  so  that,  while  still  a 
colony  of  Great  Britain,  it  is  not  a  part 
of  Canada.  Newfoundland  includes  not 
only  the  island  by  that  name,  but  also 
the  east  coast  of  Labrador. 


A   large    part    of   Canada    is    really 
waste  land.     The  northern  portion,  in- 
cluding    many    islands    in  ^hy  settled 
the  Arctic  zone,  has  hardly  chiefly  in  the 
any   inhabitants    except    a  southern  part 
few  Eskimos.     Farther  south  there  is  a 
broad  belt  of  forest  (Fig.  343).     This  also 
has  few  inhabitants,  and  these  are  mainly 
hunters  and  Indians.     The  climate  here 
is  severe,  and  much  of  the   soil  is  too 
rocky  and  sterile  for  agriculture. 

The  surface  of  southern  Canada  very 
closely  resembles  that 
of  our 
Northern 
States. 
Eastern 

Canada,  for  instance, 
is  much  like  New 
England.  The  sec- 
tion that  lies  north 
of  Ohio  and  New  York 
is  more  nearly  level, 
like  those  states;  and 
it  is  the  most  impor- 
tant farming  region 
in  the  Dominion. 
Farther  west,  north  of 
Dakota  and  Montana, 
are  broad  plains  (Fig. 
338),  increasing  in  elevation  to  the  very 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains. 

Among  the  Western  mountains  are  many 
canyons,  glaciers,  and  snow-capped  peaks  (Fig. 
337).  The  scenery  of  this  region  is  wonder- 
ful, and  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  passes 
through  the  best  of  it.  A  portion  of  this  won- 
derland has  been  set  aside  as  a  national  park 
by  the  Canadian  government. 

The  climate  of  southern  Canada,  like 
the  surface  features,  corresponds  to 
that  of  our  Northern  States,  though  it 
is  slightly  cooler.     The  climate  of  Nova 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


251 


Scotia,  New  Brunswick,  and  southern 
Quebec,  for  example,  resembles  that  of 
Climate  of  New  England,  while  Ontario 
Southern  has  a  climate  similar  to  that 

Canada  ^f    ^^^    York,    Ohio,   and 

Michigan.  Farther  west,  in  Manitoba, 
we  find  nearly  the  same  climate  as  in  Min- 
nesota and  North  Dakota ;  and  west  of 
this,  in  Saskatchewan  and  Alberta,  come 
the  arid  lands.     In  British  Columbia,  on 


example,  the  warm,  damp  ocean  winds 
favor     the     production     o^  *    •    , 
wheat  and  the  hardy  fruits  i    wheat  and 
in  British  Columbia  as  well  ^"^y  ^^^'^^ 
as  in  Washington  (p.  206). 

Farther   east,  on   the   plains   at   the 
base  of  the  Rocky  Mountains,  the  cli- 
mate is  too  arid  for  farming.  2.  Ranching  in 
Here,     therefore,     ranching  the  and  lands 
is  the  principal  industry,  as  in  Montana 


Fig.  338.  —  Fields  of  wheat,  some  cut,  some  uncut,  on  the  level,  fertile  j)lains  of  southern  Manitoha. 


the  west  coast,  there  is  heavy  rainfall 
and  an  even  temperature,  as  in  Wash- 
ington. 

The  Labrador  current,  which  so  cools  the 
temperature  of  New  England  (p.  115),  sweeps 
from  the  Arctic  Ocean  past  Labrador  and 
greatly  chills  the  coast  of  that  region,  as  well 
as  Newfoundland  and  Kova  Scotia.  There  is 
no  such  ice-laden  current  in  the  Pacific,  and 
for  that  reason  the  climate  is  far  warmer  there. 
Notice,  for  instance,  how  much  farther  north 
Vancouver  and  Juneau  are  than  any  city  in 
eastern  Canada. 

The  facts  that  were  given  about  farm- 
ing and  grazing  in  our  Northern  States 
are  almost  equally  true  of  the  country 
that  lies  north  of  them  in  Canada.     For 


and  western  Dakota  (pp.  182  and  214). 
Immense  herds  of  sheep  and  cattle  are 
reared  on  these  plains.  There  are  sev- 
eral towns  here,  the  largest  of  which  is 
Calgary. 

In  central  Saskatchewan  the  climate 
begins  to  be  more  favorable  for  agricul- 
ture, and  there,  as  well  as  in 
Manitoba,    enormous    quan-  grain  re Jon**^^* 
tities  of   wheat  are    raised,  audits 
This   wheat  belt   is    a    con- 
tinuation of   that   found    in   Minnesota 
and  eastern  Dakota.    Although  the  win- 
ters are  long  and  cold,  the  summers  are 
warm,  so  that  the  hardy  grains,  especially 
wheat  (Fig.  338),  oats,  and  barley,  thrive. 


252 


NORTH  AMERICA 


In  the  midst  of  this  wheat  region  is 
Winnipeg,  situated  on  the  banks  of  the 
Red  River  of  the  North,  which  empties 
into  Lake  Winnipeg.  Find  out,  from 
the  map  (Fig.  336),  what  other  large 
river  is  tributary  to  this  lake ;  also  the 
name  of  the  outlet  of  the  lake. 

The  country  north  of  Lake  Superior 
is  hilly  and  for  the  most  part  forest- 
covered,  being  quite  like  noi'thern  Minne- 


even  tobacco  are  raised ;  also  quantities 
of  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  flax.  Some 
of  the  finest  horses  in  America  are  reared 
in  Ontario,  and  the  province  is  further 
noted  as  a  dairy  region. 

There  is  a  strip  of  excellent  farming 
country  along  the  St.  Law-  ,    ^     .    . 

•^  ,  ~  5.    Farming  in 

rence  River  and  the  southern  southeastern 
shores   of   the    Gulf  of  St.  ^^"^"^^ 
Lawrence.      Show    these    sections    (1  ig. 


Fig.  3139.  —  Farmers  at  work  in  tlie  fertile  wlieat  fields  of  western  Canada,  near  Winnipe<j. 


sota  and  Michigan.     There  is,  therefore, 
little  agriculture  .here. 

Farther   east,   on   the    peninsula   be- 
tween Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario  on  the 
east,   and    Lakes    St.   Clair 

4.     The  most  j     tt  x1_  j.      • 

populous  farm-    and  Hurou  on  the  west,  is 
ing  section,  and   some  of  the  best  farm  land 

its  products  •       /-,  j  rri  • 

m  Canada,  ihis  region  is 
in  the  province  of  Ontario,  which  is  the 
most  densely  settled  of  the  Canadian 
provinces,  containing  nearly  half  of  all 
the  people  in  Canada.  What  large  cities 
do  you  find  here  ?  More  than  two  thirds 
of  the  inhabitants  of  Ontario,  however, 
dwell  either  on  farms  or'  in  small  towns 
in  the  farming  districts. 

This  section  is  no  farther  north  than 
central  and  western  New  York,  and  its 
climate  is  greatly  influenced  by  the  Great 
Lakes.     Here  grapes,  peaches,  corn,  and 


336).  Prince  Edward  Island  has  many 
fine  farms,  and  portions  of  Nova  Scotia 
and  New  Brunswick  also  are  farming 
districts.  One  of  the  best  and  most  beau- 
tiful farming  regions  in  all  Canada,  noted 
especially  for  delicious  apples,  is  in  south- 
western Nova  Scotia.  Here  the  French 
settlements  were  made,  about  which 
Longfellow  has  written  in  his  "  Evange- 
line "  ;  and  this  region  is  often  called 
"  The  Land  of  Evangeline." 

Western  Canada,  like  western  United 
States,  is  a  noted  mining  region.    Among 
the  minerals,  gold  and   sil- 
ver are  especially  important,  i /°^n  British 
though  lead  and  copper  ores,  Columbia  and 

,      . ,  1 .  .  1  1    Yukon  Territory 

building    stone,    coal,    and 
other    mineral    products    are    also    ob- 
tained.     Valuable  deposits  of   coal  are 
found  both  among  the  mountains   and 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


253 


ill  the  plains  farther  east.  You  have  al- 
ready learned  that  the  famous  Klondike 
region  is  situated  in  Yukon  Territory, 
near  the  Alaskan  boundary.  Although 
so  near  the  Arctic  Circle,  Dawson  City, 
in  the  Klondike,  has  grown  rapidly 
because  of  the  gold  mining. 

Gold  and  silver  are  foimd  in 
the  province  of  Ontario,  in  the 
o    T  «  .  .      vicinity  of  the  Lake 

2.     In  Ontario  -^ 

and  southeast-       01    the  Woods.       One 

em  Canada  ^^  ^j^^  ^^^^  remark- 
able silver  deposits  on  the  conti- 
nent has  recently  been  discovered 
at  Cobalt,  north  of  Lake  Ontario. 
Nickel  is  also  mined  in  Ontario, 
and  some  oil  fields  have  been 
developed. 

Although  iron  ore  has  been 
discovered  in  certain  places,  the 
scarcity  of  coal,  near  at  hand,  has 
prevented  Canada  from  produc- 
ing much  iron.  The  coal  of 
western  Canada  is  too  distant  for 
use  in  the  Eastern  cities,  and  the 
coal  beds  of  the  East  have  never 
been  thoroughly  developed. 

In  Nova  Scotia,  and  on  Cape 
Breton  Island,  which  is  a  part  of 
Nova  Scotia,  there  are  extensive 
beds  of  soft  coal,  like  that  of 
western  Pennsylvania  and  the  Central 
States.  This  coal  is  shipped  to  the  cities 
of  the  St.  Lawrence  Valley.  An  im- 
portant iron-manufacturing  industry  has 
developed  at  Sydney,  Cape  Breton 
Island.  This  has  increased  the  value 
of  the  Nova  Scotia  coal. 

The  forests  that  cover  northern -New 
England    extend    into    the 
hilly  and  mountainous  sec- 
tion of  New  Brunswick  and 
southern   Quebec   (Fig.  343\     In  fact, 


from  there  westward  to  the  Pacific 
this  wooded  tract,  sweeping  northward 
around  the  vast  plains  of  Manitoba,  is 
from  two  to  three  hundred  miles  wide. 
This  forest,  which  is  one  of  the  largest 


^^^^^^^,..^^„.^.^....^^^^^^ 

^^^^^^^Hlk  '                    B^Bi^fl 

^^^^^B  I^I^^^^^^^^^SaL^ 

..,m 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^K        -^B 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B^^^^H 

Lumbering 
1 .    Extent  of 
the  forests 


Fig.  340.  —  One  of  the  large  trees  in  the  forest  of  western  Canada. 
The  boy  sitting  on  the  trunk  gives  a  scale  by  which  you  can 
judge  the  size  of  the  tree. 


in  the  world,  includes  fully  a  million 
square  miles,  or  more  than  a  fourth  of 
the  entire  area  of  Canada. 

In  the  east,  the  principal  trees  are  spruce, 
balsam  fir,  pine,  and  maple ;  in  the  west  they 
are  spruce,  mammoth  cedar,  sometimes  sixty 
feet  in  circumference,  and  Douglas  fir,  which 
in  some  cases  grow  to  a  height  of  two  hundred 
feet  (Fig.  340).  Most  of  this  vast  forest  is  a 
wilderness,  about  which  very  little  is  known. 
Wild  animals  (Fig.  341)  still  live  here  in  great 
numbers,  and  there  are  few  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent where  the  hunting  for  large  game  is  so 


M  O  O  S  E 


HEDGEHOC- 


FiG.  ;!41.  _  Some  of  the  animals  of  uortheasteru  Uuited  States  aud  southeastern  Canada. 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


255 


)d.  Among  the  animals  are  the  deer,  moose, 
sar,  fox,  wolf,  wild  cat,  beaver,  and  mink, 
irs  are  one  of  the  principal  products  of  the 
6gion.  From  very  early  days  the  Hudson  Bay 
lompany  has  had  trading  stations  in  this  wil- 
3rness  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the  furs 
rom  Indians  and  other  hunters  and  trappers. 

Lumbering  is  carried  oi;i  in  much  the 
.     same  manner  as  in  the  north- 

2.     Method  of  c    i       tt    •       i  o      j. 

lumbering,  and  em  part  01  the  United  Dtates 
lumber  centers  (pp.  ng  and  220).  In  the 
east  the  principal  river  down  which  the 
logs  are  floated  to  the  sea  is  the  St.  John. 
Upon  this  river  are  Frederictost,  the 
capital  of  New  Brunswick,  and  St. 
JoHisr,  the  largest  city  in  that  province. 
In  these  two  cities  the  logs  are  made 


Fig.  o13.  —  Lumbermen  chopping  down  a  tree  in  the 
forest  of  eastern  Canada.  Note  how  much 
smaller  this  tree  is  than  that  in  Fig.  340. 

into  either  wood  pulp  or  lumber.  Im- 
mense quantities  of  both  these  products 
are  shipped  from  the  seaport  of  St.  John. 


The  woods  of  Canada  are  at  present 
one  of  its  greatest  sources  of  wealth ; 
indeed,  there  are  hundreds  of  sawmills 


Fia.  342.  —  A  moose  in  the  Wuods  ol  <  aiiachi. 

at  the  rapids  on  the  streams,  and  even 
in  the  large  cities.  Among  the  latter, 
Ottawa,  Toronto,  and  Montreal  are 
important,  especially  in  the  manufacture 
of  lumber  into  such  articles  as  doors, 
sash,  blinds,  barrels,  and  furniture. 

It  was  the  excellent    fishing  on  the 
shallow  banks  off  the  eastern  coast  of 
Canada  that  early  attracted  p^g^j^ 
the  French  to  America,  and  i.   catching 
fishing  is  still  a  flourishing  of  food  fish 
industry  along  that  coast.     The  French 
still  own   two  small  islands   there,   St. 
Pierre    and   Miquelon,    to    which    their 
fishing  vessels  go. 

Fully  fifty  thousand  people  in  New- 
foundland and  the  eastern  provinces, 
especially  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Ed- 
ward Island,  are  engaged  in  cod  fishing. 
One  of  the  best-known  fishing  ports  is 
Yarmouth,  in  Nova  Scotia,  although  a 


256 


NORTH  AMERICA 


great  deal  of  fishing  is  carried  on  from 
Halifax,  and  smaller  places  in  Nova 
Scotia.  St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  is 
another  important  fishing  port. 


Fig.  344.  —  Photograph  of  a  .sahnoii  leaping  up  over  a 
waterfall  in  a  stream  on  the  coast  of  Labrador.  This 
fall  is  over  ten  feet  high  and  yet  the  salmon  are  able 
to  leap  up  over  it. 

There  is  also  mnch  inland  fishing,  for 
the  streams  and  lakes  still  abound  in 
trout,  pickerel,  whitefish,  bass,  and 
salmon  (Fig.  344).  Every  year  large 
numbers  of  men  go  from  Canada  and 
the  United  States  to  enjoy  the  sport  of 
fishing  in  the  Canadian  lakes  and 
streams.  In  addition  there 
is  much  fishing  on  the  west 
coast,  especially  for  salmon. 

It  is  interesting  to  watch  the 
sahnon  as  they  run  up  the 
streams  to  spawn.  At  times, 
in  order  to  get  beyond  water- 
falls, they  must  leap  several 
feet  into  the  air  (Fig.  344). 
Often  they  fail,  but,  returning 
to  the  task,  they  try  again  and 
again  until  successful.  When 
the  young  have  reached  the 
proper  size,  they  go  downstream 
to  the  ocean,  where  they  live 
until  they  are  ready  to  spawn.  It  is  believed 
that  they  always  go  back  to  the  river  in  which 
they  were  born. 

While  traveling  up  the  streams,  the  salmon 
are  easily  caught  in  nets  set  across  the  current, 


or  by  dip  nets  in  the  hands  of  fishermen,  or 
sometimes  by  salmon  wheels.  Immense  num- 
bers of  salmon  are  canned  in  western  Canada 
(Fig.  345),  as  in  Washington  and  Alaska. 

We  have  already  learned  (p.  239)  about  the 
seal  fishing  in  Alaska.  Seals  are  also  found 
on  the  eastern  shores  of  Canada,  n  c  y 
but  their  fur  is  of  little  value. 
There  is,  however,  a  layer  of  fat,  or  blubbei'. 
just  beneath  the  skin,  as  in  the  whale.  This 
can  be  made  into  oil,  and  it  is  mainly  for  the 
blubber  that  these  Eastern  seals  are  caught, 
though  the  skins  are  used  also  for  making 
leather.  Vessels  go  out  from  St.  John's, 
Newfoundland,  every  spring  to  hunt  the  seals 
in  the  ice  that  floats  down  in  the  Labrador 
current  (Fig.  346).  Vessels  go  from  this  port 
also  to  catch  the  huge  whales  that  live  in  the 
Arctic  waters. 

There  appear  to   be   two  outlets  by 
water  for  central  Canada,  —  one  by  way 
of  the  St.  Lawrence,  the  other  Transpor- 
by  way  of  Hudson  Bay.    The  tation 
latter  is  of  little  use,  however.     Perhaps 
you  can  explain  why. 

Canada  shares  with  the  United  States 
the  advantages  of  navigation  on  all  the 
Great  Lakes,  with  one  exception.  Which 
is  it  ?     Fortunatelv  for  Canada,  the  lower 


Fiu.  ;545.  —  Salmon  in  a  salmon  cannery,  just  brought  from  the  water. 

St.  Lawrence  lies  wholly  within  that 
country.  But  this  river  has  some  serious 
drawbacks.  One  is  the  ice  that  stops 
navigation  in  winter.     A  second  is  the 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


257 


presence  of  numerous 
rapids  over  which 
vessels  cannot  pass  in 
going  upstream  (Fig. 
348).  In  addition, 
dense  fogs  are  com- 
mon in  the  Gulf  of  St. 
Lawrence  and  along 
the  Newfoundland 
coast,  where  the  air 
from  the  ocean  is 
chilled  in  passing  over 
the  cold  Labrador  cur- 
rent. Ship  canals 
have  been  built  around 
the  rapids  and  falls  (Fig.  347),  so  that 
good-sized  boats  are  able  to  go  from  the 
open  ocean  to  the  western  part  of  Lake 
Superior,  a  distance  of  twenty-two  hun- 
dred miles.  This  gives  the  Canadian 
route  a  great  advantage  over  the  Erie 
Canal  route,  upon  which  only  small  canal 
boats  can  go.  The  new  barge  canal,  now 
under  construction,  is  expected  greatly  to 
increase  the  value  of  the  Erie  Canal  route. 


Fig.  S46.  —  Seal  luiulers  killing  seal  on  the  lioe  ice  iu  the  Lubrador  curreut 
north  of  Newfoundland. 


There  are  several  other  large  rivers  in 
Canada  besides  the  St.  Lawrence  River. 
Name  some  of  them,  and  tell  why  most 
of  them  are  of  little  value. 

Railways  are  of  great  importance  in 
Canada,  as  in  the  United  States.  The 
leading  railway  is  the  Canadian  Pacific, 
which  extends  from  St.  John,  New 
Brunswick,  entirely  across  Canada,  to 
Vancouver,  on  the  Pacific  coast.     It 


Fig.  347.  —  The  Wellaiid  Canal,  between  Lakes  Erie  and  Ontario.     At  this  point  there  are  two  locks  in  the  canal. 


258 


NORTH  AMERICA 


is  the  shortest  route  from  England  to 
China  and  Japan,  and  much  freight  is 
sent  that  way.  Another  important  line 
is  the  Grand  Trunk  Railway. 

Montreal  (Fig.   349),  the  principal 
city  in  Canada,  is  on  the  St.  Leading  cities 
Lawrence  River  (Fig.  350),  i.  Along  the 
at  the  mouth  of  the  Ottawa  an^  Ottawa* 
River,  and   just  below  the  Risers 
Lachine  Rapids  (Fig.  348).    Thus  goods 


with  the  interior  of  Canada,  by  water 
and  by  rail,  Montreal  has  advantages 
similar  to  those  of  New  York  ;  but  since 
it  has  a  less  fertile  territory  to  draw 
upon,  it  has  grown  far  less  rapidly  than 
New  York  City. 

As  in  the  large  cities  of  the  United 
States,  there  are  many  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing in  Montreal,  including  the 
making  of  sugar,  boots  and  shoes,  cotton 


. — f^S 

*C2I!*?*I 

> 

S^tKffT~^^^wSfl^BSt^^^^^^l^^^B^^^^^^^^^^ 

'■,} 

**?K*»-^ 

Copyright,  I'JOfi,  by  Wm.  Notiniin  &  Son,  Montreal. 

Fig.  348.  —  A  steamer  going  down  the  Lachine  Rapids  just  above  Montreal.    It  must  take  the  canal  around  these 

rapids  in  going  upstream. 


from  Europe  may  be  carried  by  ocean 
vessel  to  Montreal,  folly  a  thousand  miles 
inland ;  thence,  by  other  ships,  they  may 
be  taken  on  canals,  rivers,  and  lakes  as 
far  as  Duluth.  By  this  means,  and  by 
railways  also,  raw  products  from  the 
North,  the  East,  the  South,  and  the  West 
are  brought  to  Montreal,  either  to  be 
manufactured,  or  to  be  shipped  farther. 
Because    of    its    extensive    connections 


and  woolen  clothing.  India-rubber  goods, 
furniture  and  other  articles  of  wood, 
various  steel  and  iron  products,  and 
cigars. 

Farther  down  the  river  is  QuEBiiic, 
which  was  once  the  center  of  the  French 
government  in  Canada,  and  the  principal 
city.  It  is  situated  on  a  high  bluff  ris- 
ing above  the  St.  Lawrence,  and  is  for- 
tified so  as  to  command  that  river.     The 


COXiNTEIES  N6UTB.    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


259 


Fig.  349.  —  Map  to  show  the  location  of  Montreal,  Ottawa,  and  Quebec. 


Fig.  350.  —  A  view  of  Montreal  from  the  hill,  called  Mount  Royal,  which  rises  directly  behind  the  city.     In  the  distance 
is  the  broad  St.  Lawrence.     Notice  the  long  bridge  crossing  it. 


260 


NORTH  AMERICA 


better  location  of  Montreal,  farther  in- 
land, has  drawn  the  commerce  away 
from  Quebec.  The  advantage  of  Mon- 
treal's situation  has  been  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  building  of  ship  canals 
around  the  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence ; 
also  by  the  dredging  of  the  river,  deepen- 
ing the  channel  so  as  to  allow  ocean 
vessels  to  reach  the  city. 

Quebec  is  one  of  the  quaintest  and 
most  interesting  cities  on  the  continent. 
It  resembles  a  bit  of  the  Old  World, 
transplanted  to   America,  and  a  visitor 


2.    Along  the 
Atlantic  coast 


What  Canadian  cities  on  the  Atlantic  coast 
have  already  been  mentioned,  and  in  what  con- 
nections ?  One  of  these,  Hali- 
fax, in  Nova  Scotia,  is  one  of 
the  oldest  cities  in  Canada. 
Although  it  has  an  excellent  harbor,  Halifax  lias 
never  become  a  great  city.  The  reason 
is  easily  seen  on  examining  the  map  (Fig. 
336).  The  narrow  peninsula  of  Nova 
Scotia  is  not  large  enough  to  supply  raw 
materials  and  manufactured  articles  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  make  it  a  great  shipping  point,  and 
the  country  farther  west  is  too  difficult  to 
reach.  It  is  much  cheaper  to  send  Western 
goods  to  Montreal  for  shipment  eastward, 
than  to  carry  them  by  rail  as  far  as  Halifax. 


Fig.  351.  —The  Parliament  Buildings  at  Ottawa. 


from  the  United  States  feels  that  he  is 
indeed  in  a  foreign  country.  There  is 
some  manufacturing  there,  such  as  the 
making  of  boots  and  shoes. 

Ottawa  (Fig.  349),  the  capital  of  the 
Dominion,  is  above  Montreal,  at  a  large 
fall  in  the  Ottawa  River.  Because  of 
the  fine  water  power,  the  city  has  much 
manufacturing ;  it  is  especially  noted  for 
lumber  manufactories.  It  has  beautiful 
government  buildings,  known  as  the 
Parliament  Buildings  (Fig.  351). 


Toronto,   the  second  city  in  size  in 
Canada,  is  located  on  an  excellent  har- 
bor on  the  shores  of   Lake  3.  Along  the 
Ontario.      Being      in     the  Great  Lakes 
midst  of  a  fertile  farming  country,  and 
having  water  connection  with  coal  on 
the  east  and  south,  and  with  lumber  aud^ 
other  raw  products  on  the  west,  Toront^ 
has      become    a    great    manufacturinj 
center.     At  the  same  time  it  is  one  oj 
the  most  attractive  cities  on  the  conti 
nent. 


COUNTRIES  NORTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


261 


4.    Other  cities 


N"ot  far  from  Toronto,  on  the  extreme  west- 
end  of  Lake  Ontario,  is  Hamilton,  a  manu- 
3turing  and  trade  center;  there  are  also  other 
ties  on  the  same  peninsula,  the  largest  being 
mnoN.  At  the  eastern  end  of  Lake  Ontario, 
lear  the  Thousand  Islands,  is  Kingston,  which 
las  cotton  and  woolen  mills,  car  shops,  and 
locomotive  works,  besides  being  a  lake  port 
a  railway  center.  Windsor  (Fig.  336), 
[opposite  Detroit,  shares  some  of  the  advau- 
Itages  of  that  city,  being  a  shipping  point 
land  a  manufacturing  center.  Pokt  Arthur, 
whose  location  corresponds  to  that  of  Duluth 
in  the  United  States,  is  a  shipping  point 
[for  grain,  cattle,  and  other  Western  products. 

What  have  you  already  learned 
about  Winnipeg  ?  Vancouver, 
on  the  Pacific  coast, 
has  already  been 
mentioned.  In  what  connection  ? 
Across  the  strait  on  the  Island 
of  Vancouver  is  the  city  of  Vic- 
toria. How  do  these  two  cities 
compare  in  size  with  the  largest 
two  on  Puget  Sound  ?  (See  Ap- 
pendix.) 

2.   Greenland  (Fig.  336) 

The  Eskimos  (Fig.  352)  living 
on  the  west  coast  of  Greenland 
are  under  the  control  of  the 
Danes,  who  trade  with  them  for 
skins,  walrus  ivory,  blubber,  and 
eider  down.  The  most  northern  of  the  Danish 
trading  stations  is  Upernivik,  which  is  the 
most  northern  point  in  the  world  where  white 
men  live.  Some  uncivilized  Eskimos,  however, 
have  homes  still  farther  north. 

Most  of  Greenland  is  a  barren  waste  of  ice 
and  snow  —  one  of  the  most  complete  desert 
lands  in  the  world.  There  is  no  living  thing  to 
be  found  in  the  ice-covered  interior. 

1.   Give  some  facts  about  the  area  of  Canada. 
The  population.  The  government.  2.  How  many 
provinces  are  there   in   Canada, 
and     what    are    their     names  ? 


products  in  the  West  ?  8.  State  the  principal 
facts  about  ranching,  9.  Where  is  the  prin- 
cipal grain  region,  and  what  is  the  leading  city 
there  ?  10.  Where  is  the  most  populous  farm- 
ing    section,    and    what     are    its    products  ? 

11.  What  about  farming  in  southeastern  Canada? 

12.  What  can  you  tell  about  raining  in  British 
Columbia  and  Yukon  Territory?  13.  What 
mineral  products  are  found  in  Ontario  and 
southeastern  Canada?  14.  Where  are  the 
forests  ?  15.  What  is  the  method  of 
lumbering,  and  what  are  the  leading  lumber 
centers  ?  16.  Where  are  food  fish  caught  ? 
What  kinds  are  caught  ?  17.  What  about  the 
sealing?     18.  What  are  the  conveniences  for 


Fig.  352.  -AG 
are  icebergs 


Review 
Questions 


3. 


What  can  you  tell  about 
Newfoundland  ?  4.  Why  is  Canada  settled 
chiefly  in  the  southern  part  ?  5.  Show  how 
fully  the  surface  features  of  southern  Canada 
correspond  to  those  of  our  Northern  States. 
6.  Describe  the  climate.     7.  What  are  the  farm 


reeiilaiid  Eskimo  in  liis  skiu-boat,  or  kayak.     In  the  distance 
which  have  broken  off  from  the  great  Greenland  glacier. 

transportation  ?  19.  Locate  and  tell  the  prin- 
cipal facts  about  the  leading  cities  along  the  St. 
Lawrence  and  Ottawa  rivers.  20.  Along  the 
Atlantic  coast.  21.  Along  the  Great  Lakes. 
22.  Locate  and  tell  about  other  cities  of  im- 
portance. 23.  What  facts  can  you  state  about 
Greenland  ? 

1.  Compare  the  area  of  Canada  with  that  of 
the  United  States  (see  Appendix).  2.  Com- 
pare the  populations  (see  Ap- 
pendix). 3.  Read  the  story  of 
"Evangeline."  4.  Lake  Erie  is  how  much 
higher  than  Lake  Ontario?  How  are  ships 
able  to  pass  from  one  lake  to  the  other  ? 
5.  Why  should  Buffalo  grow  more  rapidly  than 
Toronto  ?  6.  Of  what  advantage  is  it  to  the 
United  Kingdom  to  have  such  a  large,  produc- 
tive colony  as  Canada  ?  7.  What  books  on 
Arctic  travel  have  you  read  ?     Tell  some  of  the 


Suggestions 


Fig.  353.  —  Some  of  the  birds  and  four-footed  animals  of  the  Far  North. 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


263 


things  you  have  learned  from  them.  8.  Read 
Nansen's  '*  First  Crossing  of  Greenland "  or 
Peary's    "Northward    over    the    Great    Ice." 


9.  Recall  facts  that  you  have  already  learned 
about  the  Eskimo:  how  they  live,  what  they 
eat,  etc.  (pp.  5-7). 


V.    COUNTRIES   SOUTH   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


Map  study 


Mexico.  1.  Describe  the  relief  of  Mexico. 
2.  In  what  zones  does  it  lie  ?  3.  Name  the 
two  large  peninsulas.  4.  What 
river  forms  a  part  of  the  northern 
boundary  ?  5.  What  salt  waters  border  Mex- 
ico? 6.  Find  the  capital.  7.  Find  the  largest 
seaport.  8.  Compare  the  coast  line  with  that 
of  the  northeastern  part  of  the  United  States. 

Central  America.  9.  Name  the  countries. 
10.  What  sea  lies  to  the  east  ?  11.  What  large 
lake  do  you  find  ?  12.  Examine  the  small  map 
of  the  Panama  Canal.  Describe  the  rovite  pro- 
posed. 13.  Name  the  two  cities  at  the  two  ends 
of  the  canal. 

West  Indies  (Fig.  322).  14.  Find  the  Baha- 
mas ;  the  Lesser  Antilles  ;  the  Greater  Antilles. 
15.  Name  the  four  largest  islands  in  the  West 
Indies.  16.  In  what  zone  do  the  West  Indies 
lie  ?  17.  What  waters  bathe  the  shores  of  the 
West  Indies?  18.  What  nation  owns  the 
Bahamas  ?  19.  What  other  nations  have  pos- 
sessions in  the  West  Indies  ?  20.  Locate  the 
Bermuda  Islands  on  the  map,  Figure  134. 

1.    Mexico  (Fig.  354) 

Mexico  is  about  one  fourth  as  large 
A..       ««„        s-s  the    United    States,   and 

Area,  popu-  _     •' 

lation,  and  has  nearly  one  sixth  as 
government      many  inhabitants. 

After  Columbus  discovered  the  West 
Indies,  the  neighboring  coast  of  the 
mainland  was  visited  and  settled.  Thus 
the  Spaniards  came  into  possession  of 
Mexico  as  well  as  some  of  the  country 
to  the  north  which  now  belongs  to  the 
United  States. 

The  explorers  found  so  much  gold 
and  silver  in  Mexico  that  many  Span- 
iards settled  there.  They  opened  mines, 
and  started  coffee  plantations,  farms, 
and    cattle    ranches.     Besides   the    de- 


scendants of  these  Spaniards  there  are 
many  Indians  and  half-breeds  in  this 
country. 

Mexico  was  for  a  long  time  a  Spanish 
colony,  but  Spain  governed  the  country 
so  badly  that  the  people  finally  rebelled, 
and  in  1821,  won  their  independence. 
Ever  since  that  time  Mexico  has  been  a 
republic,  with  the  capital  at  Mexico 
City,  where  the  president  lives. 

The  Tropic  of  Cancer  crosses  Mexico 
north  of  its  central  part,  showing  that 
a  large  portion  of  the  coun-  „^^         ^   , 

P    .^  .      .  Why  much  of 

try  IS  m  the  tropical  zone,  the  country 
Yet  Mexico  has  a  much  hasnotatrop- 
cooler  climate  than  this  fact 
suggests.  The  reason  is  that  much  of 
the  country  is  very  high  land ;  and,  as 
you  have  learned  (p.  25),  the  climate  is 
cooler  on  such  high  land. 

The  Cordillera  of  western  United 
States  extend  into  Mexico,  and  there 
are  broad  plateaus,  in  many  places  more 
than  a  mile  in  height,  crossed  by  moun- 
tain ranges  which  rise  another  mile,  or 
more.  Several  of  the  loftiest  peaks  are 
volcanoes,  made  of  lava  (Fig.  355);  and 
some  of  the  peaks  are  so  high  that  they 
are  always  covered  with  snow,  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  they  lie  in  the  torrid 
zone.  From  these  facts  it  is  plain  that 
the  climate  of  Mexico  is  tropical  only 
on  the  lowlands  near  the  coast. 

There    is    heavy   rainfall    along    the 
eastern    coast,    and    in   the  xhe  wet  and 
southern  part.     In  the  cen-  ^^^  dry  parts 
tral    and   western   parts,  on   the  other 


264 


NORTH  AMERICA 


hand,  the  country  is  drier,  and  in  places 
even  a  desert.  This  is  an  extension  of 
the  arid  belt  of  western  United  States. 


Fig.  355.  —  Colima,  one  of  the  Mexican  volcanoes,  in 
eruption.  Tlie  column  of  steam  and  ashes  is  two 
or  three  miles  high.  The  white  patch  on  the  side 
of  the  mountain  is  a  lava  flow. 

In  the  greater  part  of  Mexico  forests 

are  rare,  except  upon  the  higher  moun- 

^    ^    ^  ,        tains.     In  fact,  there  is  so 

Products  from   ,.     ,       » 

forest  trees         httle    torest    On 

and  other         the  arid  plateau 

native  plants       ,  i       ,       ,  i 

that  the  in- 
habitants find  difficulty  in 
obtaining  wood  for  fuel. 
Some  they  dig  from  the 
ground ;  for  some  of  the 
arid-land  bushes,  such  as 
the  mesquite,  have  long, 
thick  roots  which  make  ex- 
cellent firewood. 

In  southern  Mexico  and 
on  the  damp  lowlands,  on 
the  other   hand,  there  .  are 


dense  tropical  forests.  In  these  are 
found  many  valuable  woods,  such  as 
mahogany,  rosewood,  and  logwood. 
The  rubber  tree  also  grows  here, 
and  large  quantities  of  rubber  are 
produced. 

One  of  the  most  valuable  of  the  native  plants 
is  the  heniquen,  a  variety  of  hen)p,  wliich  thrives 
in  Yucatan.  This  and  other  fibers  rank  next 
in  value  to  mineral  products,  among  the  exports 
of  Mexico.  Most  of  the  fiber  goes  to  the  United 
States. 

Another  product  is  the  vanilla  bean,  which 
grows  upon  a  climbing  plant.  In  the  seed-pod 
are  nestled  the  fragrant  beans  which  are  used 
for  making  flavoring  extracts,  for  perfumeries, 
and  for  medicine.  Pepper,  made  from  the  dried 
berry  of  a  tropical  plant,  indigo,  extracted  from 
a  berry,  and  sarsaparilla,  from  the  roots  of  a 
tropical  plant,  are  all  Mexican  products. 

Although  the  climate  of  a  large  part  of 
Mexico  is  arid,  still  agriculture  is  the  prin- 
cipal industry.  On  the  arid 
plains  and  plateaus  there  is 
much  farming  by  irrigation. 
Here  products  of  the  tem- 
perate zone  are  raised,  such 
as  wheat,  corn,  potatoes,  and  beans. 
Much  fruit  also  is  produced,  especially 
apples,  pears,  peaches,  and  grapes. 


Agriculture 

1.    On  the 
arid  plains 

(1)  Products 
by  irrigation 


Fig.  356.  — A  view  in  the  tropical  lowlands  of  Mexico  near  the  coast,  called 
the  "  hot  lands."    The  road  is  bordered  by  banana  trees. 


COUNTRIES   SOUTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


265 


A  species  of  native  arid-land 
j)lant,  called  agave,  or  century 
])lant,  is  of  great  value.  From 
tlie  juice  of  the  agave  the  Mex- 
icans obtain  an  alcoholic  drink 
known  as  pulque,  and  another 
known  as  mescal.  The  tough 
leaves  of  some  varieties  of  agave 
contain  a  fiber  which  is  made 
into  paper  and  a  strong  thread; 
and  from  the  juices  of  one  kind, 
called  the  maguey,  soap  may 
\w  made.  So  valuable  is  the 
maguey  that  it  is  carefully  culti- 
vated upon  plantations. 

The  Mexican  farming  methods 
are  generally  very  crude,  being 
a  mixture  of  an- 
cient Aztec  cus- 
toms and  those 
introduced    from 


(2)  Farming 
iiii'thod.i;   and 
Iioiiie  life 


Spain  several 
centuries  ago.  One  may  still  see  the  wooden 
jilow  which  barely  scrapes  the  ground;  and 
also  tlie  wooden-wheeled  cart  drawn  by  oxen. 


iFiQ.  358.  —  A  Mexican  burro  carrying  heavy  sacks. 


Fig.  357.  —  Interior  of  a  Mexican  adobe  house. 

There  are,  however,  many  farmers  who  have 
adopted  the  same  methods  of  farming  that  we 
have  ;  and  every  year  their  number  is  increas- 
ing, for  Mexico  is  now  advancing  rapidly. 

The  home  life  of  the  country  people  is  inter- 
esting. Their  houses  have  but  one  story,  and 
are  commonly  built  of  sun-dried  bricks,  or  adobes 
(Fig.  360),  held  together  by  layers  of  mud. 
Often  there  is  but  one  room  (Fig.  357),  the 
ceiling  being  made  of  brush,  and  the  floor  of 
nothing  but  earth  or  stones.  In  this  one  room 
the  whole  family  cook,  eat,  and  sleep.  Their 
food  consists  of  very  simple  materials,  such  as 
unraised  bread,  baked  in  the  fireplace,  beans, 
and  sometimes  meat,  commonly  cooked  with  red 
pepper. 

So  much  of  Mexico  is  arid  that  large 
sections  are  suited  only  to  grazing.  For 
this  reason,  one  of  the  lead- 
ing industries  is  ranching. 
As  in  our  Western  States,  there  are  exten- 
sive cattle  and  sheep  ranches;  and  hides, 
meat,  and  wool  are  important  exports. 

Many  horses  and  mules  are  raised;  but 
the  little  Mexican  ass,  or  burro,  is  one  of  the 
most  common  draft  animals  (Fig.  358).  It  is 
about  as  large  as  a  small  pony,  and  is  made  to 
do  all  kinds  of  work.  The  burro  is  a  very  pa- 
tient beast,  and  is  able  to  carry  heavy  loads  and 
endure  much  hardship. 


(3)  Ranching 


266 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Hogs  are  fattened  in  large  numbers,  and  there 
are  many  goats.  The  latter  are  much  prized, 
not  only  for  their  meat  and  hides,  but  also  for 


Fig.  359.  —  Coffee  tree  and  berries  growing  in  the  shade 
higher  trees. 

their  milk,  which  is  used  as  a  food  and  for  mak- 
ing cheese. 

On  the  damp  lowlands,  the  farm  prod- 
ucts are  quite  different  from  those  on  the 
2  On  the  ^^^^  plateau.  There,  rice, 
lower,  humid  sugar  caue,  and  cotton  are 
raised ;  also  tropical  fruits, 
such  as  oranges,  bananas  (Fig.  356),  cocoa- 
nuts,  and  pineapples.  '  Upon  the  slopes 
between  the  tropical  lowlands  and  the 
temperate  plateau  much  cotton,  tobacco, 
and  coffee  are  grown. 

Coffee,  one  of  the  most  valuable  products  of 
Mexico,  requires  a  rich  soil,  abundant  moisture. 


a  warm  climate,  and  plenty  of  shade.  In  order 
to  secure  shade,  the  coffee  bush,  which  reaches 
a  height  of  from  ten  to  fifteen  feet,  is  planted  in 
the  shade  of  higher  trees.  A  white 
blossom  appears  as  early  as  March,  and 
after  the  flower  has  fallen  off,  the  coffee 
berry  begins  to  grow  (Fig.  359).  It 
resembles  a  dark  red  cranberry.  The 
coffee  is  inside  of  this  berry  in  the 
form  of  two  kernels,  and  the  husk 
must  be  removed  in  order  to  prepare 
these  kernels  for  market. 

Mexico  is  a  great  mining  coun- 
try, producing  more  silver  than 
any  other  coimtry  in  ^j^j^g 
the     world.       Much  i.  Extent 

gold,      copper,      lead,    of  minerals 

and  zinc  are  also  mined,  and 
recently  great  quantities  of  pe- 
troleum have  been  found  on  the 
coastal  plain,  as  is  the  case  also 
in  Texas  and  Louisiana.  A  large 
amount  of  iron  is  known  to  exist 
in  several  parts  of  the  country. 
At  one  place,  near  Durango, 
there  is  an  iron  mountain  which 
contains  an  enormous  amount  of 
very  rich  ore.  Here  blast  fur- 
naces have  been  erected,  and  steel 
rails  and  other  iron  products  are 

manufactured.     Find   this   city  on   the 

map. 

One  great  drawback  to  mining  in  Mexico  is 

the  lack  of  good   coal.     Another  is  the  lack 

of  easy  tranportation.      A  third 

is    the   fact   that   much   of    the   2.  Difficulties 

.,      ,  ,         T    in  the  develop- 

region  cannot  easily  be  explored  ^,5^^  ^f  ^^^^ 

for  ore.     In  fact,  some  parts  of 
the  country   are   still    occupied   by   tribes   of 
savage    Indians,    who    prevent    miners    from 
coming   in.      Still  another  difficulty  is  the  old- 
fashioned  methods  of  mining  used   by  many 
of  the  Mexicans.    The  methods,  however,  are  be- 1 
ing  improved,  since  many  of  the  leading  mines  | 
are  now  owned  by  Europeans,  Americans,  or  , 
educated  Mexicans.     Mining    is   now  rapidly 
developing  in  Mexico,  and  more  than  half  of 


COUNTRIES   SOUTH  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 


267 


the  exports  of  the  country  are  minerals.  Fibers 
are  the  second  export  in  importance,  and  coffee 
is  the  third. 

Because  of  the  ignorance  of  the  work- 
ing people,  and  the  scarcity  of  coal, 
Manufac-  there  is  not  a  great  deal  of 
turing  manufacturing    in    Mexico ; 

and  that  which  is  done  is  largely  carried 
on  by  hand.     Some  of  this  hand  work 


(Fig.  360),  built  on  the  site  of  an  ancient 
Aztec  Indian  city.  It  is  situated  on  a 
high  plateau  and  therefore,  Leading  cities 
although  so  far  south,  has  i.  in  the 
a  cool  climate.  In  this  city,  ^^^^^°^ 
as  elsewhere  in  Mexico,  there  are  many 
fine  churches  and  other  notable  buildings. 
Another  city  in  the  interior  of  Mexico 
is  PuEBLA,  founded  in  1531.     It  also  is 


Fig.  360.- 


•  A  view  of  a  part  of  Mexico  City,  with  the  snow-capped  cone  of  the  volcano,  Popocatepetl, 
rising  in  the  distance. 


is  very  beautiful,  for  even  the  unedu- 
cated Mexicans  are  quite  artistic. 

There  are  large  tobacco  factories  in 
the  tobacco  district,  and  smelters  in  the 
mining  regions.  Some  earthenware  also 
is  manufactured,  and  some  cotton  cloth. 
The  manufacture  of  cotton  is  growing 
rapidly  in  importance,  and  more  money 
is  now  invested  in  cotton  mills  than  in 
any  other  form'of  manufacturing. 

There  are  a  few  large  cities,  the 
greatest  being  the  capital,  Mexico  City 


situated  near  one  of  the  ancient  cities, 
or  pueblos,  of  the  Aztecs.  San  Luis 
PoTosi  is  a  third  important  Mexican 
city.     Locate  each  of  these  cities. 

Since  the  eastern  coast  of  Mexico  is 
low  and  sandy,  it  has  no  good  harbors. 
The  largest  two  cities  there 

r-,  °  1       TT  2.    On  the  coast 

are     Iampico     and     Vera 
Cruz,  whose  harbors   are  protected  by 
breakwaters.       There    are    some   good 
harbors  on  the  western  coast,  one  of  the 
best  being  that  of  Acapulco. 


268 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Names  of  the 
countries 
and  their 
government 


2.   Central  America     (Fig.  354) 

Of  the  six  Central  American  republics 
the  smallest  is  Salvador;  the 

next  Costa  Rica. 

Nicaragua,  Hondu 

ras,  and  Guatemala  are 

about  equal  in  size.    These 
are  all  in  North  America ;  but  the  Re 
public  of   Panama   is   partly   in 
North   America   and   partly   in 
South    America.      It   has   an 
especial  interest  for  us.     Why 
(p.  244)  ? 

These    six   countries   are   in 
dependent  of  one  another,  and 
each  has  a  form  of  government 
modeled    after    that   of    the 
United  States.     British  Hon- 
duras (or  Belize)  is  a  colony 
of  the  United  Kingdom. 

Spanish  is  the  language 
spoken  in  all  these  countries; 
but  the  great  majority  of  the 
people  are  Indians,  negroes,  and 
half-breeds.  The  governments 
are  not  very  good,  and  the  people  are    often  I  forests, 


engaged  either  in  civil  wars  or  in  fighting  with 
one  another. 

Most  of  Central  America  is  mountainous,  and 

it  has  volcanic 


Fig.  361. — Bananas  as  they  grow, 
hanging  in  great  bunches  from 
the  broad-leafed  banana  tree. 


Fig.  362. 


Bunches  of  bananas  piled  by  the  side  of  the  railroad, 
awaiting  shipment. 


Character  of 
the  region 

eruptions  and 
earthquakes 
of    great   vio- 
lence.    The 
earthquake 
shocks     have 
leveled     towns 
and  killed  thousands  of  people. 
For  instance,  San  Salvador, 
the  capital  of   Salvador,  was 
so    frequently    destroyed    by 
earthquakes  that  the  inhabit- 
ants decided   to  choose  a  new 
location  for  their  city ;  but  this 
is  little  better  than  the  old  one. 
Since    these    countries    lie    in    the 
tropical    zone,    the    climate    is    hot. 
The  rainfall  is  heavy,  especially 
on  the  eastern  coast,  where  there 
are  dense  jungles. 

A  large  part  of  these 
countries  is  occupied  b}^ 
dense  tropical 
from  which  are 
obtained  mahogany,  rosewood, 
and  other  valuable  cabinet  and 
dye  woods.  The  rubber  tree 
also  grows  here,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  rubber  is  an  important 
industry. 

As  in  Mexico,  coffee  is  raised 
on  the  hill  slopes  in  the  shade 
of  the  forest  trees.  Costa  Rica 
is  one  of  the  most  important 
coffee-producing  districts  (Fig, 
364).  Bananas  (Figs.  361 
and  362),  sugar,  tobacco,  indigo, 
and  cocoa  are  other  products. 

The  largest  city  in  Central  America 
is  New  Guatemala,  the     xhe  leading 
capital    of    Guatemala,     city 


The  products 


ANACONDA 


;- .  The  M.N.Ca,BuFFALO. 


ALLIGATOR 


Fio.  363.  —  Some  of  the  animals  that  live  in  the  tropical  part  of  North  America. 


270 


KORTB  AMERICA 


.^^. 

^^              ^    a 

lMii^.fll 

;..  t      ,  »?vF  •^■•r        ■  it'^mi^f 

-  -,      ,r^    -    . 

j>/^«. 

■■HigK;       d                               H 

'■^ 

% 

^^. 

~"''^^^— 

Location  and 
names  of  the 
groups  of 
islands 


Fia.  364.  —  Drying  coffee  berries  in  Costa  Rica.  Tliere  are  tous  of  coffee 
berries  here  spread  out  in  the  sun  to  dry.  After  they  are  dried,  the 
husk  is  removed  and  the  bean  is  then  shipped  away. 


This  city,  which  was  formerly  situated  at  the 
base  of  two  very  active  volcanoes,  was  re- 
moved to  a  safer  site;  hence  the  name  Neiv 
Guatemala. 


3.   The  West  Indies  (see  the  Map, 
Fig.  322) 

A  chain  of  islands  reaches  from  the 
Yucatan  and  Florida  peninsulas  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Orinoco  River 
on  the  South  American  coast. 
These  islands  inclose  the 
Caribbean  Sea;  and,  also, 
with  the  aid  of  the  peninsulas  of  Florida 
and  Yucatan,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  All 
of  this  archipelago,  excepting  the  Ba- 
hamas, lies  entirely  within  the  tropical 
zone. 

These  islands,  scores  of  which  are 
very  small,  are  called  the  West  Indies, 
because  Columbus  thought  he  had  reached 
India.  With  the  exception  of  the  Ba- 
hamas, they  are  also  known  as  the  An- 
tilles. Those  on  the  north,  including 
the  larger  ones,  are  called  the  Greater 
Antilles ;  and  those  on  the  south,  the 
Lesser  Antilles. 

Two  of  the  Greater  Antilles  have  been 


already  described   (p.  241). 
What  do  you  remember  about 

them  ?      All  the   The  Greater 

other    large    is-  Antilles 
lands  are  mountainous,  with 
fertile    valleys    and     small 
plains. 

South  of  Cuba  lies  the 
island  of  Jamaica,  the  third 
in    size    in    the 

W,       -r      1  •  1-     Jamaica 

est    Indies, 

and  a  possession  of  Great 
Britain.  Kingston  is  the 
capital  and  the  largest  city. 
The  inhabitants  are  mainly 
negroes  and  mulattoes,  there  being  fully 
forty  blacks  to  one  white  person. 

The  chief  occupation  is  agriculture, 
and  the  women  are  employed  in  outdoor 
work  as  much  as  the  men  (Fig.  365).  One 
of  the  main  products  is  sugar  cane. 
Early  vegetables  and  fruits,  such  as 
oranges  and  bananas  are  also  raised. 
Jamaica  ginger  is  obtained  from  the 
root  of  a  plant  that  grows  in  this 
island. 

Haiti  was  the  first  large  island  discov- 
ered by  Columbus,  and  on  it  he  made  set- 
tlements and  opened  inines. 
Like  the  other  Greater  An- 
tilles, this  became  an  important  Spanish 
colony ;  but  Spain  lost  one  island  after 
another,  the  two  last  to  go  being 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico.  Haiti  has  long 
been  independent,  and  there  are  now 
two  republics  in  the  island  —  Haiti 
and  Santo  Domingo.  The  capital  of 
the  former  is  Port  au  Prince  ;  and 
of  the  latter,  Santo  Domingo.  Most 
of  the  inhabitants  are  negroes  and  half- 
breeds,  descendants  of  the  slaves  of  the 
Spanish  settlers;  but  there  are  more 
white  people  in  Santo  Domingo  than  in 


2.  Haiti 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  THE   UNITED  STATES 


271 


Haiti ;  and  Santo  Domingo  is  the  more 
progressive. 

Sugar,  tobacco,  coffee,  and  bananas  are 
the  chief  products.  There  are  vahiable 
woods  covering  much  of  the  island,  and 
tliere  is  some  mineral  wealth;  but  little 
is  done  with  these  resources. 

Most  of  the  islands  among  the  Lesser 
Antilles  are  possessions  of  Great  Britain, 


nique  and  in  St.  Vincent  there  are  active  vol- 
canoes. One  of  the  most  terrible  volcanic 
eruptions  ever  recorded  occurred  in  Martinique 
in  1902.  After  being  quiet  for  about  fifty 
years,  Mont  Pelee  (Fig.  366)  suddenly  burst 
forth  and  completely  destroyed  the  beauti- 
ful city  of  St.  Pierre,  which  was  situated 
at  its  base.  In  a  few  seconds  all  of  the 
inhabitants,  more  than  twenty-five  thousand 
people,  were  killed  by  the  cloud  of  steam 
and  hot  ashes  which  descended  upon  them. 


Fig.  365. 


-Native  women  oi  Jaiaaiea  going  to  market,  each  with  a  burro,  or  small  donkey,  loaded 
with  baskets  of  vegetables  and  fruits. 


though  some  belong  to  other  nations. 
For  instance,  Martinique  and  Guade- 
The  Lesser  loupe  belong  to  France  ;  St. 
Antilles  Thomas   and    St.   Croix   to 

Denmark;  and  some  islands  to  Holland. 
The  products  of  the  Lesser  Antilles  are 
similar  to  those  of  the  other  West  Indies, 
the  most  important  being  sugar  cane. 

These  small  islands  are  volcanic  cones.    Most 
of  the  volcanoes  are  now  extinct,  but  in  Marti- 


North  of  Haiti  and  Cuba  are  several  hundred 
small  islands  called  the  Bahamas,  which 
belong  to  Great  Britain.  A 
number  of  these  are  inhabited,  The  Bahamas 
and  on  one,  I^evv  Providence,  is  the  city  of 
Nassau. 

One  of  the  products  is  the  sponge,  which 
grows  in  the  clear,  warm  waters  of  the  Bahama 
banks.  To  obtain  sponges,  the  natives  either 
cruise  about  in  boats,  raking  them  up,  or  they 
dive  into  the  clear  water,  tearing  them  from  the 
bottom. 


272 


NORTH  AMERICA 


] 


Fig.  366.  —  The  ruined  city  of  St.  Pierre  after  the  terrible  volcanic  eruption  of  1!K)2. 


Early  vegetables,  pineapples,  oranges,  and 
cocoanuts  are  raised  by  the  inhabitants,  who 
are  chiefly  negroes.  One  of  the  industries,  as 
on  the  neighboring  coast  of  Florida,  is  caring 
for  winter  visitors.  Why  should  people  wish 
to  go  there  in  the  winter  ? 

4.   The  Bermuda  Islands 

Far  out  in  the  open  ocean,  east  of  Korth 
Carolina  (Fig.  134),  is  a  group  of  small  coral 
islands,  called  the  Bermuda  Islands,  which  be- 
long to  Great  Britain.  They  produce  early 
vegetables,  and  flowers,  such  as  Easter  lilies, 
most  of  which  are  shipped  to  New  York. 

The  climate  is  so  mild  that  these  islands  are 
visited  every  winter  by  large  numbers  of  people 
from  the  United  States  who  wish  to  escape  the 
cold  of  our  northern  winter.  Most  of  these 
visitors  stay  at  Hamiltojt,  the  capital. 

Mexico  :  Questions.  1.  How  does  Mexico 
compare  with  the  United  States  in  area  and 
Review  Ques-  population  ?  2.  What  kind  of 
tions  and  government    has    it  ?     3.    Give 

Suggestions  some  facts  about  the  history  of 
Mexico.  4.  Why  is  it  not  a  very  hot  country, 
in   most  parts?   5.   What  about  its  rainfall? 


6.  ''What  are  the  products  from  the  forest  trees 
and  other  native  plants  ?  7.  What  agricultural 
products  are  obtained  by  irrigation  ?  8.  De- 
scribe the  farming  methods  and  the  home  life  in 
the  arid  lands.  9.  Where  is  ranching  carried 
on  ?  What  animals  aro  raised  ?  10.  What 
products  are  obtained  from  the  lower  humid 
lands  ?  11.  What  about  the  extent  of  minerals 
in  Mexico  ?  12.  Mention  several  difficulties 
in  the  development  of  mining  there.  13.  What 
is  the  condition  of  manufacturing  ?  14.  Name 
and  locate  the  leading  cities  in  the  interior. 
15.    On  the  coast. 

Suggestions.  16.  Find  out  why  coffee  rais- 
ing requires  special  care.  17.  Find  an  article 
of  furniture  made  of  mahogany.  18.  Walk 
toward  Mexico  City.  19.  What  reasons  can 
you  give  for  its  location  ?  20.  Who  is  the 
president  of  Mexico  ?  21.  Why  are  there  no 
large  rivers  in  Mexico  ?  22.  Make  a  sketch 
map  of  Mexico. 

Central  America  :  Questions.  23.  Name 
the  countries  here,  and  tell  their  form  of  govern- 
ment. 24.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  peopU'  ? 
25.  Describe  the  region.  26.  W^hat  are  the 
products  ?  27.  Name  and  locate  the  leading 
city. 


COUNTRIES  SOUTH  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


273 


Suggestions.  28.  Why  will  harbors  at  each 
end    of  the    Panama    Canal   be     necessary  ? 

29.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  Central  America. 

30.  Name  the  capitals  of  each  of  the  countries. 

The  West  Indies  and  the  Bermudas  : 
Questions.  31.  Locate  the  West  Indies,  and 
give  the  names  of  their  principal  groups. 
32.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  government, 
people,   and  products   of  Jamaica.   33.   What 


can  you  tell  about  Haiti  ?  34.  State  important 
facts  about  the  Lesser  Antilles.  35.  About 
the  Bahamas.  36.  How  are  the  Bermudas 
important  ?     Locate  them. 

Suggestions.  37.  How  does  each  of  the  larg- 
est four  of  the  West  Indies  compare  in  area 
and  population  with  New  York  State  ?  With 
your  own  state  ?  (See  tables  in  Appendix.) 
38.  Find  out  more  about  the  eruption  of  Mont 
Pelee. 


VI.    REVIEW   OF   NORTH   AMERICA 


1.   The  United  States 

There  are  now  over  ninety-two  million 

persons   living   in    the    United    States, 

while  in  Canada,  Mexico,  and 

Population  n       ,      i      a  •         j.i 

Central  America  there  are 
only  about  twenty-five  million.  Itis  plain, 
therefore,  that  about 
four  fifths  of  all  the 
inhabitants  of  North 
America  are  found  in 
our  own  country. 

The    forty-eight 
states    in   our   Union 
Distribution      tiave  been 
of  population     settled  by 
people  who  came  from 
the   East.     First,  the 
Atlantic    coast   was 
settled  by  immigrants 
from    England    and 
other    countries     of 
Europe.     Then    there 
was   a    movement    of 
pioneers   westward   across   the    Appala- 
chian   Mountains    and    the    Mississippi 
Valley.     Finally,  settlers  pushed  across 
the  Western  mountains,  until  the  Pacific 
coast  was  reached. 

While  all  parts  of  the  country  have  now 
been  settled,  by  far  the  greater  part  of 


the  population  is  still  found  in  the  East- 
ern half.  In  Figure  367,  in  southeastern 
Indiana,  you  will  find  a  star,  which 
shows  the  center  of  our  population. 
There  are  just  about  as  many  persons  in 
the  United  States  living  east  of  this  star 
as  west  of  it,  and  as  many  north  of  it  as 


Fig.  3f)7.  —  Distribution  of  population  in  the  United  States,  1900. 

south.  That  is  what  is  meant  by  the 
center  of  population.  How  far  do  you 
live  from  this  point  ? 

From  the  map  (Fig.  367)  you  can  tell 
what  parts  of  the  country  are  most 
densely  settled.  Where  are  they  ?  What 
parts  are  least  densely  settled  ? 


274 


NORTH  AMERICA 


FiQ.  368.  —  Map  showing  distribution  of  cities. 

Note  how  closely  Figure  368,  show- 
ing the  distribution  of  cities,  corresponds 
to  Figure  367.  Which  states  seem  to 
have  the  most  cities  ?  Name  in  the 
order  of  their  size  (Fig.  369)  the  six 
states  having  the  largest  population. 

About  two  thirds  of  our  ninety-two 
million  inhabitants  live  either  in  the 
country,  or  in  towns  with  a  population 
of  less  than  eight  thousand.  In  Mexico 
and  Canada  the  proportion  living  in 
the  country  is  still   greater.     In   other 


Conditions  in  the   United 
States  are  very  favorable  to 
agriculture.      In  i.   ciimate 
no   part,   except  a°dsoii 
on  the  highest  mountains,  is 
it  too  cold  to  raise  valuable 
crops;  and  in  most  parts  the 
soil  is  fertile.     Name  some 
states  that  have  very  fertile 
soil  (pp.  151,  174).     Name  a 
section  where  the  soil  is  not 
so   good  (p.   116).     Why  is 
hilly  and  mountainous  coun- 
try not  well  suited  to  farm- 
ing (p.  116)? 
Although  farming  is  by  far  our  great- 
est  industry,   it  is   surpris-  ^    ^^^  ^^^ 
ing  what   a   small   part   of  of  land  that  is 
all  our  land   is   now  really  *^"^*^"^*'^ 
under  cultivation. 

Figure  370  makes  this  clear  by  the 
use  of  a  circle.  The  circle  represents  all 
the  land  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
portion  marked  improved  shows  the 
part  that  is  now  used  to  produce  crops. 
The  part  of  the  circle  marked  unim- 
proved  shows  the   proportion  that  has 


New  York 


Painsylvania 


7,665,111 


nCnois 


6.638, S9« 


Ohio 


4.767.12' 


Texa* Massachusetts 


3,896,543 


3.366,416 


Fig.  369.  — The  six  states  with  largest  population  (1910). 


words,  the  great  majority  of  persons  in 
North  America  are  country  people. 

Of  the  great  occupations  in  the  United 
States,  that  of  agriculture  is  most  im- 
portant.      More    than    one 
Agriculture       ^j^-^^  ^^  ^jj  ^^^  workers  are 

engaged  in  that  industry. 


not  yet  been  plowed,  or  otherwise  im- 
proved, so  as  to  raise  crops.  Some  of 
it  is  swamp  land,  some  is  covered 
with  forest  or  underbrush,  some  is 
used  for  grazing.  From  this  figure  it 
is  plain  that  less  than  one  fourth  of  all 
the  land   in  our  country  is  now  culti- 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


275 


vated ;  and  more  than  o?ie  half  is  not 
even  in  farms. 

One  reason  why  there  is  so  little  cul- 
tivated land  is  that,  as  yet,  only  the 
o    ^r,.      ,.^,    best      has      been      farmed. 

3.    Whysohttle  . 

land  is  under  When  there  IS  more  need  oi 
cultivation  ^^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^£   ^j^^   poorer 

land  will  be  made  to  yield  crops.  There 
are  two  great  difficulties,  however.  A 
large  part  of  the  portion  of  the  circle 
marked  .?io^  in  farms  represents  the  arid 
lands  of  the  Western  States.  Locate 
these  (Fig.  408).  Which  states  receive 
an  abundance  of  rain  ?  Which  states 
suffer  for  want  of  it  ?  What-  is  the 
reason  for  this  (p.  205)  ? 

People  will  not  be  eager  to  receive 
farms  there,  even  as  a  gift  from  the 
government,  until  they  are  able  to  irri- 
gate them.  What  is  the  government 
now  doing  to  make  some  of  this  land 
more  attractive  to  settlers  (p.  213)  ? 

A  second  reason  why  much  land 
remains  imcultivated  is  that  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  mountainous  country. 
What  are  the  names   of   our   principal 


Fig.  371.  —  The  corn  regions  of  the  United  States 


Fig.  370.  —  Extent  of  farming  iu  the  United  States. 

mountain  systems  ?  Through  what 
states  do  the  Appalachian  Mountains 
extend  ?  The  Cordillera  ?  What  moun- 
tains, besides  the  Rockies,  are  included 
in  the  Cordillera  ?  Probably  most  of 
the  mountainous  and  arid  lands  never 
can  be  cultivated.     Why  ? 

Figure    371    shows   the  regions  that 
are  most  extensively  engaged  in  raising 
corn.   What 

4.     Grains 

states  are 
included?  .  In  1908 
about  two  billion 
bushels  were  produced. 
How  many  bushels  is 
that  for  each  of  our 
inhabitants?  How  is 
corn  cultivated,  and 
what  are  its  uses 
(p.  177)  ?  Which  are 
the  six  leading  states 
in  corn  production, 
and  how  do  they  rank 
as  compared  with  one 
another  (Fig.  372)  ? 
Many  of  the  states 


276 


IfORTH  AMERICA 


Illinois 


$150,813,000 
342,756,000    BusheU 


Iowa 


$116,195,000 
270,220,000 


Missouri 


$113,282,000 
241,025,000 


Texas 


$93,353,000 
155,589,000 


Indiana 


Nebraska 


$75,978,000 
168,840,000 


$73,524,000 
179,328,000 


Fig.  372.  — The  six  leading  corn-producing  states  (1906). 


that  raise  corn  also  raise  much,  wheat. 
Figure  373  shows  the  principal  wheat 
regions.  Where  are  they?  What  can 
you  tell  about  wheat  in  the  valley  of 


Corn  and  wheat  are  our  most  valuable 
food  crops.  Why  is  so  little  of  either 
raised  in  the  western  half  of  the  United 
States  (p.  205)  ?     Why  so  little  in  New 


95°         01'         87°         33°        70"  75"         71°  67° 


E;;%;jJiM«  than  64  tmthelt 
^^^64    to    640         " 
^^^640  (o  3200  " 

^BB3200  biuheU  and 


107  103 


Fig.  373. — Tlie  wlieat  regions  of  tlie  United  States. 


the  Red  River  of  the  North  (p.  178)  ? 
What  are  the  uses  of  wheat  ?  What 
states  on  the  Pacific  coast  produce  wheat? 
Name  the  six  leading  wheat  states  in  the 
order  of  their  importance  (Fig.  374). 


England  (p.  116)  ?  What  other  grains 
do  we  raise,  and  for  what  is  each 
used  ? 

The  cotton  belt  is  confined  entirely  to 
the  southeastern  portion  of  the  country, 


Minnesota 


Ktmsas 


$53,799,P00 
65,609,000 


N.  Dakota 


$47,963,000 
55,130,000 


Nebreiska 


$36,270,000 
45,911,000 


Illinois 


$34,890,000 
40.104,000 


Indiana 


$29,931,000 
34,013,000 


Fig.  374. — Tlie  six  leading  wheat-producing  states  (1907). 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


277 


5 .  Cotton, 
sugar  cane, 
and  rice 


as  shown  in  Figure  375.  Why?  Name 
the  principal  cotton-raising  states  and 
give  their  rank  (Fig.  376). 
What  do  you  know  about 
the  growth  and  uses  of 
cotton  (pp.  152  and  162)? 

Where  in  these  states  are  sugar  cane 
and  rice  grown  ?  How  is  each  cultivated 
(pp.  153  and  154)  ?  How  does  Louisiana 
rank  with  our  dependencies  in  the  pro- 
duction of  sugar  cane  (Fig.  377)  ?   Which 


Texas 


Fto.  375.  —  Map  showing  the  cotton-producing  states. 


2,271,724 
Bales  of  500  lb. 


Georgia 


1,891,900 


Mississippi 


1,464,207 


S.  Ceurolina 


Alabama 


1,175,375 


1,126,028 


Oklahoma 


864,106 


6.    Tobacco 


of  our  dependencies  produce 
large  amounts  of  cane  sugar 
(Fig.  377)?  What  are  the 
other  sources  of  sugar? 
Where  is  beet  sugar  pro- 
duced(pp.  153,181)?  Where 
is  maple  sugar  made  (p.  133)  ? 
According  to  Figure 
378,  what 
states  are 
largely  engaged  in  to- 
i)acco  growing?  What 
is  the  appearance  of 
the  plant,  and  how 
is  it  prepared  for  use 
(pp.  155, 180)?  Name 
and  locate  several  cities 
that  are  noted  for  to- 
bacco manufacture  and 
trade  (pp.  155,  196). 
In  what  section  of 
New  England  is  much 
tobacco  raised  (p. 
117)? 


Fig.  376. — The  six  leading  cotton-producing  states  (1906). 
Cuba 


1,250,000 
Long  Tons 


Hawaii 


390,000 


Porto  Rico  Louisiana  Philippines 


255,000 


230,000 


150,500 


Colorado 


149,200 


Fig.  377.  —  The  six  leading  sugar-producing  sec- 
tions in  the  United  States  and  its  dependencies. 
Colorado,  beet  sugar;  others,  cane  sugar. 


Fig.  378.  —  Map  showing  the  tobacco-producing  states. 


278 


NOETH  AMERICA 


Ajyples,  pears,  peaches,  etc. 
Orange*. 

addition  t 


(Fig.  380).  What 
are  their  products 
(pp.   208-213)? 

Figures  381-386 
show  the  principal 
states  from  which 
other  important  farm 
products  come.  Study 
each  of  them. 

How  does  the  value 
of  hay  (Fig.  381)  in 
New  York  „    ^,-    ,    . 

8.    Other  lead- 
compare    ingfarm 

with  that  P'"^"'^*' 

of  corn  in  Iowa,  and 

of    wheat   in    Minne- 


FiG.  379.  —  Map  showing  the  leading  fruit-growing  regions  of  the  United  States. 

T. _  -     .  ^  ,  ■■        ,  sota  ?     Note  that  the  states  raisins  most 

Name  iruits  and  vegetables  that  are 

extensively  raised  in  the  United  States. 

Figure  379  shows  the  sections 
vegetobies^^*^     that  produce  large  quantities 

of    fruit.     What  fruits  are 


grown  along  the  Eastern  coast  (p.  117) ; 
in  the  Southern  States  (p.  156) ;  in  Cal- 
ifornia (p.  209)?  In  Florida,  Cuba,  and 
Porto  Rico  ?  Why  is  the  region  near 
the  Great  Lakes  especially  suited  to  fruit 
raising  (p.  117)  ?  What  fruits  are  ex- 
tensively grown  there  ? 

Why  is  truck  farming  especially  impor- 
tant in  New  England  (p.  116)  ?  Where 
are  early  vegetables  extensively  raised 
(p.  155)  ? 

Name  and  locate  the  principal  irri- 
gated sections  in  our  western  arid  lands 


■■SI  ii*>*-s.r*'-'''"    '. 


A         DA 

N.DAK. 


j77;^-.^5^  i 


A 


-^■*     rli     ',',1     '    Vf  — ^i-,-.'.  /   J Jss^  neS~^. 


"^H      .COL.' 


i 


'^R«,*-«^'i 


l—^-isni:- 


HI 

»  *"•     /  N.MEX.  V 


^^^^Arttu  at  present  {negated 
\S'SMArea>  that  can  he  irrigated 


New  York 


Fig.  380.  — Map  showing  where  irrigation  is  carried  on  in 
United  States. 


$91,388,000 
5,896,000    Tons 


Pennsylviutla 


$71,946,000 
4^68,000 


Ohio 


$47,588,000 
4.050,000 


Illinois 


$41,030,000 
3,730,000 


Michigan 


Iowa 


$40,575,000 
3,246,000 


$39,200,000 
4,900,000 


Fig.  381.  — The  six  leading  hay-producing  states  (1907). 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


279 


Iowa 


$81,552,750 
8,584,500 


corn  (Fig.  372) 
correspond  rather 
closely  with  those 
raising  most  hogs 
(Fig.  382).  Why 
is  that?  Name  the 
six  leading  dairy 
states  (Fig.  383). 

Point  out,  on  the  map  (Fig.  138),  the 
portions  of  the  country  largely  given  up 

to    y-razins-.     Why    these  ? 

Relate  how  cattle  ranching 
is  carried  on  (p.  182) ;  also  sheep  ranching 


Illinois 


Nebraska 


$37,377,522 
4,449,705 


$35,496,000 
4,080,000 


Missouri 


Indiana  Kansas 


$24,530,145 
3,454,950 


$23,399,032 
2,924,879 


$21,001,840 
2,561,200 


Fig.  382.  — The  six  leading  hog-producing  states  (1906). 

(p.  214).  Which  states  are  most  impor- 
tant in  these  industries  (Figs.  384,  385)  ? 
What  are  the  uses  of  ranch  cattle 
(p.  194)  ?  Of  sheep  (p.  215)  ?  In  which 
states  are  most  horses  raised  (Fig.  386)  ? 


New  York 

Iowa 

Pennsylvania 

Wisconsin 

Illinois 

772,779,352 
Gallons 

Ohio 

^ 

^9^^ 

535,872,240 

487,033,818 

472,274,264 

457,106,995 

425,870,394 

rm 

^fe 

Fifi    SSS   —'I 

/1nn^>^ 

Iowa 


$140,057,600 
5,515,300 


Montana 


Illino 


Texas 


$125,436,314 
9,229,671 


Kemsa* 


Nebraska 


$94,264,263 
4,493,974 


niinms 


$90,601,635 
4,236,135 


$89,890,670 
3,392,500 


Fig.  384.  —  The  six  leading  cattle-producing  states  (1907). 
Wyoming 


$19,244,045 
4,986,796 


Ohio 


New  Mexico 


$15,119,427 
3,140,720 


Idaho 


$13,468,363 
4,558,365 


$13,184,353 
3,648,133 


Fig.  385.  — The  six  leading  sheep-producing  states  (1906). 


Fig.  386.  —  The  six  leading  horse-producing  states  (1907). 


New  York 


$88,051,122 
2,770,945 


Utah 


$11,131,953 
2,853,250 


$171,990,000 
1,575,000 

lowa 

Ohio 

Kansas 

Missouri 

$139,178,490 
1,390,950 

Indiana 

$105,893,580 
940,440 

$96,848,928 
1,085,750 

$87,937,525 
948,420 

$87,735,367 
798,102 

280 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Figure  387  shows  the  distribution  of 
the  forests  in  the  United  States.  Describe 
the  industry  as  it  is  carried 
on  in  Maine  (p.  118) ;  in  the 
Southern  States  (p.  158) ;  in  Wisconsin 


Lumbering 


caught  on  our  Eastern  coast  (p.  120)  ? 
On  our  Pacific  coast  (p.  222)  ?  Tell  what 
you  can  about  the  fishing  in- 
dustry in  Alaska  (p.  239). 
Describe  how  cod  fishing  is  carried  on 


Fishing 


4,305,053,000 

BOARD  FEET 
$62,162,840 

WASHINGTON 

PRINCIPAL  SPECIES 
BOUQLAS  FIR 

2,796,395,000 

BOARD  FEET 

$46,460,499 

LOUISIANA 

PRINCIPAL  SPECIES 

YELLOW  PINE 

CYPRESS 

2,331,305,000 

BOARD  FEET 

$39,997,360 

WISCONSIN 

PRINCIPAL  SPECIES 
WHITE  PINE 
HEMLOCK 

2,094,279,000 
BOARD  FEET 
$33,357,883 

MICHIGAN 
PRINCIPAL  SPECIES 

HEMLOCK 

MAPLE 

WHITE   PINE 

1,840,250,000 

BOARD  FEET 
$30,950,278 

MISSISSIPPI 

PRINCIPAL  SPECIES 
YELLOW  PINE 

Fig.  388.  —  The  five  leading  lumber-producing  states  (1907) . 


(p.  185);  in  the  Northwest  (p.  220). 
Why  these  differences  ?  Which  are  the 
most  common  kinds  of  trees  in  each  sec- 
tion (Fig.  388)  ?  What  are  the  products 
of  the  fore.sts  besides  lumber  (pp.  133 
and    164)  ?      What  states  produce   the 


(p.  122) ;  salmon  fishing  (p.  222) ;  the 
oyster  industry  (p.  159). 

About  four  hundred  thousand  men  in 
our  country  are  employed  in 
mining.     How  many  differ- 
ent metals  can  you  name  ?     How  many 


Mining 


gSl  i«"  <*<•»  'KW 
^^  1100  to  11000 
^H  IIOOO  and  over     \ 


Fig.  389.  —  Value  of  lumber  and  timber  products  of  United  States. 


greatest  amount  of  lumber  at  present 
(Fig.  388)?  Where  are'  the  leading 
forest  reserves  (Fig.  387)  ?  Of  what 
value  are  they? 

In  what  sections  is  fishing  especially 
important  (Fig.  390)?     What  fish  are 


other  mineral  products  can  you  mention  ? 
Of    all    the    minerals,    the   fuels    are 
probably  the  most   important.      Why  ? 
What  kinds  are  there?     Fig-  ,    ^^  ,  , 

.  °      1 .    The  fuels 

ure  391  shows  how  extensive 

the  coal  beds  are.     Name  the  states  in 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


281 


which  the  greatest 
quantities  of  coal  are 
mined  (Fig.  392).  Of 
Avhat  importance  is  it 
that  there  are  coal 
fields  in  so  many  parts 
of  the  country  ?  What 
kinds  of  coal  are  there? 
AVhat  are  the  differ- 
ences between  them 
(p.  125)?  Describe  a 
coal  mine  (pp.  125- 
126).  What  are  the 
uses  of  coal? 

Name  the  chief  sec- 
tions in  which  petro- 
leum and  natural  gas 
are  found  (Fig.  394.) 
I'ell  also  how  they 
have  been  produced 
and  what  their  uses 
are  (pp.  123-124). 

The  ores  of  iron  are 
among  the  most  im- 
portant of 
min- 
Why 

80  important  ?  Where 
are  the  principal  iron- 
producing  regions 
(Fig.  391)?  How  is 
pig  iron  made  (p.  128)  ? 
AVhy  is  not  the  Lake 
Superior  district  a 
favorable  place  for 
smelting  iron  ore  ? 
Xame  the  six  states 
that  lead  in  produc- 
tion of  iron  ore  (Fig. 
393). 

Describe      three 

3.     Precious  mcthods 

metals  of       ^qI^ 

mining  (p.  216).  What 


2.    Iron  ore  , , 

the 
eral    products. 


WmiHma  EngmvtDg  Col.  NT 


120°      Longitude         110''     'Weet    from      100°       Greenwich        00° 


Fig.  390.  —  Map  showing  distribution  of  tish. 


Fig.  391.  —  Map  showing  the  distribution  of  deposits  of  coal  and  iron  in  the 
United  States. 


282 


NORTH  AMERICA 


12(2.208,345 
200375,617   Short  Toot 


IffinoU  W.Virgiiiim  0f^ 


$44,763,062 
41,480,104 


$41,051,939 
43,290,350 


$30,346,580 
27,731,640 


that  industry  in  two  of  the  leading 
sections  (pp.  188,  217,  230).  Where 
and  how  is  stone  quarry-  4.  other  min- 
ing carried  on  in  New  erai  products 
England  (p.  123)  ?  How  is  salt  ob- 
Ai»b«o.  $17,514,786  13,107,963  taiued  iu  New  York  (p.  123)  ?  What 
other  valuable  mineral  products  can 
you  name  (pp.  161,  189,  219)  ? 
The  four  occupations  that  have  been 


lodUna      $13,116,261      12,092,560 


Minnesota 


$51,799^56 
25,364,077   Long  Tons 


Michigtui 


$31,145,087 
11,822,874 


Fig.  392.  — The  six  leading  coal-producing  states  (1906). 

can  you  tell  about  gold  and  silver  min- 
ing in  the  Western  States  (pp.  216- 
218)?  In  what  states  is  most 
gold  and  silver  found  (Figs.  395, 
396)  ?  How  does  the  value  of  the 
gold  produced  in  the  six  leading 
states  (Fig.  395)  compare  with 
that  of  the  silver  in  the  six  lead- 
ing states  (Fig.  396)  ? 

TTTi      J.      J.    i  J.  J     1    i-  Fig.  393.  —  The  six  leading  iron-producing  states  (1906). 

What  states  are  most  noted  for 
copper   mining   (Fig.    394)  ?     Describe  |  named  furnish  the  raw  materials  for  our 


If*    Whc  Virtini. 


New  York  $2,635,639  1,041,992 
Wucoiuin  $2,033,217  848,133 
Virfinia  $1,579,817       828,081 


125°  120°  115°  110°  105°  100°         95° 


85°  80°  75°  70°  65° 


Colorado 


Fig.  391.  —  Mineral  regions  of  the  United  Stales. 

Alaska  ^  ,., 

1 California 

Nevada 


$21,365,100 
1,033.537 


$18,832,900 
911,041 


$9,278,600 
448,852 


S.  Dakota 


$6,604,900 
319,512 


Utah 


$5,130,900 
248,208 


Fig.  395.  —  The  six  leading  gold-producing  states  (1906). 


Montana 


$8,488404 
12,540^  Ounces 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 
Colorado  Ulah 


283 


$8,425^20 
12,447,400 


$7,789,650 
11,508,000 


Idaho 


$5,981,135 
8,836,200 


Nevada 


$3,524,972 
5,207,600 


Arizona 


$2,009,822 
2,969,200 


Fig.  396.  — The  six  leading  silver-producing  states  (190G). 


food,  clothing,  and  shelter.  In  the 
main,  these  four  occupations,  as  stated, 
Occupations  ^^^^  people  to  live  in  small 
of  country  towns  or  in  the  country, 
and  of  city        Persons 

engaged  in  the  three 
other  great  occupa- 
tions live  for  the  most 
part  in  cities.  These 
are  manufacturing ; 
the  transportation  of 
goods ;  and  buying 
and  selling,  or  trading. 
Figure  397  shows 
the  principal  manu- 
Manufac-  facturing 
taring  sections  in 

the  United   States. 
What  states  do   they 
include  ?    How  does  it 
happen  that  New  Eng- 
land very  early  developed  cotton  manu- 
facturing, although  it  raises  no  cotton 
(p.  131)  ?     What  other  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing are  important  there  (pp.  128- 


133)  ?  Name  several  of  the  leading 
manufacturing  centers  there,  and  tell 
the  kinds  of  work  in  each.  What 
states  lead  in  textile  manufactures  (Fig. 


Fig.  397.  —  Map  showing  the  leading  manufacturing  districts  in  the  United  States. 

398)  ?     Where  are  the  cotton  and  wool 
obtained  ? 

AVhat    manufactures    besides    textile 
goods  (pp.  128-133)  are  very  important 


MaMachusetts 

Pennsylvania 

New  York 

$267,823,987 

$186,227,337 

Rhode  bland      New  Jer«ev 

$122,966,223 

$103,096,311 

$84,220,479 

Connecticut 

$60,535,780 

Fig.  398.  —  The  six  leading  textile  manufacturing  states. 


284 


NORTH  AMERICA 


Peniuyl' 


Virginia 


Fig.  399.  — The  six  leading  pig-iron-producing  states  (1906). 


in  the  Northeastern  States  ?     How  does 
the  lack  of  coal  mines  in  New  England  in- 
fluence the  manufacturing  there  (p.  129)  ? 
What  reasons  can  you  give  why  Penn- 
sylvania leads  in  iron  manufacturing  ? 
How  are  iron  and  steel  made  (p.  128)  ? 
Name  three  kinds   of  iron  (pp.    128, 
129).      Name  the    six   leading    states 
in  the  production  of  pig  iron  (Fig.  399). 
In  iron  manufacturing  (Fig.  400). 

Tell  about  the  manufacture  of  pot- 
tery in  the  Northeastern  (p.  130)  and 
in  the  Central  (p.  191)  States;  about 
the  manufacture  of  glass  (p.  130); 
of  cement  (p.  131) ;  of  bricks  (p.  130). 

Tell  about  the  advance  in  manufac- 
turing in  the  Southern  States  (p.  161). 
What  great  advantage  does  Birming- 
ham enjoy  for  the  manufacture  of  iron 
goods  (p.  160)?     Name  other  important 


barley   manufactured    in    the 
Central  States  (pp.  178,  189)? 
Name  the  great  centers  for  the 
manufacture  of  flour  (p.  179). 
What  can  you  tell  about  the 
manufactures    from    forest 
products  in  the  Central  States 
(p.  190)  ?     For  what  kinds  of 
manufacturing  is  Chicago  im- 
portant (p.  193)?     St.  Louis  (p.  196)? 
Cleveland  (p.  195)?   KansasCity(p.l99)? 
How  has  the  abundance  of  fruits  in  the 
Western  States  led  to  much  manufactur- 


Virginia    483,525 


Pennsylvania 

$434,445,200 

Ohio 

$138,935,256 

niinoi.        Ne* 

I'l' 

f60,303.144 

New  Jerwy    $24,381,699 

Indiana     $19,338,481 

Alabama     $17,392,483 

Fig.  400.  —  The  six  states  leading  in  iron  manufacturing 
(1906). 

ing  (p.  222)  ?  Name  some  flour-manufac- 
turing center  in  the  Far  West  (p.  230). 
Name  important  centers  for  smelting  of 
ores  (p.  223).  For  what  manufactures 
is  San  Francisco  important  (p.  225)  ? 
Portland  (p.  228)  ?     Seattle  (p.  228)  ? 


New  York 

Pennsylvania 

Illinois 

Ohio 

$14,769,042,207 

$11,473,620,306 

$8,816,556,191 

Massachusetts            California 

$5,946,969,466 

$4,956,578,913 

$4,115,491,106 

^.iei,pffy(.a,,.qi,„,,,,|,i^ffia|-y" 

Fig.  401.  —  Tlie  six  wealthiest  states. 


kinds  of  manufacturing  in  the  South- 
ern States  (pp.  161-164).  What  are  the 
leading  manufacturing  centers  there, 
and  for  what  goods  is  each  important  ? 
Into  what  goods  are  corn,  wheat,  and 


Manufacturing  employs  more  work- 
men in  the  United  States  than  any  other 
industry,  except  agriculture.  More  than 
seven  million  men  are  engaged  in  it. 

The  six  wealthiest  states  are  shown 


ttEVlEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


285 


in  Figure  401.  Note  that  all  these 
states  are  extensively  engaged  in  manu- 
facturing, as  shown  in  Figure  397. 

The  importance  of  being  able  to  ship 
goods   by   water   is   clearly   shown  by 

Transporta-        ^^''^    ^^^^   ^^^*   ^^^^^^   ^^®   ^^ 

tion  of  goods  our  twenty  largest  cities  is 
1.  By  water  situated  ou  a  water  route 
of  some  kind.  (See  Appendix  for  this 
list.)  Name  the  leading  harbors  along 
the   Atlantic   and   Gulf  coasts.     Name 


Mention   some    of   the    principal   kinds 
carried  on  each. 

Where  is  the  Erie  Canal  ?  Why  has  it 
been  so  important  ?  Why  has  it  become 
of  less  importance  than  formerly  ?  Where 
else  are  canals  found  (pp.  191  and  257)? 

Figure  403  shows  an  enormous  num- 
ber of  railways  in  the  United   States. 
They  now  carry  fully  three 
times  as  much  freight  as  all    '     ^  '^^ 
the   water   routes   together.      In   what 


Navigable  Interior  Water  15oute_ 

In  wbich  the  water  is  three  leet  deep  or  over 

Soale  of  Miles 

0    100  200~300  400~6bo 


Fig.  402.  —  Map  to  show  the  navigable  interior  water  routes  of  the  United  States. 


those  on  the  Pacific  coast  (pp.  225- 
229).  Our  seven  leading  ocean  ports, 
ill  the  order  of  their  importance,  are 
New  York,  Boston,  Philadelphia,  Bal- 
timore, New  Orleans,  San  Francisco, 
(lalveston.     Locate  each. 

What  can  you  say  about  the  impor- 
tance of  the  Great  Lakes  for  shipment  of 
goods  ?  How  are  these  lakes  connected 
by  water  with  the  ocean  (Fig.  183)? 
By  examining  Figure  402,  name  the 
principal  navigable  rivers  in  our  country. 

The  Great  Lakes  carry  about  twice  as 
much  freight  as  the  Mississippi  system. 


part  of  the  country  are  most  of  them 
found  ?  Why  there  ?  Which  section  is 
next  best  supplied  with  them  ?  W^hich 
portion  has  fewest  lines  ?  How  does 
the  location  of  railway  lines  on  this 
figure  compare  with  the  location  of 
cities  on  Figure  368  ? 

What  is  the  direction  of  a  major- 
ity of  the  railway  lines  ?  Count  the 
number  of  railways  that  extend  east  and 
west  across  the  western  half  of  the  con- 
tinent (Fig.  403).  In  what  city  on  the 
Pacific  coast  does  each  of  the  transcon- 
tinental lines  terminate  ? 


Fta.  403.  —  Map  showiug  the  railroads  of  the  United  States. 


Fig.  401. 


288 


NORTH  AMERICA 


The  number  of  miles  of  railroad,  in 
proportion  to  area,  is  greatest  in  the 
Northeastern  and  Central  States.  The 
names  of  the  principal  railroads  in  the 
East  are  shown  in  Figure  404.  Note 
how  the  roads  come  together  at  the 
great  centers  of  manufacturing  and  com- 
merce. 

Trade  is  the  third  occupation  that  at- 
tracts great  numbers  of  people  to  cities. 

Buying  and  J^^^^^  ^ne  knows  that  it  is 
selling,  or  important  to  have  stores 
trade  scattered    about    over    the 

country,'  in  towns  and  villages,  where 
one  can  purchase  the  articles  that  he 
needs  from  day  to  day. 

But  there  could  not  well  be  such 
stores  unless  there  were  great  centers  of 
trade  where  the  storekeepers  themselves 
could  buy  the  goods  that  they  wished 
to  sell  later.  This  is  called  ivholesale 
trade,  and  is  one  of  the  leading  occupa- 
tions in  the  great  cities. 

Our  greatest  center  for  the  wholesale 
trade  is  New  York  City.  Describe  how 
it  is  carried  on  there  (pp.  138-139). 
What  goods  are  sold  ?  Name  other  great 
centers  for  wholesale  trade,  and  some 
of  the  goods  that  are  sold.  What  goods 
are  extensively  sold  in  New  Orleans  (p. 
154)  ?  Memphis  (p.  169)  ?  Indianapolis 
(p.  200)?     Denver  (p.  230)? 

Fully  four  million  persons  in  the 
United  States  are  engaged  in  the  trans- 
portation of  goods  and  in  trade,  or  in 
commerce,  as  these  two  kinds  of  busi- 
ness together  are  called. 

The  relation  between  country  and 
^       ,      '      city    is   now    clear.     About 

Dependence  i     ic 

of  country  oue  half  of  our  people  are 
and  city  upon    enffaored   in    obtaining   raw 

each  other  . 

materials    through    agricul- 
ture,   lumbering,   fishing,   and   mining. 


The  remainder  are  employed  mainly  ii 
manufacturing  these  raw  materials  int( 
useful  articles,  or  in  buying,  selling,  auc 
transporting  them.  Show  by  numerou! 
examples  how  neither  class  can  well  d( 
without  the  other. 

Although  the  two  classes  are  so  dependeni 
on  each  other,  the  life  of  one  is  very  differeni 
from  that  of  the  other.  Recall 
farm  life  as  described  on  page  176.  differences  in 
What  idea  have  you  formed  of  "^^'^^^^  °  ® 
farm  life  on  Southern  plantations  ?  Of  th( 
ranchman's  life  (p.  184)  ?  Of  the  miner's 
manner  of  living  (p.  231)  ?  The  lumberman's 
(p.  120)  ?     The  fisherman's  (p.  122)  ? 

Recall  on  the  other  hand,  what  was  said  about 
life  in  New  York  City  (p.  139).  Give  your  idea 
of  factory  life ;  of  life  in  trade  and  transporta- 
tion. Which  of  these  several  occupations  dc 
you  consider  most  attractive  ?  Which  least 
attractive  ? 

It  is  difficult  to  say  which  occupation  requires 
the  hardest  work,  for  success  demands  one's 
best  effort,  no  matter  what  the  occupation  ma} 
be.  Which  are  more  sure  of  simple  food,  cloth 
ing,  and  shelter,  those  living  in  the  city  or  thosf 
in  the  country  ?  Why  ?  Which  are  more  in 
dependent  in  general?  Why?  Which  hav( 
the  better  opportunities  for  amusement  ?  Why  \ 
For  education  ?  Why  ?  For  homes  with  plentj 
of  light  and  fresh  air  ?     Why  ? 

For  many  years  the  population  of  cities  has 
been  increasing  more  rapidly  than  that  of  th< 
country,  which  suggests  that  people  prefer  cit} 
to  country  life.  Can  you  give  any  reasons  foi 
this,  in  addition  to  those  already  mentioned  ? 

No  one  place  produces  all  that  it  needs 
Which  of  your  foods  are  not  raised  neai  i 
your  home  ?    How  about  th(  I 

Dependence       i     •  p     -i         j  •  i 

of  different       kuives,    torks,    dishes,    anc 

sections  upon    spoons  ?      How     about    th( 
one  another      clothes  that  you  wear  ? 

Because  of  the  climate,  water  power 
soil,  or  for  some  other  reason,  each  par 
of  the  country  is  especially  fitted  fo: 
producing  certain  things  ;  for  instance 
eastern  Kansas,  grain;  western  Kansas 


BEVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


289 


f^tock  ;  northern  Maine,  lumber,  etc.  In- 
deed, most  of  the  articles  used  in  any 
part  of  the  country  must  be  brought  from 
other  places. 

Name  the  materials  that  the  Montana  ranch- 
man needs  to  obtain  from  the  Southern  plan- 
ter ;  from  New  England ;  from  Minneapolis ; 
( 'hicago.  Upon  what  parts  of  the  United  States 
are  the  inhabitants  of  Florida  dependent? 
^Vhat  do  they  supply  in  return  ?  Make  a  list  of 
materials  used  in  the  building  of  your  house 
and,  as  far  as  possible,  determine  where  each  one 
may  have  come  from. 

It  is  plain  that  the  different  parts  of 
the  country  are  of  vital  importance  to 
one  another,  much  as  different  parts  of 
the  body  are. 

In  spite  of  our  broad  territory,  and 
tlie  enormous  number  of  our   products, 

Our  relation  ^^^^5^  ^^®  ^^"^^  necessary 
to  our  articles  that  are   either  en- 

dependencies  tirely  lacking  or  cannot  be 
produced  in  sufficient  quantities  within 
oar  own  borders  in  America.  Name  a 
few.  (See  Table  of  Imports,  p.  488.)  Men- 
tion some  that  we  are  therefore  glad  to 
i-eceive  from  Alaska  ;  Cuba  ;  Porto  Rico  ; 
the  Hawaiian  Islands  ;  the  Philippines. 
Mention  others  that  they,  likewise,  are 
ulad  to  receive  from  us.  vState,  then, 
liow  the  United  States  and  its  dependen- 
cies are  of  advantage  to  each  other. 

2.   Other  Countries  of  North 
America 

The  principal  industries  in  southern 
(,'anada  and  Newfoundland  are  similar  to 
those  in  our  Northern  States.  Canada  and 

\\  hat    about    agriculture    in    Newfoundland 

tliose  countries  (pp.  251-252)  ?  Where 
is  coal  mined  in  them  (p.  253)  ?  Pre- 
cious metal  (p.  252)  ?  What  about  graz- 
ing  (p.    251)?     Lumbering   (p.    253)? 


Mexico 


Fishing  and  sealing  (p.  256)?  Compare 
the  raw  products  of  southern  Canada 
with  those  of  our  Northern  States.  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  cities ;  the  lead- 
ing trade  route.  Mention  the  chief 
kinds  of  manufacturing  (pp.  258-260). 

Describe  the  surface  features  and  the 
climate  of  Mexico  (p.  263).  What  are 
the  agricultural  products 
from  its  arid  plateaus  (p. 
264)?  From  its  lowlands  (p.  266)? 
From  the  slopes  between  (p.  266)  ?  Tell 
about  the  forests  of  Mexico  (p.  264) ;  the 
mining  (p.  266).  Give  some  reasons 
why  there  is  so  little  manufacturing  in 
that  country  (p.  267).  Locate  the  prin- 
cipal cities. 

Name   the    six    republics   of   Central 
America.      Describe  the  surface   of  the 
country  and  the  climate  (p.  central 
268).    Name  the  principal  in-  America  and 
dustries  (p.  268) .    Tell  about  ^^^^  ^"^^^^ 
the  canal  across  the  isthmus  (p.  244). 

Mention  the  largest  islands  among  the 
West  Indies.  What  are  their  chief  in- 
dustries (p.  270)  ? 

3.   Relation"  of  United  States  to 
Other  Countries 

What  industries  found  in  the  United 
States  are  not  found,  or   are   little    de- 
veloped,   in    Canada  ?       In 
Sn^J^wL     Mexico?     In  Central  Amer- 

sending  away 

some  goods       ica  ?      What    industries    of 

and  receivmg  ^^y  q^q  q£  ^j^^g  latter  COUn- 
others  /  i-         -i    •         ^ 

tries  are  not  round  m   the 

United  States  ? 

The    United   States   as   a   whole,    as 

well  as  most   of  its   sections,   produces 

far   more    of   some    materials   than   its 

people  can  consume.      Other  important 

articles  must  come  wholly,  or  in   part, 


290 


NORTH  AMERICA 


and  their 
value 


from  other  countries.     Give  examples  of 
each. 

If  we  could  not  secure  a  market  for 
our  products  in  foreign  lands,  we  should 
suffer  greatly;  and  if  foreign  countries 
did  not  provide  us  with  what  we  need, 
we  should  suffer  again.  Other  countries 
are  in  the  same  condition.  Show  how 
it  is  true  of  Canada ;  of  Mexico.  There 
are  excellent  reasons,  therefore,  for  a 
constant  exchange  of  goods  among  the 
nations  of  the  world.  How  does  the 
size  of  our  country  give  us  a  great  ad- 
vantage in  this  respect  ? 

The  goods  that  we  send  forth  are 
called  exports,  and  those  brought  in, 
^,  imports.         Examine      the 

The  names  ,    i  i         /• 

of  such  goods,  tables  01  exports  and  imports 
on  pp.  488  and  489  and 
note  some  of  the  products 
that  we  send  away  and  some  that  we 
receive,  as  well  as  the  countries  with 
which  we  trade. 

More  than  half  of  all  our  exports  and 
imports  are  sent  by  way  of  New  York. 
Why?  Other  ports  next  in  impor- 
tance have  already  been  named  (p. 
285).  What  are  their  names  ?  The 
total  value  of  our  exports  in  1909 
was  11,250,000,000 ;  of  our  imports, 
$757,000,000. 

Some  imports  are  allowed  to  enter  the  coun- 
try  free;  but   upon  most  of  them  there  is  a 

duty;  that  is,  a  tax  for  enter- 
Meamng  and  -j^g  q^^.  cQ^^i^try.  This  duty  is  a 
'*  duties  "  source  of  income,  or  revenue,  for 

the  government.  It  is  also  in- 
tended to  protect  our  industries  by  preventing 
foreign  products  from  being  sold  in  our  country 
at  a  lower  rate  than  that  at  which  we  can  pro- 
duce them. 

However,  this  sometimes  causes  hardship. 
For  example,  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
living  near  the  border  of  Canada,  has  not  been 
allowed  to  buy  lumber  and  wood  pulp  from  that 


country  without  paying  a  duty  upon  them.  This 
causes  us  to  pay  a  higher  price  for  many  articles 
than  we  would  have  to  pay  if  no  duty  were 
placed  upon  them.  Under  such  conditions  the 
boundary  line  between  two  neighboring  coun- 
tries becomes  a  hindrance  to  trade. 


4.    Value  of  Steam  and  Electricity 
IN  Development  of  North  America 

The  use  of  steam  upon  the  water  ways 
and  railways  has  been  of  the  greatest  in- 
fluence in  the  development  Advances 
of  our  country.     A   century  made  in  a 
ago  it  required  two  days  to  ^^^'^^'^^y 
travel  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia, 
and  six  days  from  New  York  to  Boston, 
the  latter  journey   being  possible  only 
twice  a  week  by  stage. 

At  that  time  there  were  but  thirteen 
daily  newspapers  in  the  United  States, 
and  neither  papers  nor  books  could  be 
sent  by  mail.  To  send  a  letter  cost  from 
six  to  twenty-five  cents,  ctccording  to  the 
distance ;  and  because  the  expense  of 
carrying  letters  was  great,  they  were  not 
sent  from  the  smaller  towns  until  a 
sufficient  number  were  collected  to 
make  it  worth  while. 

We  can  now  travel  as  far  in  an  hour 
as  our  forefathers  could  travel  in  a  day, 
and  with  much  greater  comfort.  There 
are  over  two  thousand  daily  newspapers, 
and  these,  as  well  as  letters,  may  be  sent 
quickly  and  cheaply  to  every  section  of 
the  country.  We  can  send  a  telegram 
to  a  distant  point  in  an  instant,  and  can 
talk  by  telephone  with  a  person  hundreds 
of  miles  away,  even  recognizing  the 
tones  of  his  voice.  How  wonderful  these 
facts  would  have  been  to  persons  living 
a  hundred  years  ago  ! 

The  effect  of  such  mighty  changes  is 
seen   in   every   direction.      Each    year 


REVIEW  OF  NORTH  AMERICA 


291 


thousands  of  carloads  of  fruit  are  shipped 

,,.    .      ,         to  Eastern  cities  from  Cali- 
Tne  impor- 
tance of  these    fornia.      If  there    were    no 
advances  railways,    how    could   such 

fruits  reach  these  cities  ?  What,  then, 
would  be  the  effect  on  southern  Califor- 
nia ?  Also,  how  could  the  corn  of  the 
Central  States  be  marketed?  And 
how  could  furniture,  sugar,  and  coffee 
be  brought  to  the  Western  farmer's 
door  ?  • 

If  our  railway  trains  and  steamboats 
should  all  suddenly  stop  running,  there 
would  be  a  famine  in  every  large  city 
within  a  few  days.  Even  now,  when 
heavy  falls  of  snow  block  the  trains  for 
a  day  or  two,  the  supply  of  milk,  meat, 
and  other  foods  quickly  runs  low,  and 
the  prices  rise  to  several  times  their 
usual  value. 

When  our  Union  was  formed,  more 
than  a  century  ago,  many  wise  persons 
believed  that  it  was  bound  to  be  a 
failure.  Our  population  was  so  scattered 
(Fig.  141)  that  people  living  in  one  part 
Their  in-  were    likely   to    know   and 

fluence  on  care  little  about  those  in 
government  ^^^leY  and  distant  parts.  It 
seemed  probable  that  quarrels  and  wars 
would  arise,  due  to  differences  of  opinion, 
and  therefore  that  our  Republic  might 
be  split  into  several  rival  countries. 


Just  the  opposite  ha^  happened.  Our 
people  are  closely  united  in  interests, 
and  are  working  well  together.  At  the 
same  time  our  boundaries  have  been  so 
enlarged  as  to  include  far  more  territory 
than  was  at  first  thought  possible  (Fig. 
142). 

Aside  from  that,  since  1821,  millions  of 
foreigners  have  settled  in  this  country, 
representing  all  the  principal  races  of 
mankind  (See  Appendix),  and  many  of 
the  leading  languages,  religions,  and  po- 
litical beliefs  of  the  world.  In  spite  of 
all  this,  we  have  kept  in  such  close  touch 
with  one  another  that  our  Union  has 
grown  stronger  and  stronger. 

Each  day,  by  rail  and  water,  articles 
are  sent  to  all  parts  of  the  country.  In 
all  the  states  the  people  read  the  same 
news  every  morning ;  and  whatever 
books  are  found  especially  valuable  in 
.  one  section  quickly  become  known  in 
others.  Thus  we  enjoy  far  better  op- 
portunities for  education  than  formerly, 
and  we  learn  to  know  one  another  ;  we 
have  the  same  thoughts,  and  we  feel  a 
common  sympathy.  So  far  as  meeting 
and  understanding  one  another  are 
concerned,  our  country  is  really  far 
smaller  than  it  was  a  hundred  years 
ago ;  we  are  living  together  like  one 
very  large  family. 


PART  lY.     GEIfERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


SECTION  I.    WINDS  AND  RAIN 


1.   Winds  ^ 

In  our  study  of  North  America,  we 
have  learned  that  the  winds  of  different 
Principal  sections  come  from  different 

winds  of  directions.     For  example,  in 

North  America  ^|^g  ^y^g^  Indies,  in  Central 

America,  and  in  southern  Mexico,  the 
winds  usually  blow  from  the  northeast  ; 
but  on  the  western  side  of  the  continent, 


westerly  direction.  In  the  eastern  par 
of  the  United  States,  on  the  other  hand 
the  winds  are  irregular  in  direction 
although  they  blow  more  often  from  th( 
west  than  from  any  other  quarter. 

Many  other  parts  of  the  earth  hav< 
regular  winds,  just  as  North  principal 
America  has.     In  fact,  there  winds  of 
are  regions  extending  all  the  *^®  ®^ 
way  around  the  earth  —  like  wide  belt! 


Fig.  405.  —  A  diagram  to  show  the  principal  wind  belts  of  the  earth. 

all  the  way  from  San  Francisco  to  Alaska,     — where  the  winds  come  generally  from 
the   wind  blows  quite  regularly  from  a     the  same  quarter.     These  wind  belts  are 

^  Review  Part  I  (pp.  54-59)  before  studying  this  section.     For  latitude,  longitude,  standard  time,  anc 
revolution  of  the  earth,  see  Appendices  I  and  II,  pp.  492^99. 

292 


WINDS  AND  RAIN 


293 


hown  somewhat  clearly  by  the  arrows 
Figure  405. 

Make  a  list   of  the   names  that  you 

nd  on  this  map.     Near  the  equator  you 

nd  the  Belt  of  Calms  which  is  several 

undred    miles    wide.      The   winds   are 

lowing    toward    this    hot  region  from 

oth   sides.     Those   on   the    north   are 

ailed  the  northeast  trade  winds;  those 

n  the  south,  the  southeast  trade  winds. 

hese   trade    winds   start   hundreds  of 

miles  away,  in  the  temperate  zones,  and 

blow   steadily  toward  the  equator,  day 

after  day  and  month  after  month. 

All  the  air  that  moves  toward  the 
equator  in  these  trade  winds  must  escape 
somewhere.  It  really  rises  in  the  torrid 
zone ;  and  since  the  air  is  moving  up- 
ward, no  wind  can  be  felt  in  this  belt. 
It  is  therefore  a  belt  of  calms.  What 
winds  do  blow  are  usually  light  and 
changeable. 

The  air  that  rises  in  the  belt  of  calms 
flows  away,  high  above  the  surface, 
toward  the  north  and  the  south.  It 
forms  the  return  trade,  or  antitrade  winds, 
which  blow  above  the  trade  winds,  and 
in  the  opposite  direction.  Some  of  this 
air  continues  on,  far  to  the  north  in  the 
northern  hemisphere,  and  far  to  the 
south  in  the  southern  hemisphere.  But 
some  of  it  settles  to  the  earth  in  the 
belts  called  the  horse  latitudes.  Since 
the  air  here  is  coming  down,  little  wind 
is  felt.  The  horse  latitudes,  therefore, 
are  also  belts  of  light  winds  and  calms. 
Beyond  the  horse  latitudes,  in  each  hemi- 
sphere, the  winds  usually  blow  from  a 
westerly  direction.  These  two  wind 
belts  are  called,  therefore,  the,  prevailing 
westerlies.  It  is  in  the  northern  belt 
that  most  of  the  United  States  is  situated. 
In  what   belt   do   Mexico  and   Central 


America  lie  ?  What  part  of  North 
America  is  in  the  horse  latitudes  ?  Where 
does  the  belt  of  calms  cross  the  New 
World  ? 

Although  eastern  United  States  lies 
in  the  belt  of  prevailing  westerlies,  its 
winds   are   quite    irregular.  ^       , 

111  Irregular 

The  greatest  number   blow  winds  of  east- 

f  rom  the  west ;  but  there  are  6™  United 

.  States 

also  many  winds  from  the 

north,  south,  and  east.      The  reason  for 

this  is  that  the  direction  of  the  wind  is 

changed  by  storms,  called  cyclonic  storms, 

which  move  across  the  country  from  west 

to  east.     The  wind  blows  from  all  sides 

toward  the  center  of  such  storms,  as  is 

shown  in  Figure  410.     Thus,  at  a  certain 

place  the  wind  on  one  day  may  be  from 

the   east;    then,   as   the    storm   slowly 

moves  eastward,  the  wind  at  that  place 

changes  to  south,  then  to  the  west,  etc. 

2.   Rain 

Knowing  the  wind  belts  of  the  earth, 
we  have  a  key  to  the  principal  rain 
belts ;  for  the  winds  are  Relation  of 
the  water  carriers  of  the  winds  to  rain 
earth.  Water  that  rises  as  vapor  is 
borne  along  in  the  air  and  descends 
to  the  earth  as  rain  or  snow.  It  falls 
in  great  abundance  in  some  places, 
and  scarcely  at  all  in  others. 

Where  the  wind  brings  much  vapor, 
there  can  be  an  abundance  of  rain; 
but  where  it  has  little  vapor.  Principal 
the  rainfall  must  be  light,  cause  of  rain 
Winds  that  blow  from  the  ocean  bring  the 
most  vapor,  for  more  vapor  rises  into 
the  air  from  the  ocean  than  from  the 
land.  It  is  very  important,  therefore, 
whether  the  prevailing  winds  are  from 
the  land  or  from  the  ocean. 


294 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 


The  regular 
rain  belt ; 
1.    In  North 
America 


These  facts  are  well  illustrated  in  the 
rains  of  North  America.  The  north- 
east trade  winds,  which 
gather  a  large  amount  of 
vapor  from  the  ocean,  de- 
posit it  on  the  northeastern 
slopes  of  the  West  Indies,  southern 
Mexico,  and  Central  America.  But 
the  southwestern  slopes  of  the  West 
Indies  receive  a 
much  smaller 
quantity  of  rain; 
and  the  western 
coast  of  Mexico 
is  quite  arid. 

Farther  north 
the  prevailing 
westerlies,  having 
traveled  a  long 
distance  over  the 
Pacific  Ocean, 
likewise  cause 
heavy  rains  along 
the  western  coast 
of  North  America 
(Fig.  406).  These 
winds  lose  much 
of  their  moisture 
in  passing  over  the  western  highlands, 
and  the  land  farther  east,  therefore, 
receives  very  little  rain. 

Northern  Mexico  and  the  southwest- 
ern part  of  the  United  States,  which 
lie  within  the  horse  latitudes,  receive 
very  little  rain  and  are  arid.  This  is 
true  even  at  the  very  seashore  in  south- 
ern California.  The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  air  in  the  horse  latitudes  is  con- 
stantly descendingandbecomingwarmer  ; 
and  air  that  is  growing  warmer  will  take 
up  more  vapor,  instead  of  giving  up 
what  it  has. 

As  you  study  about   other   parts  of 


Fig.  40(5.  —  The  heavy  rainfall  where  the  prevailing  westerlies 
blow  over  the  rising  coast.  What  is  the  condition  farther 
east  ?    What  is  the  case  where  the  trade  winds  blow  ?    Why  ? 


the  world  you  will  find  that  the  same 
thing  is  true  there  as  in  North  America.|i 
This    is    illustrated    in   the  „    ,     ^ 

.  2.     In  other 

map  showing  the  rainfall  of  regions  of 
the  world  (Fig.  407).  There  ^^«*^y '^^^^^^ 
you  see  that  the  heaviest  rainfall  in 
Europe  is  on  the  western  side,  because 
the  prevailing  westerlies  blow  upon  that 
coast.  In  the  southern  belt  of  prevailing 
westerlies,  in 
South  America 
also,  the  heaviest 
rainfall  is  on  the 
western  coast,  and 
there  is  little  rain- 
fall farther  east. 

Find  places  in 
Asia,  South  Amer- 
ica, and  Africa 
where  there  is 
heavy  rainfall  on 
the  eastern  coasts 
in  the  trade-wind 
belts.  The  belt 
of  heaviest  rain- 
fall is  in  the  belt 
of  calms.  The 
reason  for  this  is 
that  the  air  there  rises ;  and  air  that  is 
rising  is  growing  cooler  and  is  therefore 
forced  to  give  up  some  of  its  vapor, 
forming  clouds  and  rain.  In  the  belt 
of  calms  it  rains  day  after  day,  for  the 
air  there  is  steadily  rising  and  growing 
cooler. 

The  map  of  rainfall  of  the  world 
(Fig.  407)  shows  places  where  there 
are  less  than  ten  inches  of  3.  i^  desert 
rain  a  year.  Such  places  regions 
are  usually  deserts,  since  there  is  too 
little  rain  for  most  kinds  of  plants 
to  grow.  Some  of  these  deserts  lie 
.  in  the  dry  belts  of  the  horse  latitudes ; 


296 


GENERAL    GEOGRAPHY 


I 


and  some  lie  where  mountain  ranges 
have  cut  off  the  supply  of  vapor  from 
the  ocean.  But  some  of  the  largest 
deserts,  like  those  of  Af- 
rica, Asia,  and  Australia, 
lie  in  the  trade-wind  belts. 
It  may  seem  strange 
that  the  trade  winds  cause 
heavy  rainfall  on  the 
coasts  against  which  they 
blow,  and  deserts  in  other 
places.  The  reason  is 
simple.  On  reaching  any 
coast  after  blowing  over 
the  ocean,  they  are  laden 
with  vapor ;  and,  as  they 
rise  over  the  land,  the  air 
is  cooled  and  thus  forced 
to  drop  some  of  this  mois- 
ture. On  the  other  hand, 
winds  that  have  blown  for 
a  Jong  distance  over  the 
land  contain  less  vapor ;  and  they  keep 
most   of   this,   unless   they   happen   to 


Thus  far  only  the  regular  wind  and 
rain  belts  have  been  considered.  From 
what  has  been  said,  one  might  expect 


Fig.  409.  —  A  weather  map  of  the  United  States  on  a  winter's  day.  The  center 
of  tlie  storm — where  the  air  is  lightest  —  is  the  place  marked  low  pressure  area. 
The  arrows  show  the  wind  blowing  toward  this  point  from  all  sides.  The  fig- 
ures show  the  pressure  of  the  air,  as  measured  by  an  instrument  called  the 
barometer. 


that  the  west  winds,  so  dry  after  passing 
over  the    highlands  of  western    United 

States,     would     continue 

eastward   and   cause   our 

Central      and 

Eastern  States 

to  be  arid.  As 

a    matter    of 

fact,  we  know 

that  plenty  of 

rain  falls  in  this  section, 

as  shown  by  Figure  408. 


The  irregular 
rains  of  east- 
ern United 
States  and 
Canada 
(1)  Kind  of 
weather  here 


Fig.  410.  — Weather  map  for  the  day  following  that  of  Figure  409.    Study  this 
map  carefully,  and  tell  how  it  differs  from  Figure  409. 


pass  over  land  that  is  high  enough  to 
cool  the  air  greatly. 


We  know,  too,  that  there 
are  no  very  regular  winds 
over  this  entire  area;  on 
the  contrary,  both  winds 
and  temperature  are  quite 
changeable.  It  may  be 
warm  and  pleasant,  with 
a  south  wind,  on  one  day  ;  the  next  day 
a   cool,   dry  wind  may  blow  from  the 


WINDS  AND  RAIN 


297 


northwest ;  after  two  or  three  days  this 
may  give  place  to  a  cloudy  sky  and  rain, 
brought  on  by  south  or  east  winds ; 
and  then  fair,  cool  weather,  with  north- 
west winds,  may  again  set  in. 

The  reason  for  such  changeable 
weather  here  is  that  this  region  is 
crossed  by  the  great  cyclonic 
storms  already  mentioned 
(p .  2  9  3 ) .  In  them  the  winds 
are  blowing  from  all  sides  toward  the 


(2)  The  reason 
for  such 
weather 


same  storm.  As  the  storm  moves  east- 
ward, it  carries  rain  farther  east,  and 
the  weather  begins  to  clear  on  the  westr 
ern  side  (Figs.  409  and  410). 

The  vapor  that  causes  the  rain  ia  these 
storms  is  brought  from  the  Gulf  of  Mexico  and 
the  Atlantic  Ocean,  being  carried  by  the  winds 
for  hundreds  of  miles,  and  even  into  Canada. 

Since  the  storms  usually  start  in  the 
west,  and  move  eastward,  it  is  possible 


Fig.  411.  —  A  diagram  section  through  a  cyclonic  storm  area.  The  arrows  show  the  direction  of  the  winds  ;  the  shaded 
area  represents  clouds  and  rain.  The  storm  extends  from  near  the  Appalachian  Mountains  (.4)  nearly  to  the 
Mississippi  River  (Jf). 


(3)  The  move- 
ment of  the  cy- 
clonic storms, 
and  their  extent 


center  —  where  the  air  is  lightest  —  and 
then  rising.  As  the  air  rises,  the  vapor 
condenses,  forming  clouds  and  rain  (Fig. 
411),  as  in  the  belt  of  calms. 

Instead  of  remaining  in  one  place,  the 
cyclonic  storms  travel  steadily  onward, 
usually  beginning  in  the 
northwest,  and  always  pass- 
ing eastward  (Fig.  410). 
The  paths  follow^ed  by  the 
storm  centers  generally  pass  over  the 
Great  Lakes,  and  down  the  St.  Law- 
rence Valley  to  the  ocean.  They  move 
eastward  because  the  prevailing  wester- 
lies carry  them  along. 

These  storms  bring  most  of  the  rain 
that  falls  in  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada, east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  The 
area  of  country  upon  which  the  rain 
may  be  falling  from  the  clouds  of  one 
of  the  cyclonic  storms  is  sometimes  very 
great.  (See  Fig.  411.)  Indeed,  places 
fully  a  thousand  miles  apart  sometimes 
receive  rain  at  the  same  time,  from  the 


to  predict  their  coming,  and  therefore  to 
tell  in  advance  what  changes  are  likely 
to    occur    in    the    weather.   ,.,  „    .^.,., 

.  .  (4)  Possioihty 

Such  predictions  are  so  im-  of  predicting 
portant  that  the  United  '''''' '''''^' 
States  government  employs  a  large  force 
of  men,  stationed  in  different  parts  of 
the  country,  to  study  the  weather. 
They  telegraph  their  results  to  the  cen- 
tral office  at  Washington,  where  a  spe- 
cial branch  of  the  government,  called  the 
Weather  Bureau,  has  been  established  to 
have  charge  of  this  work. 

The  storm  predictions  are  telegraphed  from 
Washington  to  all  parts  of  the  country,  so  that 
one  knows  what  kind  of  weather  to  expect  a 
full  day  before  it  comes.  These  predictions 
are  usually  printed  in  the  newspapers,  as  you 
no  doubt  know. 

Maps,  called  weather  maps,  also  are  sent  out 
in  great  numbers.  Figures  409  and  410  are 
made  from  such  maps.  From  these  maps  you 
can  see  how  the  direction  of  the  wind  at  any 
one  point  changes  as  the  storm  passes  over  the 
country. 


298 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


By  the  predictions  of  the  Weather  Bureau, 
farmers  and  gardeners  are  warned  against  dam- 
aging frosts,  and  sailors  against 
ib)  Value  of        severe  Storms.  Hundreds  of  thou- 
such  warnings  t         p    j    n  ^^  ■, 

sands  of   dollars  are  thus  saved 

every  year.  Especially  valuable  service  has 
been  rendered  by  the  Weather  Bureau  in  pre- 
dicting the  fierce  hurricanes  that  start  in  the 
West  Indies  and  some- 
times do  great  damage 
there,  as  well  as  on  our 
own  coast  (Fig.  412). 
These  resemble  the  cyclo- 
nic storms,  but  are  much 
more  destructive.  They 
often  pass  along  our  east- 
ern coastj  and  then  east- 
ward out  into  the  Atlantic. 
Since  cyclonic  storms 
have  so  great  an  influence 
on  our  weather,  you  will 
find  it  of  interest  to  study 
the  weather  yourself. 
Watch  the  changes  in 
wind,  temperature,  clouds, 
and  rain.  You  might  also 
examine  the  weather  map 
and  observe  the  weather  that  follows,  to  see 
how  accurately  the  map  predicts  the  weather. 

1.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  regular  winds 
ofthe United  States?  2.  Oftheearth?  3.  Name 
the  wind  belts  of  the  earthy  4.  State  some 
facts  about  the  belt  of  calms.  5.  Of  horse 
latitudes.  6.  In  what  wind  belt 
is  northern  United  States? 
7.  What  is  the  cause  of  the 
winds  of  eastern  United  States  ? 
is  the  relation  of  winds  to  rain  ? 
9.  Locate  the  regular  rain  belts  in  North  Amer- 
ica. 10.  Where  is  there  especially  heavy  rainfall 
in  other  parts  of  the  earth  ?  11.  Why  is  the 
belt  of  calms  a  rain  belt  ?     12.   State  the  reason 


for  the  desert  regions  of  the  earth.  13.  De- 
scribe the  weather  in  eastern  United  States. 
14o  State  the  reason  for  this  kind  of  weather. 
15.  In  what  direction  do  the  cyclonic  storms 
move,  and  what  is  their  extent  ?  16.  What 
about  the  possibility  of  predicting  these  storms? 
17.  How  is  that  work  managed  ?  18.  How 
are  the  warnings  of  value  ? 


Review 
Questions 

irregular 
8.    What 


Fig.  412.  —  A  scene  in  Galveston.  Texas,  showing  the  vast  destruction  done  by  a  hur- 
ricane in  1900,  when  many  of  the  houses  were  torn  to  pieces  during  the  storm. 

1.  Estimate  the  number  of  barrels  of  water 
that  falls  on  an  acre  of  ground,  or  upon  a  city 
block,  in  one  year,  where  the  rain- 
fall is  forty  inches.  2.  Make  a  Suggestions 
drawing  to  show  the  direction  of  the  regular 
winds  of  the  earth.  3.  Watch  the  higher 
clouds  to  see  in  what  direction  they  are  moving. 
4.  Write  an  account  of  the  changes  in  weather 
for  five  days  in  succession :  the  wind  direction 
and  force ;  the  clouds ;  the  rain  ;  the  tempera- 
ture. 5.  Read  the  chapter  on  winds  and  storms 
in  Tarr's  New  Physical  Geography,  pp.  255-274. 
6.  Study  Figure  408  and  tell  what  sections 
have  heavy  rainfall. 


OCEAN  MOVEMENTS,   AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  TEMPERATURE 


299 


SECTION   II.     OCEAN  MOVEMENTS,  AND   DISTRIBUTION   OF 

TEMPERATURE 


1.   Tides 

People  living  upon  the  seacoast  know 
that  the  ocean  water  rises  for  about  six 
hours,  and  then  slowly  falls  for  the  same 
What  the  period.       This     rising    and 

tides  are  falling  of  the  water,  twice 

each  day,  is  known  as  the  tides. 

The  tidal  wave  is  only  two  or  three 
feet  high  upon  islands  in  the  open  ocean  ; 
Height  of  the  ^iit  it  rises  much  higher  in 
tidal  wave ,  many  bays,  because  the  space 
that  it  occupies  becomes  narrower  near 
the  head  of  a  bay.  In  some  places 
the  tide  reaches  a  height  of  forty  or  fifty 
feet. 

The  height  of  tide  also  varies  from  day  to 
day  ;  for  the  moon  and  the  sun,  which  combine  to 
cause  it,  do  not  always  work  together.  At  new 
moon,  and  at  full  moon,  —  when  the  earth, 
moon,  and  sun  are  nearly  in  a  straight  line,  — 
the  moon  and  sun  pull  together.  They  then 
njake  the  tidal  wave  higher  than  at  the  quarter, 
when  the  sun  is  pulling  in  one  direction  and 
the  moon  in  another.  The  high  range  of  tides 
at  full  and  new  moon  are  called  spring  tides ; 
those  at  the  quarters,  neap  tides. ' 

In  the  open  ocean  the  tides  are  of  little 
or  no  consequence.  But  along  the  coast. 
Effects  of  where  the  water  rises  and 
titles  falls  against  the  beaches  and 

cliffs,  they  are  of  much  importance. 
Where  the  coast  is  irregular,  the  tide  is 
often  changed  to  a  current,  which  some- 
times moves  so  rapidly'  that  a  sailing 
vessel  cannot  make  headway  against  it, 
but  must  wait  until  the  tide  changes. 
Such  a  rapid  current  is  found  in  one  of 
the  entrances  to  New  York  harbor,  at 
what  is  known  as  Hell  Gate,  where  the 
channel  is  narrow  and  rocky. 


These  tidal  currents  move  in  one  direction 
during  the  incoming,  or  flood,  tide,  and  in  the 
opposite  direction  during  the  outgoing,  or  ehh, 
tide.  They  sometimes  drift  vessels  out  of  their 
course  and  place  them  in  dangerous  positions. 
Many  a  ship  has  been  wrecked  upon  a  coast 
where  it  was  drifted  by  the  tidal  currents. 

The  tidal  currents  often  carry  mud  and  sand 
hither  and  thither,  building  sand  bars  opposite 
the  mouths  of  harbors.  For  example,  they  bring 
large  quantities  of  sand  into  the  mouth  of 
New  York  harbor  and  along  the  coast  farther 
south.  This  is  one  of  the  reasons  why  the  gov- 
ernment is  obliged  to  spend  large  sums  of  money 
every  year  in  improving  our  harbors. 

2.   Ocean  Currents 

If  you  blow  across  the  surface  of  a  pail 
of  water,  you  start  a  small  current,  or 
drift,  of  the  water  which  Main  cause  of 
moves  in  the  direction  you  ocean  currents 
blow.  Winds  that  blow  over  the  ocean 
also  drift  the  w^ater  before  them. 
Where  the  winds  blow  steadily,  as  in 
the  trade-wind  belts,  there  is  a  constant 
drift  of  water,  pushed  along  by  the  pre- 
vailing winds.  In  this  way  a  great  sys- 
tem of  ocean  currents  is  formed  (Fig.  413), 
which  have  a  great  influence  on  the 
temperature  of  the  earth. 

In  our  study  of  North  America  it  was 
necessary  several  times  to  refer  to  two 
of  these  currents,  the  Gulf  Stream  and 
the  Labrador  current.  We  will  now 
study  the  ocean  currents,  on  each  side 
of  our  continent,  more  fully. 

In  the  Atlantic,  where  the  trade  winds 
blow,  the    surface    water  drifts    slowly 
in    the   direction   of    these  xhe  North 
winds ;  that  is,  toward  the  Atlantic  eddy 
belt  of  calms  from  both  the  northeast 
and  the  southeast.  The  water  then  moves 


800 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


westward,  as  a  great  Equatorial  Drift, 
until  it  reaches  the  coast  of  South 
America,  which  prevents  it  from  going 
farther  west  (Fig.  413).  There  the  drift 
of  water  is  divided,  a  part  being  turned 
southward,  while  the  greater  portion 
continues  toward  the  northwest. 


Atlantic  is  called   the   North   Atlantic 
Eddy  (Figs.  413  and  414). 

Coming  from  the  torrid  zone,  the  water  in  this 
huge  eddy  is  warm,  and  in  it  Uve  countless  mil- 
lions of  animals  and  of  floating  plants.  Among 
the  latter,  one  of  the  most  common  is  a  seaweed, 
called  Sargassum,  some  of  which  is  thrown  into 


/„       ^^.     » 'tropic  OF  CANCER  :: *>/,-,    ^  -.  s  ,  .=.-.-,    ,^ 

^..EQUATOR   ,«— "^-^  *~ '3~,  ^^^"rr* '^-  "-^f-^-^*,/     ^^^       J_/ 
^•^r^^^^^♦^^-_<•      /y  <-.-^  j-.^_-i^^»- t  K\     south; 


^K — t' 


"'1-w     *" 

^^^ 


"Kjpfflfl'    mix,*'  I     — 


Fia.  413.  — A  chart  showing  the  principal  ocean  currents  and  ocean  drifts  of  the  world. 


The  part  that  flows  northwest  is  turned 
toward  the  right  by  the  effect  of  the  rota- 
tion of  the  earth  ;  and  the  part  that  flows 
into  the  South  Atlantic  is  turned  to  the 
left,  also  by  the  effect  of  rotation.  The 
northern  drift  keeps  turning  to  the  right, 
and  therefore  swings  out'  into  the  Atlan- 
tic toward  Europe.  Continuing  to  turn, 
it  then  passes  southward,  and  finally 
returns  to  the  trade-wind  belt,  where  it 
started,  having  made  .a  complete  circle. 
This  circular  drift  of  water  in  the  North 


the  middle  of  the  great  eddy.  There  it  has 
collected  until  it  now  forms  a  grassy,  or  Sargasso, 
sea,  hundreds  of  miles  in  extent.  Since  the 
Sargasso  Sea  lies  directly  between  Spain  and 
the  West  Indies,  Columbus  had  to  cross  it  on 
his  first  voyage  of  discovery ;  and  his  sailors, 
upon  entering  it,  were  jnuch  alarmed  lest  they 
might  run  aground,  or  become  so  entangled  in 
the  weed  that  they  could  not  escape. 

A  portion  of  the  water  in  the  North 
Atlantic    Eddy    enters    the  The  Gulf 
Caribbean     Sea     and     then  stream 
passes  into  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.     Thus  a 


OCEAN  MOVEMENTS,  AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  TEMPERATURE 


301 


broad,  deep,  gently  flowing  current  enters 
these  inclosed  seas,  which  are  nearly  sur- 
rounded by  warm,  tropical  lands.  There 
the  water  grows  even  warmer  than  it 
was  before. 

After  circling  slowly  round  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  the  water  escapes  between 
Cuba  and  Florida.     The   current  then 


HnLLiAUS  ttii    CO 


Fig.  414.  —  A  diagram  to  show  the  currents  of  the  North  Atlantic.  In  order  to 
illustrate  the  currents  clearly,  it  has  seemed  necessary  to  make  them  as  if 
they  were  sharply  bounded,  like  a  river  in  its  channel.  However,  the  bound- 
aries of  these  great  currents  and  drifts  are  so  indefinite  that  one  would  not 
be  able  to  detect  the  boundaries. 

becomes  known  as  the  GuJf  Stream 
(Fig.  414),  because  it  comes  from  the 
QuJf  of  Mexico.  Being  forced  to  pass 
out  through  so  narrow  an  opening,  it  is 
caused  to  move  faster,  as  water  in  a 
hose  is  made  to  increase  its  speed  by 
passing  through  the  nozzle.  Measure 
the  distance  from  Key  West  to  Havana 
(Fig.  192).  In  this  region  the  Gulf 
Stream  flows  as  fast  as  four  or  five  miles 
an  hour. 

This  stream  also  turns  to  the  right, 
soon  leaving  the  American  coast  and 
flowing      northeast      toward     northern 


Europe.  On  its  way  it  grows  broader 
and  unites  with  the  western  part  of  the 
great  North  Atlantic  Eddy,  In  crossing 
the  Atlantic,  this  great  current,  or  drift, 
is  pushed  along  by  the  prevailing  west- 
erlies, so  that  it  reaches  the  shores  of 
northern  Europe,  and  even  enters  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  In  this  part  of  its  course 
the  current  is  called  the 
West  Wind  Drift.  Some 
idea  of  its  volume  may 
be  gained  from  the  fact 
that  it  carries  many 
times  as  much  water  as 
all  the  rivers  of  the 
world  together. 

Some  of  the  water 
that  flows  northward  in 
this  great  drift  returns  in 

a    cold    SUr-   The  Labrador 
face        cur-   current 

rent,  called  the  Labrador 
Current.     Starting  from 
among    the    islands   of 
northern  North  America, 
the    Labrador     Current 
flows   past  the  coast  of 
Labrador,       Newfound- 
land, Nova   Scotia,  and 
New  England  as  far  as  Cape  Cod.     It 
follows  our  coast  very  closely,  keeping 
nearer  our  shore  than  the  Gulf  Stream 
does. 

Since  there  are  two  ctirrents  near  together,  a 
cold  one  from  the  north  and  a  warm  one  from 
the  south,  a  vessel  sailing  from  Boston  to  Europe 
must  cross  both.  In  winter,  during  a  storm,  a 
ship  often  becomes  covered  with  snow  and  ice 
while  in  the  cold  Labrador  Current;  but  soon 
after  entering  the  warm  Gulf  Stream  this  all 
melts  away. 

Where  the  cold  and  warm  currents  approach 
each  other,  dense  fogs  are  common.  The 
reason  for  this  is  that  warm,  damp  winds  from 


r         ^,////,///.A 


302 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


the  Gulf  Stream  are  chilled  in  crossing  the 
Labrador  Current.  This  causes  some  of  the 
vapor  to  condense  and  form  fog.  The  region 
near  the  coasts  of  Nova  Scotia  and  Newfound- 
land is  one  of  the  most  foggy  regions  in  the 
world,  and  is  therefore  a  dangerous  place  for 
vessels. 

In  the  Pacific  Ocean,  as  in  the  Atlan- 
tic (Fig.  413),  the  water  is  driven  before 
Currents  in  the  the  trade  winds.  Thus  a 
North  Pacific  broad  drift  is  formed,  mov- 
ing westward  in  the  belt  of  calms.  Then 
a  warm  current  swings  to  the  right  past 
Japan,  crossing  the  ocean  toward  Alaska. 
This  is  called  the  Japanese 
Current.  Continuing  to  turn 
to  the  right,  this  ocean  drift 
passes  southward,  forming  a 
great  eddy.  There  is  also  a 
cold  current  from  the  north, 
between  the  Japanese  Current 
and  the  coast  of  Asia.  It  re- 
sembles the  Labrador  Current, 
but  is  smaller  and  not  so  cold. 

From  what  has  been  said, 
we  see  that  the  northeastern 
coasts  of  both  North  America 
and  Asia  are  bathed  by  ocean 
currents  from  the  cold  north. 
The  northwestern  coasts  of 
Europe  and  North  America, 
on  the  other  hand,  are  approached  by 
warm  drifts  of  water  from  the  south. 

In  the  South  Atlantic,   South   Pacific,  and 
Indian  oceans,  there  are  eddies  similar  to  those 
of  the  North  Atlantic  and   the 
Eddies  of  ^^^^^  Pacific.     There  is  one  very 

the  southern  ■      .      to-  , 

oceans  important    difference,    however. 

In  the  southern  hemisphere  the 
currents  are  turned  to  the  left,  instead  of 
the  right,  by  the  effect  of  rotation.  Some  of  the 
water  of  these  eddies  joins  the  broad  West  Wind 
Drijt  of  the  distant  southern  ocean  ;  but  much 
of  it  turns  northward  until  it  once  more  reaches 
the  trade-wind  belt  (Fig.  413). 


The  cold  Labrador  Current  greatly  in- 
fluences the  temperature  of   the  neigh- 
boring land  ;  for  winds  that 
blow  over  the  Labrador  Cur-  Effects  of 
rent  are  cooled,  and  carry  the  °*^®^"  currents 
chill  far  inland.     This  is  one  America 
of  the  reasons  why  the  east  ^    Effects 
winds  of  New  England  are  so  current*  °^ 
cool,  and  why  the. New  Eng- 
land coast  is  such  an  agreeable  summer 
resort. 

The  Labrador  Current  bears  with  it  much 
ice  from  the  Arctic  region.  Some  of  this  is 
sea  ice,  or   "floe  ice,"   which  has  been  frozen 


Fig.  415. 


A  polar  bear  hunting  seal  on  the  floe  ice  that  is  floating 
southward  in  the  Labrador  Current. 

during  the  winter ;  and  some  of  it  is  in  the  form 
of  huge  icebergs,  which  have  broken  off  from 
the  Greenland  Glaciers.  Seals  are  often  seen 
on  the  floe  ice,  and  now  and  then  a  polar  bear, 
which  preys  upon  the  seal  (Fig.  415). 

Most  of  the  sea  ice  melts  before  reaching  New- 
foundland; but  the  icebergs  may  be  carried 
even  farther  southward  before  they  melt.  In- 
deed, some  of  them  float  even  as  far  south 
as  the  paths  followed  by  vessels  which  cross 
the  Atlantic.  Since  many  of  these  icebergs  are 
larger  than  a  large  building,  collision  with  one 
means  shipwreck ;  therefore  sailors  need  to  use 
great  caution,  especially  when  a  ship  is  in  the 
fog. 


OCEAN  MOVEMENTS,   AND  DISTRIBUTION  OF  TEMPERATURE 


303 


While  the  winds  from  over  the  Labra- 
dor Current  are  chilly,  those  that  blow 
2.  Effects  of  from  over  the  Gulf  Stream 
the  Gulf  stream  q^^q  warm.  They  are  also 
damp.  During  cyclonic  storms,  as  we 
have  seen,  winds  from  the  warm  waters 
off  our  southern  coast  often  carry  both 
warmth  and  moisture  far  into  the  inte- 
rior of  the  country.  Therefore  the  Gulf 
Stream,  as  well  as  the  Labrador  Current, 
has  an  important  effect  on  the  climate 
of  our  Eastern  and  Central  States. 

The  winds  that  blow  over  the  warm 

waters  of  the  North  Pacific 

tarcu:?el     causc    the    climate  'of    the 

in  the  Alaskan    coast    to    be    far 

North  Pacific  , ,  ,  i      ,        («  ■  i 

warmer  than  that  oi  soutn- 
ern  Labrador  in  the  same  latitude. 
These  west  winds  also  bring  an  abun- 
dance of  vapor  to  the  Pacific  coast, 
all  the  way  from  California  to 
Alaska. 

Where  these  warm  ocean  winds  blow, 
the  winters  are  mild  and  the  rain  heavy  ; 
but  the  summers  are  cool,  because  the 
ocean  water,  though  warmed,  does  not 
become  greatly  heated.  On  a  globe  no- 
tice that  the  State  of  Washington,  with 
its  pleasant  climate,  is  in  about  the  same 
latitude  as  the  bleak  island  of  Newfound- 
land, whose  shores  are  bathed  by  the 
Labrador  Current. 

The  warm  West  Wind  Crift  of  the 
North  Atlantic  is  of  special  benefit  to 

Effects  of  ^^^  ^^^  World.  Notice  on  a 
currents  in  map  how  many  large  cities 
other  regions  q£  northern  Europe  are  in 
the  same  latitude  as  desolate  Labrador. 
How  different  these  two  regions  are ! 
One  is  highly  civilized  and  densely  set- 
tled ;  the  other  is  occupied  only  by  scat- 
tered, half-civilized  tribes.  This  difference 
is  due  mainly  to  the  fact  that  the  prevail- 


ing west  winds  blow  over  the  warm  waters 
of  the  West  Wind  Drift. 

In  other  parts  of  the  world,  also,  the  ocean  cur- 
rents, and  the  winds  that  blow  over  them,  have  a 
great  effect  on  the  climate.  You  will  learn  about 
some  of  these  cases  when  you  study  about  for- 
eign lands. 


3.   Distribution  of  Temperature 

As  a  rule,  the  farther  one  travels  from 
the  equator,  the  colder  it  grows  ;  but 
this  is  by  no  means  always  the  case.  In 
some  parts  of  the  temperate  zone,  for 
instance,  it  is  as  hot  as  in  the  torrid  zone; 
and  in  some  parts  of  the  torrid  zone  the 
climate  is  as  cool  as  in  the  temperate 
zone. 

There  are  several   reasons   why   the 
climate  does  not  always  grow  steadily 
colder   as  one  goes  toward 
the  poles.     One  of  these  rea-  ^)l^^^'Z 

t^_  .  in  the  same 

sons  is  the  presence  of  high-  latitude  may 
lands.     It  is   a  well-known  ^*^«  different 

.  ,      1  .   1  .    .        temperatures 

lact  that  the  high  mountams 

have  a  cold  climate,  even  though  in  the 
torrid  zone.  For  the  same  reason  high 
plateaus  may  be  colder  than  lowlands 
even  far  to  the  north  of  them. 

A  second  reason  is  that  land  becomes 
warm  or  cool  much  more  rapidly  than 
water.  Land  becomes  hotter  than  the 
ocean  in  summer,  and  colder  in  winter. 
Thus,  in  northern  Minnesota,  far  from 
the  ocean,  the  average  temperature  in 
January  is  below  zero  ;  but  in  July  it  is 
about  65°  (Figs.  416  and  417).  In  New 
York  City,  on  the  seacoast,  the  average 
in  January  is  about  25°  and  in  July  not 
quite  75°.  Thus  the  difference  between 
the  summer  and  winter  months  in  north- 
ern Minnesota  is  more  than  65° ;  but  in 
New  York  City  it  is  not  over  50°. 


304 


GENEBAL    GEOGBAPHY 


The  winds  are  a  third  cause  of  differ- 
ences in  temperature.  When  the  prevail- 
ing winds  are  from  the 
ocean,  they  cause  an  even, 
or  equable,  chmate,  as  in 
Cahfornia,  Oregon,  and 
Washington.  Where  they 
blow  from  the  land,  on  the 
other  hand,  they  are  cool 
or  cold  in  winter,  and  warm 
or  hot  in  summer. 

A  fourth  cause  for  dif- 
ference in  temperature  is 
the  ocean  currents,  as  you 
have  just  seen.  Give  sev- 
eral examples  of  their  in- 
fluence. 

If,  therefore,  we  wish  to 
draw  a  line  across  North 
America,  to  connect  several 

points  that  have  the  same 
average  temperature  for  a 
month,  it  would  need  to  be 
a  very  irregular  one.     Some 


about  temperature,  in  so  little  space,  that 
it  is  customary  to  make  maps  to  show 


Meaning  of 
isothermal 
lines,  and 
their  value 


Fig. 


417.  —  Isothermal  chart  of  the  United  States  for  July, 
the  west  coast  than  on  the  east  coast? 


parts  would  reach  much  farther  north 
than  others.      Such  lines  tell  so  much 


Fig.  416.  —  Isothermal  chart  of  the  United  States  for  January.  Why  is  it 
colder  in  the  interior  than  on  the  east  coast?  Why  so  warm  on  the  west 
coast  ?    Can  you  notice  any  influence  of  mountains  ? 


them,  as  in  Figures  416  and  417.  Since 
these  lines  connect  the  places  that  have 
the  same  temperature,  they  are  called 
isothermal  lines,  or  isotherms  {iso  means 
equal;  therm,  h.ea,t).  A 
map  or  chart,  showing 
the  isotherms,  is  called 
an  isothermal  chart  (Figs. 
416  and  417). 

Trace  several  of  the  iso- 
therms across  the  United 
States      and 

1    •  1        Differences 

explam  why  between  Jan- 
they  bend  as  uary  and  July 
they  do.  You   isotherms  on 

;/  .        land,  with 

Will       notice   reasons 

that  the  iso- 
therms on  the  western 
coast  extend  north  and 
south,  almost  parallel  to 
the  coast.  This  is  be- 
cause the  winds  reach  the  coast  after 
passing  over  the  warm   Pacific   Ocean. 


Why  is  it  cooler  on 


OCEAN  MOVEMENTS,   AND  DISTBIBUTION  OF  TEMPERATURE 


305 


There  is  only  about  20°  difference  be- 
tween the  winter  and  summer  tempera- 
t  ures  on  the  western  coast ;  but  on  the 
eastern  coast  of  the  United  States  the 
difference  between  summer  and  winter 
is   much   greater.     Here,  in   the   East, 


4.  Explaia  the  main  cause  of  ocean  currents.  • 

5.  Describe  the  North  Atlantic  Eddy.     6.   The 
Gulf  Stream.     7.  The  Labrador     Review 
Current.         8.  How     does     the     Questions 
Labrador   Current   cause   fogs  ?      9.    Describe 
the  currents   of  the  North  Pacific.     10.   The 
eddies   of   the  southern  oceans.     11.   Explain 


Fig.  418.  —  An  isothermal  chart  of  the  world  for  January. 


M)m.e  of  the  winds  are  from  the  ocean ; 
but  still  more  are  from  the  land,  which 
is  cold  in  winter  and  warm  in  summer. 

Figures  418  and  419  show  similar  isotherms 
for  the  whole  world.  Observe  how  these  bend 
w  here  they  cross  high  mountain  chains.  You 
\\  ill  notice  that  the  winter  isotherms  of  the 
north  temperate  zone  bend  toward  the  equator 
(iver  the  continents.  This  is  because  the  land 
is  colder  than  the  ocean.  During  the  summer, 
t  m  the  contrary,  the  isotherms  curve  away  from 
the  equator  in  'crossing  the  continents.  On 
what  continent  are  these  bends  best  seen  ? 
Why  ?  What  effect  of  the  West  Wind  Drift 
'1o  you  find  in  Figure  418  ? 

1.  What  are  the  tides  ?  2.  Give  some  facts 
about    their    height.      3.    About    their   effect. 


the  effects  of  the  Labrador  Current  on  the 
climate  of  North  America.  12.  What  are  the 
effects  of  the  Gulf  Stream  ?  13.  The  warm 
currents  in  the  North  Pacific  ?  14.  State  the 
effects  of  ocean  currents  on  western  Europe. 

15.  Give  four  reasons  why  places  in  the  same 
latitude     may    have    different    temperatures. 

16.  What  are  isothermal  lines  and  what  is 
their  value  ?  17.  What  are  isothermal  charts  ? 
18.  Trace  some  of  the  isothermal  lines  across 
the  United  States  for  January  and  for  July, 
and  explain  their  differences. 

1.  If  your  home  is  upon  the  seacoast,  find 
out  something  about  tides  there.  2.  What 
course  might  a  vessel  take  in 
order  to  be  carried  from  Europe 
to  America,  and  back  again,  by  ocean  currents  ? 
3.  How  do  vessels  try  to  avoid  running  into 
one  another  in  dense  fogs  ? 


306 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


Fig.  419.  —  An  isothermal  chart  of  the  world  for  July. 

SECTION  III.     THE   RACES   OF  MANKIND 


In  some  countries  the  people  are  white; 
in  others,  they  are  yellow,  or  black,  or 
_,,       .    .    ,     brown,   or   red.     There  are 

The  pnncipal  ' 

divisions  of  many  different  races  of  men, 
mankind  \)^i  they  may  all  be  included 

in  four  great  groups.  These  are  (1) 
the  white,  or  Caucasian  people ;  (2)  the 
black,  or  Ethiopian  races  ;  (3)  the  yellow, 
or  Mongolian  people  ;  (4)  the  red  men, 
or  American  Indians.  These  groups 
comprise  about  one  and  one  half  billion 
people. 

About  one  hundred  and  seventy-five 
millions  of  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth 
are  negroes  (Figs.  420  and 
t  lopians  421)^  or  l^thiopians.  This 
is  often  called  the  hlack  race.  There 
are  many  divisions  of  this  group,  but 
they  all  have  a  deep  brown  or  black 
skin;  short  black,  woolly  hair;  broad, 
flat  noses ;  and  prominent  cheek  bones. 


The  original  home  of  the  Ethiopians  is 
Africa,  south  of  the  Sahara  Desert  (Fig.  420) ; 
but  many  have  been  carried  to  other  lands  as 
slaves,  and  have  there  mingled  more  or  less 
with  other  races.  The  negroes  in  Africa  are 
still  either  savages  or  barbarians  of  low  type ; 
but  in  many  other  lands  they  have  advanced 
to  a  civilized  state. 

A  second  great  division  of  the  human 
race  is  that  of  the  American  Luliam^, 
often  called  the  red  race.  It  2.  American 
is  the  smallest  of  the  four  Indians 
groups,  and  includes  only  about  twenty- 
two  millions.  These  people  resemble  the 
Mongolians  in  some  respects.  They 
were  in  possession  of  both  North  and 
South  America  when  Columbus  discovT 
ered  the  New  World,  and  many  of  them 
still  live  on  these  continents  (Fig.  420). 
The  Indians  have  a  copper-colored  skin, 
prominent  cheek  bones,  black  eyes,  and 
long,  coarse,  black  hair  (Figs.  423,  424). 


THE  RACES   OF  MANKIND 


301 


180°     ISO"     140°     120°     100°     80°     00°   ^J0°     20° 0°      20°     40°     W      80°     100°    120'-    140°     160'    160' 


180°     160°    140°     120°     100' 


100°    120°     140°     160°    ISO' 


Fig.  420. 


3.     Mongolians 


The  third  division,  the  Mongolian,  or 
yelloiv  race,  numbers  about  five  hundred 
and  forty  million.  They 
live  mainly  in  Asia,  though 
some,  as  the  Finns,  Lapps,  and  Turks, 
have  migrated  to  Europe  (Fig.  420). 

The  Chinese  and  Japanese  (Fig.  422) 
are  the  best  examples  of  Mongolians. 
They  have  a  yellowish,  or  in  some  cases 
even  a  white,  skin,  prominent  cheek 
bones,  small  slanting  eyes,  a  small  nose, 
and  long,  coarse,  black  hair.  The  Malays, 
who  live  in  southern  Asia,  and  in  the 
islands  of  the  Pacific  and  Indian  oceans, 
are  a  division  of  the  yellow  race.  Most 
of  the  Mongolians  are  highly  civilized, 
although  their  kind  of  civilization  is 
different  from  that  of  the  white  race. 

The  largest  and  most  highly  civilized  of 
the  four  divisions  of  mankind  is  the  ivhite. 


4.    Caucasians 


or  Caucasian  race,  which  numbers  about 
seven  hundred  and  seventy  millions. 
They  are  also  the  most  widely  scattered 
over  the  earth.  Their  original  home  is 
not  known,  but  now  they 
are  found  in  great  numbers 
in  all  the  continents  (Fig.  420). 

There  are  two  main  branches  of  the 
Caucasian  race:  (1)  the  fair  type,  with 
light  skin,  light  brown,  flaxen,  or  red 
hair,  and  blue  or  gray  eyes  ;  (2)  the  dark 
type,  with  fair  skin,  dark  brown  or  black 
hair,  often  wavy  or  curly,  and  black 
eyes. 

The  leaders  among  these  four  great 
divisions    are    the    whites.    Extent  to 
They  have  learned  the  use    which  the 

of    ships    in    exploring    dis-    are  leaders, 

tant  lands,  and  have  spread   with  reasons 
with  great  rapidity.      They  have  con- 


308 


GENERAL   GEOGRAPHY 


quered  the  weaker  peoples  and  have 
taken  their  lands  from  them,  so  that 
they  now  rule  nearly  the  whole  world 
(Fig.  420).  The  only  race  that  has 
held  out  against  them  is  the  Mon- 
golian. 


Fig.  421.  —  A  Zulu,  one  of  the  tribes  of  African  negroes. 

1.  Name  the  four  divisions  of  mankind. 
2.  Tell  what  you  can  about  the  Ethiopians. 
3.  Do  the  same  for  the  Ameri- 
can Indians.  4.  Mongolians. 
5.  Caucasians.  6.  To  what  ex- 
tent are  the  Caucasians  leaders  among  these 
races  ?     Give  reasons. 


Review 
Questions 


1.  How  many  of  the  four  divisions  of  man- 
kind are  represented  in  your  own  neighbor- 
_  ..  hood?     2.   Collect   pictures    for 

the  school,  showing  the  kinds  of 
dress  worn  by  the  different  races  of  mankind. 
3.  Collect  pictures  of  the  houses  in  which  such 
people  live. 


Fig   422.  —  Japanese  women,  belonging  to  the  Mongolian, 
(ir  yellow  race. 


Fig.  424. 


Photograph  Iroin  bureau  of  Kthnolo^y 

-A  North  American  Indian,  one  of  the  red  race. 


Fig.  423.  —  An  Indian  Chief. 


» 


^     '     .  I ,         I  ■  '  LESSER    ^mIrtinioUE 

■/central       ■  P,Gan,.as^f'^^T''"'?      ""V? 


FIG.  425. 


GENERAL  FACTS 


309 


Fig.  426.  — Relief  map  of  South  America. 


PART  V.    SOUTH  AMERICA 


1,  Compare  South  America  with  North 
America  in  shape.  2.  What  great  mountain 
range  extends  along  the  western 
side  ?  3.  Name  the  countries  of 
South  America.  4.  Which  one  is  largest  ? 
5.  Which  is  second  in  size  ?  6.  What  is  the 
coldest  part  of  South  America  ?     7.  Which  part 


Map  study 


of  the  continent  lies  in  the  tropical  zone? 
8.  Which  part  has  a  climate  very  much  like  our 
own  ?  9.  When  does  Argentina  have  winter 
(p.  92)  ?  10.  Name  the  three  principal  rivers. 
Locate  each.  11.  Locate  Cape  Horn,  Cape  San 
Roque,  and  Strait  of  Magellan. 


SECTION   I.     GENERAL   FACTS 


South.  America  is 
North  America,  and 

Area  and  quite  as 

population  1  0  11  ff  * 

for  it  was  discov- 
ered by  Columbus 
on  his  third  voyage. 
On  the  map,  find 
the  country  named 
after  him.  Yet 
South  America  has 
only  about  one  third 
as  many  inhab- 
itants as  North 
America. 

There  was  no  way 
of  knowing,  at  first. 

Why  more  whichof 
rapid  settle-  ^he  two 
ment  might 
have  been 
expected 

the  New 
would  be  settled  the 
more  rapidly.  Yet 
there  are  several 
reasons  why  South 
America  might  have 


c  0  n  t  i- 
nents  in 
World 


nearly  as 
has   been 


large  as 
known 


rN 


Fio.  428.  —  Find  extensive  regions  where  there  are  very 
few  inhabitants.  In  wliat  parts  is  settlement  fairly 
dense  ? 

810 


been  expected  to  develop  as  rapidly  as 

North  America. 

One  reason  is  that 
the  two  continents 
aresim-  ,    „ 

1.    Resem- 
ilar      in    blance  to  North 
1    America 

several 
important  respects. 

(1)  They  have  the 
same  general  shape. 

(2)  Each  has  its 
highest  mountains 
on  the  western  side. 
Find  the  three  great 
mountainous  re- 
gions, or  highlands, 
of  South  America. 
Locate  them  on  Fig- 
ure 425.  What 
highlands  in  North 
America  correspond 
to  these?  (3)  Each 
has  broad,  fertile 
plains.  The  pam- 
pas  and  llmws  are 
treeless  plains  suited 
to  grazing  ;  but  the 


.'-%^deJ 


^.Montevideo 


SOUTH  AMERICA 

Density  of  roptilation 

Under  2  inhabitantf  per  »q^ 
2  to  64  "  " 

84  to  256         "  " 

256  to  612      ••  " 

Ovar  5K         "  •'' 

Citiet  with  over  )00,000 


FIG.  427. 


GENERAL    FACTS 


311 


I'iG.  429.  —  A  viuw  in  the  lofty  Audes  Mountains  of  Chile.     Here  the  .surface  is  very  rough  and  rocky,  and  snow  remains 

all  the  year  round. 


over  North 
America 


selvas  of  the  Amazon  Valley  are  a  region 
of  dense  forests.  Find  their  names  on 
Figure  427.  (4)  In  each  there  are  large, 
navigable  rivers  reaching  into  the  very 
lieart  of  the  continent.  Name  the  three 
principal  rivers  of  South  America  and 
trace  their  courses. 

In  some  respects  South  America  has 
2.  Advantages  i^Portant  advantages  over 
North  America.  No  part 
extends  into  the  frigid  zone ; 
but  a  large  part  of 
Canada,  the  largest 
country  in  North 
America,  is  so  cold 
that  no  crops  can  be 
raised  there. 

Second,  the  damp 
winds,  which  blow 
mainly  from  the  At- 
lantic, bring  plenty 
of  rain  to  most  of 
South  America  (Fig. 
430) .  A  narrow  strip 
on  the  western  side 
of  the  Andes  Moun- 
tains, and  a  part  of 
Argentina,    where 


west  winds  blow,  are  the  only  arid  and 

desert  sections.     Locate  these  deserts  on 

Figure  430.     This  is  very  different  from 

North  America,  where,  as  you  remember, 

a  large  portion  of  the  West  is  arid. 

In  addition,  large  quantities  of  gold 

and   silver   were   discovered    in    South 

America  much    earlier   than    in    North 

America.     Adventurers  in  search  of  the 

precious   metals    thronged    into    South 

America  hundreds  of   years  before   the 

rush    for    California 

gold      took      place. 

That  gave  an  early 

start  to  immigration. 

In  spite   of  these 

facts,  the  settlement 

of  South 

.         .       Why  settle- 
America  menthasnot 


has  been    been  rapid 

very 


1 .    Because  of 
the  climate 


Fio.  430. — A  figure  showing  rainfall  in  South  America. 
In  what  parts  is  there  heavy  rainfall  ?  In  what 
parts  are  there  deserts  ?  Is  the  rainfall  heavy  or 
light  on  the  coasts  against  which  the  winds  blow  ? 
What  about  the  rainfall  in  the  belt  of  calms? 


slow, 

compared  with  that 

of  North  America. 

One  of  the  most 
important  reasons  is 
the  climate.  While 
no  part  of  the  con- 


312 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


tinent  lies  in  the  very  cold  belt,  much 
more  than  half  of  it  is  in  the  torrid  zone 
(Fig.  116).  Note  where  the  equator 
and  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn  cross  the 
continent.  What  does  the  latter  line 
tell  you  (p.  91)?  Where  must  the 
Tropic  of  Cancer  be  ? 

Although  vegetation  thrives  in  the 
torrid  zone,  it  is  not  a  good  region 
for  men  to  live*  in.  The  dampness 
and  heat  make  it  difficult  to  work,  and 
even  cause  serious  sickness.  There  is, 
however,  little  need  for  work,  for  it  is 
easy  to  get  food,  clothing,  and  shel- 
ter where  vegetation  is  so  abundant. 
This  tends  to  make  men  lazy.  Such  a 
climate  is  certainly  not  attractive,  espe- 
cially to  people  from  countries,  such  as 
those  of  Europe,  which  have  a  temper- 
ate climate  ;  yet  European  countries  are 
the  ones  from  which  immigrants  would 
have  come. 

The  most  prosperous  countries  in  the 
world  are  in  the  temperate  zone,  but 
only  the  smaller  part  of  South  America 
lies  in  that  zone,  as  you  can  see  (Fig. 
116).  What  countries  are  included  in 
it  ?  Most  of  the  people  of  South  Amer- 
ica live  either  in  these  countries  or  else 
on  the  plateaus  and  mountain  slopes, 
which,  as  you  know,  have  a  cool  climate, 
even  though  in  the  tropical  zone. 

A  second  reason  for  the  slow  settle- 
ment of  South  America  is  the  lack  of  coal. 
2.  Because  of  Some  coal  is  found  there,  it  is 
the  lack  of  coal  true,  but  Very  little  is  mined. 
The  importance  of  coal  for  manufacturing 
has  already  been  seen  in  bur  study  of  the 
United  States.  Without  that  mineral 
our  country  could  not  have  developed  so 
many  industries,  nor  have  attracted  such 
great  numbers  of  settlers. 

Most  of  the  coast  of  South  America  is 


very  straight,  so  that  there  are  few  bays 
and  harbors.  Compare  North  and  South 
America    in     this    respect.  »    „ 

^  3.    Because  of 

The  western  coast  is  espe-  the  lack  of 
cially  straight,  and  for  long  "*'°" 
distances  there  are  no  harbors  at  all. 
Moreover,  the  lofty  Andes  rise,  like  a 
great  wall,  almost  out  of  the  ocean,  so 
that  it  is  very  difficult  to  carry  goods 
from  the  western  seacoast  to  the  interior 
(Fig.  429). 

The  scarcity  of  good  harbors,  as  well 
as  the  lack  of  coal,  is  unfavorable  to 
manufacturing  and  commerce.  Yet 
these  are  two  occupations  that  attract 
and  support  large  numbers  of  people. 

A  fourth  reason  for  the  small  popula- 
tion of  South  America  is  the  character  of 
the  people  living  there.     The  ^ 
whole    continent    was   once  the  wnd  of 
owned  by  Spain  and  Portu-  ^^^^^^^"^ 
gal,  and  the  languages  of  these  countries 
are  still  spoken  there,  Portuguese  being 
used  only  in  Brazil.     Like  Mexico  and 
Central   America,    the  South  American 
countries  rebelled,  and  now  all  but  the 
Guianas  are  independent  republics. 

Some  of  the  people  are  Spanish  or 
Portuguese,  but  far  more  are  negroes, 
Indians,  and  half-breeds.  More  than 
half  of  all  the  South  American  people 
can  neither  read  nor  write.  In  some  of 
the  countries,  too,  the  people  have  been 
very  quarrelsome,  and  have  spent  much 
of  their  time  in  fighting,  instead  of  de- 
veloping industries.  Because  ignorance 
has  been  so  general,  and  revolutions  so 
numerous,  Europeans  have  not  been  at- 
tracted to  South  America  as  they  have 
to  North  America.  Of  late,  however, 
there  has  been  great  improvement,  and 
some  of  the  countries  have  developed 
rapidly. 


Fig.  431.  —  Some  of  the  South  American  animals. 


314 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


In  the  warm,  rainy  belt 
the  climate  is  so  hot  and 
Plant  and        damp     that 

animal  Ufe  there      is     lux- 

1.   Plant  life      ^.^iant   plant 

life  (Fig.  439).      The  vast 

jungles  of  the  Amazon  are 

so  dense  that  travel  through 

them  is  very  difficult.      In 

fact,  immense  areas   have 

never   yet    been    explored. 

In  the  desert  of  the  west 

coast,  on  the  other   hand, 

plant   life   is   very    scanty 

(Fig.  446).    There  are  some 

parts — for    instance,     the 

Desert  of  Atacama  in  northern  Chile  — 

where  there  is  almost  no  life  of  any  kind. 


Fig.  433.- 


■  Savage  Indians  who  live  in  the  tropical  forest 
of  eastern  Peru,  east  of  the  Andes. 


Fig.  432.  —  The  South  American  llama. 

In  the  south  temperate  zone,  and  on 
the  cooler  mountain  slopes  of  the  torrid 
zone,  the  land  is  forest-covered ;  but  these 
forests  are  much  more  open  than  the 
tropical  jungle.  The  extreme  southern 
part  of  the  continent  has  a  climate  so 
cold  that  the  plants  become  dwarfed,  as 
in  northern  Canada. 

In  the  tropical  forest  are  many  insects  and 
beautiful  birds.     Among  the  larger  animals  are 
the  fruit-eating  monkey,  the  fierce   2.    Animal  life 
jaguar  (Fig.  431),  which   preys    (1)  in  the 
upon    other    animals;    and    the  J«"i/^« 
sloth  (Fig.  431),  a  creature  that  sleeps  hanging, 
back  downward,  from  the  branches  of  the  trees. 
There  are  also  many  reptiles,  including  serpents 
and  the  iguana,  a  tree  lizard  that  grows  to  a 
length  of  several  feet.    Some  of  the  serpents  are 
small  and  poisonous  ;  others,  like  the  boa  con- 
strictor   (Fig.   431),    are   large,   and   powerful 
enough  to  crush  a  deer  in  their  coils. 

The  many  beautiful  butterflies  and  the  ants  are 
especially  interesting.  The  ants  live  in  colonies, 
and  build  houses  of  earth.  There  are  animals 
that  live  on  the  white  ants,  one  of  the  most  pe- 
culiar being  the  ant-eater  (Fig.  431).  With  its 
long  claws  it  digs  the  ants  from  their  earthy  or 
woody  dwelling  places,  using  its  sharp-pointed 
snout  and  long  tongue  in  finding  its  food. 

The  tapir  (Fig.  431),  an  animal  five  or  six 
feet  long,  wanders  about  at  night,  feeding  along 


GENERAL   FACTS 


315 


^he  water  courses.     The  armadillo  (Fig.  431),  a 
burrowing  animal  covered  with  an  armor,  rolls 

itself  into  a  ball 
when  attacked  by 
an  enemy,  thus 
protecting  its  soft 
under  parts.  In 
the  river  waters 
and  swamps  are 
fishes,  turtles,  and 
alligators  (Fig. 
431).  The  fish 
and  the  turtle 
eggs  are  among 
the  chief  foods  of 
the  forest  In- 
dians. The  man- 
atee (Fig.  431),  or 
sea  cow,  lives  in 
both  fresh  and 
salt  water,  and 
goes  up  the  Ama- 
zon even  as  far 
as  Ecuador. 

On  the  grassy 

plains    herds    of 

deer  roam  about, 

and  also  the  rhea 

(Fig.  431), -often 

American    ostrich,  —  one    of    the 

running    birds.     It   lives    on    the 

open   pampas,   as   in   Patagonia, 

where  herds  of  guanaco,  a  kind 

of  wild  llama,  also  are  found. 

Among  thecrags 


Fig.  434. 

called    the 
few   large 

(2)  On  the 
plains  and 
among  the 
mountains 


■  An  Inca  Indian  of 
Peru. 


When  South  America  was  discovered 
by  Columbus,  it  was  inhabited  only  by 
red  men.  Many  of  these  The  native 
were  savages ;  and  even  to-  inhabitants 
day  some  of  the  forest  Indians  are  sav- 
ages (Fig.  433)  living  almost  solely  upon 
fish,  game,  and  the  abundant  fruits.  It 
is  unsafe  for  white  men  to  go  among  some 
of  them,  and  indeed  there  are  forest  tribes 
that  are  still  cannibals. 

Among  the  Andes,  especially  in  Peru, 
Bolivia,  and  Ecuador,  the  Spanish  ex- 
plorers found  tribes  of  Indians,  called 
Incas  (Fig.  434),  who  were  far  more 
advanced  than  their  neighbors. 

The  Incas  tilled  the  soil  by  the  aid  of  irriga- 
tion, cultivating  the  potato,  corn,  and  Peruvian 
cotton,  all  of  which  they  had  improved  from 
wild  plants.  They  had  the  llama  and  alpaca 
as  domestic  animals,  obtaining  wool  from  them 
and  using  them  as  work  animals.  They  organ- 
ized armies,  built  roads  (Fig.  435),  and  had  a 
rude  postal  and  express  system  by  swift  run- 
ners. Although  they  had  not  invented  writing, 
they  kept  records  by  means  of  knotted  strings. 
Their  empire  extended  for  more  than  two  thou- 
sand miles  along  the  Andes,  and  from  the  Pa- 
cific coast  to  the  trackless  forests  of  the  Amazon ; 
and  they  were  governed  by  a  powerful  chief 
whose  capital  was  Cuzco  in  Peru. 


and  peaks  of  the 
Andes  dwells  the  condor  (Fig. 
431),  the  largest  of  flying  birds, 
—  so  large  that  it  kills  and  car- 
ries off  small  deer.  In  the 
mountain  valleys  live  the  llama 
(Figs.  431,  432,  443)  and  the 
alpaca.  Like  other  mountain 
animals,  the  llama  is  so  sure- 
footed on  the  rocks  that  it  is 
of  great  use  as  a  beast  of  bur- 
den ;  and  the  cold  climate  causes 
it  to  have  a  thick  coat  of  wool 
which  is  of  value  to  man.  Be- 
cause of  its  usefulness  the  llama 
is  sometimes  called  the  Ameri- 
can camel,  but  it  is  much  smaller 
than  a  true  camel. 


Fig.  435.  —  A  stone  bridge  in  Bolivia,  built  by  the  Incas  before 
South  America  was  discovered  by  white  men. 


316 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


SECTION  II.  ARGENTINA,  URUGUAY,  AND  PARAGUAY 


From  what  has  been  said  you  can, 
perhaps,  pick  out  the  most  progressive 
countries  of  South  America.  They  lie 
in  the  temperate  zone. 

Argentina  is  the  leading  country, 
and  the  one  that  most  resembles  our 
Comparison  of  o^n.  It  is  only  about  one 
Argentina  with  third  as  large  as  the  United 
United  States  gtates,  but  it  has  the  same 
variety  of  climate  from  east  to  west. 
There  is  plenty  of  rain  in  the  northeast, 
while  in  the  interior 
there  are  broad 
stretches  of  arid  plains. 
From  north  to  south 
there  is  a  great  differ- 
ence in  temperature, 
even  greater  than  in 
our  country.  As  in 
the  United  States, 
much  of  Argentina 
consists  of  plains,  with 
lofty  mountains  in  the 
west.  Like  our  own 
country,  also,  Argen- 
tina has  a  good  government,  abundant 
resources,  and  progressive  people. 

Argentina  is  one  of  the  greatest 
wheat-producing  countries  of  the  world ; 
other  grains  are  common. 
Much  fruit  also  is  grown, 
especially  grapes,  from  which  wine  and 
raisins  are  made.  In  the  north  the 
climate  is  so  warm  that  tobacco,  sugar 
cane,  cotton,  and  tropical  fruits  are 
raised.  The  extreme  south  is  too  cold 
for  farming ;  but  sheep  raising  is  car- 
ried on  even  in  Patagonia  and  on  the 
stormy  islands  beyond  the  Straits  of 
Magellan. 


On  the  treeless  plains  of  the  interior,  ^ 
called  pampas  (Fig.  436),  there  is  ex-  f 
cellent  grass,  and  one  of  the  chief  in- 
dustries there  is  the  raising  of  cattle  and 
sheep.  This  reminds  us  of  the  arid 
parts  of  western  United  States.  Argen- 
tina is  also  one  of  the  leading  cattle  and 
sheep  countries  of  the  world,  having 
many  millions  of  sheep. 

There    are   extensive   forests   in   the 
north,  and  in  the  mountains.     There  is 


Fig.  436. 


Agriculture 


l>ainpas  of  Argentina. 


therefore  some  lumbering.     Argentina  is 
not    an    important    mining  Lumbering 
region,  though   some    gold,  and  mining 
silver,  iron,  coal,  and  petroleum  are  found. 
In   the    large    cities   there   is    much 
manufacturing,     chiefly     of     the     raw 
products  raised  in  the  coun-  Manufactur- 
try.     The  leading  kinds  are  ing  and 
dairying  and  the   manufac-  co^^^rce      j 
ture  of  wool,  flour,  sugar,  wine,  leather, 
and  cotton.     A  large  part  of  the  raw 
products,  however,   is  sent   abroad,  es- 
pecially wool,   hides,  wheat,   corn,  and 
meat.       Machinery    and    many     other 
manufactured  articles  are  imported. 


I, .......... 

^  the  re  must  be  means  of  ready  transpor- 
tation. The  broad  Parana  River,  which 
empties  into  the  Plata  Estuary,  forms 
an  important  water  way  to  the  interior ; 


ARGENTINA,    URUGUAY,   AND  PARAGUAY 


317 


Fig.  4o7.—  A  rauch  house  on  a  cattle  ranch  in  Uruguay 

and  railways  cross  the  well-settled  por- 
tions of  the  country,  connecting  all  the 
important  cities.  In  fact,  there  are 
more  railways  in  Argentina  than  in 
any  other  South  American  country. 
There  is  now  a  railway  from  Buenos 
Aires,  westward  across  the  Andes  to 
Valparaiso. 

Paraguay  and  Uruguay  have  nearly 
the  same  products  as  Argentina.  Name 
Paraguay  these  products.     Both  coun- 

and  Uruguay  tries  are  especially  noted  for 
their  cattle  and  sheep.  Among  the 
principal  exports  are  products  obtained 
from  the  cattle  and  sheep,  such  as  dried 
beef,  corned  beef,  hides,  tallow,  and 
wool.      Paraguay   is   one   of    the    two 


countries  of  South  America  without  a 
seacoast.  Name  the  other.  It  has  a 
much  warmer  climate  than  Uruguay, 
and  therefore  has  a  number  of  tropical 
products  including  rubber,  dyewoods, 
and  valuable  timber 
from  the  forests. 
Another  product  is 
yerba-mate,  or  Para- 
guay tea,  which  is 
quite  different  from 
our  tea.  It  is  much 
used  in  South  Amer- 
ica, where  its  value 
was  learned  from  the 
red  men. 

BuET^os  Aires,  the 
capital  of  Argentina  at  the  mouth  of 
the  Plata  River,  is  the  largest  city  in 
South  America,  having  more  Principal 
than  a  million  inhabitants,  cities 
Montevideo,  the  capital  of  Uruguay,  is 
larger  than  Montreal. 

Both  of  these  cities  are  important  sea- 
ports, exporting  the  products  of  the 
region  to  Europe  and  North  America. 
Buenos  Aires  is  a  busy,  modern  city, 
with  many  fine  buildings,  quite  like 
some  of  our  best  cities.  It  has  much 
manufacturing  as  well  as  commerce. 

Locate  Asuncion",  the  capital  of 
Paraguay.  Also  La  Plata,  Cordoba, 
and  RosARio,  which  are  among  the 
leading  cities  of  Argentina. 


SECTION  III.     BRAZIL 


Brazil  is  the  one  country  in  South 
America  that  formerly  belonged  to  Por- 
tugal, and  the  Portuguese  language  is 
still  spoken  there. 

It  is  a  much  larger  country  than  Ar- 
gentina, or  any  other  country  of  South 


America,  and  is  even  larger    than    the 
United  States.      Yet  it  has  Area  and 
less  than  one  fourth  as  many  population 
inhabitants  as  our  country,  and  of  these, 
less  than  one  half  are  white  men. 

Eastern  Brazil  is  a  highland  region ; 


318 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


but  the  northern  third  of  the  country  is 
mainly  a  vast  level  plain,  drained  by 
The  Amazon  the  Amazon  River.  The 
Valley  rainfall     in     the     Amazon 

Valley  is  so  heavy,  and  the  slope  of  the 
land  so  gentle,  that  the  river  and  its 
larger  tributaries  are  swollen  to  great 
breadth.  At  times  of  flood  these  rivers 
overflow  the  surrounding  country  and 
change  it  to  an  immense  swamp  crossed 
by  many  channels.  In  some  places  the 
Amazon  is  several  miles  wide,  and  re- 
sembles a  lake  rather  than  a  river. 

The  Amazon  is  navigable  for  steam- 
boats nearly  to  the  base  of  the  Andes,  a 
distance  of  twenty-two  hundred  miles 
from  the  seacoast.  Some  of  the  tribu- 
taries also  are  navigable.  Along  this 
water  way  there  are  a  few  small  settle- 
ments, such  as  Manaos,  which  are 
reached  by  ocean  steamers ;    but   away 


Fig.  439.  —  Cutting  a  road  in  the  dense  tropical  forest  of 
the  Amazon  Valley.  Notice  the  wavy  vines  hanging 
from  the  trees. 


Ratzers  History  of  Mankind, 

Fig.  438.  —  Savage  Indians  that  live  in  the  interior  of 
Brazil,  far  away  from  the  region  where  white  men 
live. 

from  the  river  there  is  nothing  but  an 
almost  unknown  wilderness.  There  is 
not  a  single  large  city  in  this  entire  val- 
ley. How  different  it  is  from  the  valley 
of  the  Mississippi ! 

A  large  part  of  Brazil,  inchiding  much 
of  the  valley  of   the  Amazon  and   its 
tributaries,  is  covered  with 
dense  tropical  forests.     The  forest 
trees  and  undergrowth   are  i.  its 
so   dense   that    one    cannot  ^pp^*^*^"" 
pass  through  them  without  first  cutting 
a  path  (Fig.  439). 

In  these  woods  an  occasional  giant  tree 
reaches  to  a  height  of  from  one  hundred  and 
fifty  to  two  hundred  feet.  The  lower  limbs 
may  be  as  much  as  a  hundred  feet  from  the 
ground.  Between  these  giant  trees  are  smaller 
ones  struggling  to  rise  out  of  the  somber  shade 
into  the  sunlight.  There  are  also  many  shrubs, 
bushes,  ferns,  and  vines,  the  latter  twining 
about  the  tree  trunks  or  hanging  from  their 
lower  limbs  (Fig.  439). 

The  woods  present  much  the  same  appear- 
ance throughout  the  year.     There  is  no  time 


BRAZIL 


319 


•hen  all  the  trees  send  forth  their  leaves  and 
lossoms;  nor  is  there  a  time  when  all  the 
Daves  change  color  and  fall  to  the  ground. 
;ioine  of  the  trees  blossom  throughout  the 
ear;  others  have  their  blossoms  at  regular 
easons;  thus  flowers  and  fruits  may  be  seen 
t  all  times  of  the  year. 

Some  of  the  trees  of  the  forest  pro- 
luce  fruits   and   nuts,  others   valuable 
timber    or    dyewoods.       In 
i)FM,Zs,  fact,  the  word  Brazil  comes 
yewoods,  and    from  the  name  of  a  dyewood 

anilla  »  i  •      ,  i        a  p  i 

lound  m  the  Amazon  torests. 
Another  valuable  plant  is  the  vanilla, 
kvhose  beans  are  used  in  making  per- 
:umes  and  flavoring  extracts.  Many  of 
bhe  Indians  near  the  rivers  make  long 
ourneys  into  the  forest  to  collect  the 
roducts,  both  for  their  own  use  and  to 
hip  down  the  Amazon. 

The  Indians  still  cultivate  the  mandi- 
ca,  which  was  one  of  their  principal 
(2)  Mandioca  foods  wlicu  white  men  ap- 
peared. The  root  of  this 
plant  is  somewhat  like  a  long  sweet  po- 
tato, and  it  is  made  into  a  meal,  called 
farina.  Mandioca  is  used  by  the  people 
much  as  wheat  is  by  those  who  live  in 
temperate  climates.  It  is  from  this 
plant  that  tapioca  is  made.  Paraguay 
tea  is  also  obtained  in  the  Brazilian 
forest,  and  Brazil  produces  far  more 
of  this  than  Paraguay. 

The  natives  are  also  engaged  in  ob- 
taining rubber,  a  product  of  great  value 
because  of  its  many  uses. 
When  gathering  rubber,  the 
natives  camp  in  the  forests  in  lightly 
built  huts,  from  which  paths  lead 
through  the  dense  undergrowth  to  the 
rubber  trees.  Holes  are  made  in  the 
trees,  so  that  the  sap  oozes  forth,  when 
it  is  collected  in  bamboo  dishes.  It  is 
then    smoked    and    dried    before    being 


(3)  Rubber 


shipped  down  the  river  to  Para.     Find 
this  city  on  the  map  (Fig.  425). 

Besides  the  rubber  trees  in  the  forest, 
there  are  many  rubber  plantations  in 
which  the  rubber  tree  is  carefully  planted 
and  cultivated.  Rubber  ranks  second 
among  the  exports  from  Brazil,  and  one 
of  the  principal  markets  for  it  is  the 
United  States.  What  are  some  of  its 
important  uses?  Why  should  the  in- 
vention of  bicycles  and  automobiles  have 
an  important  influence  on  the  production 
and  value  of  rubber  ? 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Brazil  live 
in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts.  Much 
of  this  section  is  a  plateau,  The  more  set- 
crossed  by  low  mountains,  tied  part  and 
Because  of  the  elevation  "^  products 
the  temperature  is  much  more  agreeable 
than  in  the  Amazon  Valley ;  and,  as  you 
will  see  from  the  map,  the  very  south- 
ern portion  lies  in  the  temperate  zone. 

The  chief  industry  is  farming  and  the 
raising  of  cattle.  Besides  grain,  the 
crops  of  the  warm  temperate 

,    ,         .      ,     ,.  ,     .  1.    Agnculture 

and  tropical  climates  thrive. 
Among  these  are  tropical  fruits,  cotton, 
corn,    sugar   cane,    tobacco,   cocoa,  and 
coffee.     The  last  is  the  most  important 
and  much  is  sent  to  the  United  States. 

The  coffee  tree  is  a  native  of  Abyssinia  in 
Africa.  It  was  introduced  into  Brazil  long  ago, 
and  has  proved  so  valuable  that  Brazil  now 
produces  more  than  one  half  of  all  the  coffee 
used  in  the  world.  It  is  cultivated  all  the  way 
from  southern  Brazil  to  the  Amazon,  and  there 
are  fully  five  hundred  million  coffee  trees  in  the 
country.  They  grow  best  at  elevations  of  from 
fifteen  hundred  to  forty-five  hundred  feet  above 
sea  level,  and  are  very  common  on  the  high- 
lands of  eastern  Brazil.  Each  tree  produces 
from  thirty  to  forty  pounds  of  coffee  a  year. 
Between  April  and  September  the  berries  are 
picked,  dried  in  the  sun,  and  hulled.  After 
being  sorted,  the  coffee  is  shipped  in  bags. 


320 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Valuable  minerals,  including 
gold;  diamonds,  and  some  coal 
2.  Mining  and  and  iron,  are  found 
manufacturing  j^  the  plateau  region 
of  Brazil.  Indeed,  this  is  one  of 
the  principal  diamond-producing 
countries  in  the  world. 

Manufacturing  'has  begun  to 
be  important.  Cotton  manufac- 
turing is  rapidly  increasing,  and 
there  are,  also,  woolen  mills,  flour 
mills,  and  other  manufacturing 
plants,  chiefly  in  southern  Brazil. 


Fig.  440.  — A  view'  of  the  city  and  liarbor  of  Rio  de  Janeiro. 


Why  should  this  be  the  most  progressive 
part  of  the  country  ? 

The  chief  cities  are  on  the  coast,  by 
far  the  largest  being  Rio  de  Janeiro, 
Centers  of  the  capital  (Fig.  440).  It 
commerce  ig  the  second  city  in  size 
in  South  America.  Which  is  the  first  ? 
It  has  a  splendid  harbor,  and  is  a  very 
busy  seaport.     A  rich  farming  country 


surrounds    it,  dotted  with  coffee  planta- 
tions. 

Bahia  and  Perxambuco,  farther 
north  on  the  coast,  are  second  and  third 
in  size.  The  fourth  is  Sao  Paulo, 
which  lies  to  the  southwest,  back  from 
the  coast.  Santos  is  its  seaport,  noted 
for  its  export  of  coffee. 


SECTION   IV.     THE  GUIANAS  AND  VENEZUELA 


North    of    Brazil    are     three     small 

countries,  the  only  portions  of  the  South 

American     continent     now 
The  Guianas  ,  i      i      r   m 

under    control  oi  iLuropean 

nations.     One  belongs  to  Great  Britain, 

one   to   Holland,   and    one    to    France. 

They   are    known    as   British    Guiana, 

Dutch  Guiana,  or  Surinam,  and  French 

Guiana.     Find  the  capital  of  each. 

In  these  countries  a  large  part  of  the  surface 
is  still  a  forest  wilderness,  inhabited  chiefly  by 
Indians.  This  tropical  forest,  like  that  of  the 
Amazon,  supplies  rubber  and  valuable  timber; 
but  its  resources  are  only  slightly  developed. 
Near  the  coast  there  is  a  strip  of  cultivated 
land  on  which  sugar  cane,  bananas,  cotton,  and 
a  few  other  products  are  raised.  Of  late, 
especially  in  Dutch  Guiana,  attention  has  been 
turned  to  the  production  of  cocoa  and  coffee. 


Some  gold  is  found  in  each  of  the  Guianas.  The 
Guianas  have  but  one  short  railway,  and  in 
most  sections  there  are  almost  no  roads. 

The  name  Venezuela,  which  means 
"  little  Venice,"  was  given  in  1499 
because  the  explorers  found 

XT  •^^  ^     'M_     •      Venezuela 

an   Indian   village  built   m  ^    character 
the  water  along  the  shore  of  of  country, 

XI        Tv/r  -1  and  products 

Lake  Maracaibo. 

The  Andes  cross  the  western  part  of 
Venezuela,  while  the  Guiana  Highland 
extends  into  the  eastern  part.  Between 
these  two  highlands  are  the  broad  plains 
of  the  Orinoco  Valley. 

Some  of  these  plains,  the  treeless,  grass 
covered  llanos,  are  occupied  by  great 
herds  of  cattle,  as  are  the  pampas  of 
Argentina.       There    is    some   farming. 


THE  TROPICAL  ANDEAN   COUNTRIES 


321 


Hardy  crops,  like  potatoes,  beans,  and 
barley,  are  raised  on  the  higher  slopes, 
but  below  five  thousand  feet  above  sea 
level  such  products  as  sugar  cane, 
bananas,  cocoa,  and  coffee  are  raised. 
(]offee  is  the  chief  export;  in  fact, 
Venezuela  ranks  as  the  second  greatest 
coffee-producing  section. 

In  parts  of  Venezuela  there  are  vast 
forests  wbich  produce  valuable  dye  woods 
and  rubber  ;  and  among  the  mountains 
are  rich  mineral  deposits,  especially 
gold. 

The  capital,  Caracas,  five  or  six  miles 


from  the  sea,  is  situated  upon  a  plateau, 

more    than    three   thousand 

feet  above  sea  level.     It  is 

connected  with  its  seaports  by  a  short 

railway. 

In  1812  Caracas  was  visited  by  a  terrible 
earthquake,  when  a  great  part  of  the  population 
was  at  church.  The  first  shock  caused  the 
bells  to  toll ;  but  after  all  danger  was  thought 
to  be  past,  there  came  a  fearful  noise  from 
undergi'ound,  resembling  the  rolling  of  thunder, 
though  louder  and  longer.  Then  followed  a 
shaking  of  the  earth,  so  severe  that  churches 
and  houses  were  overthrown,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants were  buried  beneath  their  ruins.  On  that 
day  fully  twelve  thousand  persons  perished. 


SECTION   V.     THE  TROPICAL  ANDEAN  COUNTRIES 


1 J       The  countries  in  the  western  part  of 
South  America,  named  from  north   to 


Fig.  441. —  Dense  tropical  I'oliage  on  the  lowlauds  of  Ecuador  uear  the  coast. 


south,  are  Colombia,  Ecuador,  Peru,  Bo- 
livia, and  Chile.  Locate  each  on  the 
map  (Fig.  425),  and  tell 
what  countries  are  on  its 
border.  All  but  the  last 
named  lie  entirely  in  the 
tropical  zone. 

Each  of  these  countries 
is  very  mountainous,  for 
the  Andes  rise  p^.^s  about 

from     the    sea-   the  Andes 
coast    and     ex-   Mountains 

tend  all  the  way  from 
Panama  to  Cape  Horn. 
Which  countr}'  stretches 
fully  half  of  this  distance  ? 
Which  is  next  longest  ? 

Although  the  Andes  are  not 
so  broad  as  the  Cordillera  of 
North  America,  they  form  one 
of  the  longest  and  highest 
mountain  chains  in  the  world. 
The  loftiest  peak  is  Aconcagua 
in  Argentina,  which  rises  22,860 
feet  above  sea  level.  The  loft- 
iest in  North  America  is   Mt. 


322 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


McKinley  in  Alaska,  which  is  almost  half  a 
mile  lower  (20,460  ft.),  or  about  the  height  of 
Mt.  Chimborazo  in  Ecuador, 

These  lofty  mountains  are  even  now  grow- 
ing higher.  Now  and  then,  as  they  are  slowly 
pushed  upward,  the  rocks  break  apart  and  se- 
vere earthquakes  are  caused.  This  region  has 
been  visited  by  some  of  the  most  terrible  earth- 
quakes in  the  world's  history,  destroying  many 
lives  and  many  buildings.  Besides,  some  of 
the  highest  peaks  are  volcanoes  from  which  lava 
and  ashes  are  at  times  sent  forth. 

In  such  a  mountainous  country, 
there  is,  of  course,  great  variety  of 
Variety  of         climate.     Tropical  heat  pre- 

climate  and  of  vails  throughout  the  low- 
farm  products    i^^^(3g    (Pig     442).    b^^t    oj^ 

the  mountain  slopes  there  are  temperate 
and  even  frigid  climates. 

There  is,  therefore,  much  variety  in 
the  farm  products.  Up  to  an  elevation 
of  three  thousand  to  four  thousand 
feet,  bananas,  sugar  cane,  cocoa,  and 
other  plants  of  hot  climates  flourish. 
Above  this,  to  an  elevation  of  six  or 
seven  thousand  feet,  tobacco,  corn,  and 
coffee  are  cultivated.  From  this  height 
up  to  about  ten  thousand  feet,  wheat 
and  our  Northern  vegetables  and  fruits 
do  well;  but  above  ten  thousand  feet 
the  bleak  mountain  peaks  are  too  cold 
for  farming  (Fig.  429). 

There  are  great  differences  in  rain- 
fall, as  well  as  in  temperature.  Near 
the  equator  the  rainfall  is  heavy ; 
but  in  southern  Peru,  the  climate  is 
arid.  On  this  account  the  tropical  for- 
est gradually  disappears  toward  the 
south,  and  is  replaced  first  by  arid 
plains,  and  then  by  deserts. 

Rich  deposits  of  precious  metals  were 
found  in  the  Andes  soon  after  the  dis- 
Vaiuabie  covery   of   South   America. 

minerals  In  fact,  this  was  the  prin- 

cipal  reason   why  the    Spaniards   took 


possession  of  so  much  of  the  continent. 
Hundreds  of  millions  of  dollars'  worth 
of  gold  and  silver  were  taken  out  of  the 
rocks  of  the  Andes  Mountains,  and  every 
year  large  quantities  are  still  mined. 

Colombia,  named  after  Columbus,^ has 
seacoast  on  both  oceans.  The  western 
part  is  very  mountainous, 
for  several  of  the  Andean  ^''^°'^^'"' 
ranges  end  there.  Much  mineral  is 
found,  gold  and  silver  being  most  im- 
portant. Valuable  emeralds  also  are 
obtained. 

In  the  eastern  portion,  on  the  other 
hand,  are  treeless  llanos  on  which  large 
numbers  of  cattle  are  raised.  Coffee  is 
the  principal  product  and  the  chief  ex- 
port ;  but  sugar  cane,  tobacco,  and  cocoa 
also  are  produced.  On  the  mountain 
slopes  the  grains,  fruits,  and  vegetables 
of  temperate  climates  are  grown. 

Bogota,  the  capital  and  largest  city, 
is  situated  far  in  the  interior,  at  an  ele- 
vation of  about  a  mile  and  a  half  above 
sea  level.  It  has  an  agreeable  climate, 
even  though  within  the  tropical  zone. 

The  small  republic  of  Panama  was  formerly  a 
part  of  Colombia,  but  it  revolted  and  became  an 
independent  country  a  few  years 
ago.      What   have   you   learned      *"*™* 
about  it  (p.  94)  ?     What  can   you   tell   about 
the  Panama  Canal  zone  (p.  244)  ? 

Why  should  the  name  Ecuador,  the 
Spanish  word  for  equator,  be  given  to 
this  country?  The  princi- 
pal industries  are  farming 
and  cattle  raising.  The  chief  farm 
products  are  wheat  and  barley  on  the 
highlands,  and  coffee,  sugar  cane,  and 
cocoa,  on  the  lowlands.  Cocoa  is  the 
most  important  product  of  Ecuador,  and 
fully  one  fifth  of  all  that  is  produced  in 
the  world  comes  from  here. 


Ecuador 


THE  TROPICAL  ANDEAN  COUNTRIES 


323 


Fio.  442.  —  A  house  in  Ecuador  raised  above  the  ground  because  of  the  dampness. 


The  cocoa  tree,  which  grows  in  the  shade  of 
the  larger  forest  trees,  has  small  pink  and  yel- 
low blossoms  which  spring  directly  from  the 
main  trunk  and  branches.  After  blossoming, 
golden-colored  pods  grow,  in  each  of  which  are 
a  number  of  seeds,  or  beans,  about  the  size  of 
a  large  almond.  After  being  washed,  dried, 
and  roasted,  the  beans  are  ready  to  be  made 
into  cocoa  and  chocolate.  What  are  some  of 
their  uses  ?  By  what  routes  might  they  be 
shipped  from  Guayaquil  to  New  York  ? 

Another  product  of  Ecuador,  and  of  some 
other  South  American  countries,  is  sarsaparilla. 
The  rubber  industry  is  also  well  developed. 

There  is  some  gold  mining  in  Ecua- 
dor, but  not  much  mining  of  other  min- 
erals. The  country  is  so  mountainous, 
and  the  roads  are  so  poor,  that  it  is  dif- 
ficult to  carry  machinery  to  the  mines. 
Therefore  only  the  richest  deposits  are 
worked.  There  is  almost  no  manufac- 
turing in  the  country. 

Quito,  the  capital  and  largest  city,  is 
situated  among  the  mountains  of   the 


interior  at  an  elevation  of  about  nine 
thousand  feet.  Next  in  size  is  the  sea- 
port Guayaquil,  the  westernmost  of  the 
large  cities  of  South  America.  It  is  in 
W.  Long.  80°.  Does  it  lie  east  or  west 
of  Washington,  D.C.? 

There  is  abundant  rainfall  in  north- 
ern Peru  and  in  the  upper  Amazon  Val- 
ley on  the  eastern  side  of  Peru 
the  Andes.  But  in  south-  i-  ciimate 
ern  Peru  the  climate  is  arid  and  even 
desert  (Fig.  430).  So  little  rain  falls 
in  southwestern  Peru  that  in  some 
parts,  even  close  by  the  sea,  there  is 
an  average  of  but  one  shower  in  seven 
years. 

Peru  was  one  of  the  most  valuable 
sources  of  gold  and  silver  for  the  Spanish 
conquerors.    The  Incas,  who 
dwelt   there,   had   collected 
gold  for  ornaments,  and  this  the  Span- 
iards seized.     Then,  opening  mines,  they 


324 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


3.    Agriculttire 


forced  the  Indians  to  work  in 
them  as  slaves.  Since  that  time 
vast  quantities  of  gold  and 
silver  have  been  obtained  in 
Peru.  Valuable  deposits  of 
coal,  petroleum,  and  copper  also 
have  been  found. 

There  is  much  agriculture  in 
Peru,  the  chief  crops  being  corn, 
wheat,  and  potatoes 
among  the  moun- 
tains, and  sugar  cane,  cotton, 
tobacco,  cocoa,  and  coffee  in  the 
lower  and  warmer  sections. 
Large  numbers  of  sheep  and  cattle  are 
raised,  and  also  of  the  llama  and  the 
alpaca  (Fig.  443). 

A  peculiar  product  of  Peru  is  coca, 
from  which  cocaine,  is  made ;  and  an- 
other is  cinchona,  or  Peruvian  hark, 
from  which  quinine  is  manufactured. 
These  plants  were  cultivated  by  the  Incas 
before  the  coming  of  the  Spaniards. 

There  is  some  manufacturing  in  Peru,  espe- 
cially of  sugar  and  cotton  goods, 
furin^an?"'      ^^^  S^^^*  difficulty,  however,  has 
transportation      been     that     of     transportation. 
The    lofty    Andes    extend    the 
entire   length  of  the   country,    separating   the 


5.    Chief  cities 


Fig.  444.  —  A  view  of  Lima,  the  capital  of  Peru. 


Fig.  443.  —  A  group  of  llamas,  the  bea.sts  of  burdeu  of  the  lofty  Andes. 


Pacific  coast  from  the  broad,  forest-covered 
plains  of  eastern  Peru.  To  overcome  this  diffi- 
culty, the  Peruvians  have  built  several  rail- 
ways, one  of  which  deserves  special  mention. 
Beginning  at  Callao  this  line  passes  through 
Lima;  then  it  climbs  the  mountains,  crossing 
deep  gorges,  by  means  of  high  trestles,  winding 
about  on  the  very  edges  of  precipices,  tunnel- 
ing through  the  mountain  rock,  and  finally 
crossing  the  western  range  of  the  Andes  at  an 
elevation  of  more  than  fifteen  thousand  feet. 

Lima,  the  capital  (Fig.  444),  founded 
by  the  Spanish  conquerors  in  1535,  is 
situated  at  the  base  of  the 
Andes.  Callao,  the  sea- 
port of  Lima,  is  about  seven 
miles  from  the  capital. 

Arequipa,  at  an  elevation  of 
seven  thousand  feet,  is  separated 
from  the  sea  by  sixty  miles  of 
desert.  Cuzco  is  on  an  interior 
table-land,  at  an  elevation  of  more 
than  eleven  thousand  feet.  The 
ruins  of  the  Inca  citadels  and 
"  palaces"  are  still  to  be  seen,  and 
many  pure-blooded  and  half-breed 
Incas  (Fig.  434)  still  dwell  in 
and  near  this  ancient  capital. 

Bolivia,  named  after  Gen- 
eral Bolivar,  the  great  South 
American  leader  in   the  re- 


THE  TROPICAL  ANDEAN  COUNTRIES 


825 


Fig.  445.  —  Indians  in  their  grass  boats  on  Lake  Titicaca 


volt  against  Spain,  was   robbed   of   its 
seacoast  by  Chile.     It  is  a  mountainous 


Bolivia 


country,  with  broad  and 
very  high  plateaus  between 
the  mountain  ranges.  In 
one  of  these 
valleys  lies  Lake 
Titicaca  (Fig.  445),  partly  in 
Peru  and  partly  in  Bolivia. 
This  lake,  the  greatest  in 
South  America,  is  about  a 
third  the  size  of  Lake  Erie. 
It  is  the  most  elevated  great 
lake  in  the  world,  lying  over 
twelve  thousand  feet  above 
the  sea. 

The  Incas  occupied  this 
region  also,  and  mined  much 
gold.  Besides  gold,  the 
Spanish  discovered  veins  of 
copper,    tin,   and    silver,   so 

that  mining  has  been  one  of  the  leading 

industries  of  the  country. 


Fig.  446.  —  La  Paz,  the  largest  city  of  Bolivia,  situated  iu  au  arid  valley  among  the  lofty  Andes. 


326 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


Both  the  mining  and  the  work  of  extract- 
ing the  metals  from  the  ore  are  very  crude. 
For  example,  instead  of  using  machines  for 
crushing  the  ore,  as  in  the  United  States, 
sometimes  they  roll  bowlders  around  on  the 
ore.  Since  there  are  almost  no  railways,  goods 
are  carried  for  the  most  part  by  trains  of  pack 
mules,  donkeys,  alpacas,  or  llamas  (Fig.  443). 
The  llama  here,  as  in  Peru,  is  of  great  value  to 
the  inhabitants  as  a  beast  of  burden,  and  as  a 
source  of  wool  for  clothing. 

Like  the  Amazon  Valley  of  Brazil,  much  of 
eastern  Bolivia  is  an  almost  unknown  forest 
wilderness.     On  the  plateau  and  in  the  moun- 


tain  valleys,  however,   there   are   settlements* 
where  agriculture  is  carried  on,  with  the  same 
products  as  those  of  Peru.     Name  them.     Most 
of  these  are  consumed  at  home,  though  some 
coffee  is  exported. 

A  railway  line  connects  western  Bolivia  with 
the  sea;  but  there  is  great  need  of  others. 
Another  need  is  the  improvement  of  the  water 
ways,  to  provide  river  transportation  to  the 
Atlantic.  Through  what  rivers  coiild  boats 
pass  to  the  sea  ? 

Find  the  capital  of  Bolivia.  La  Paz  (Fig. 
446),  the  largest  city,  has  twice  as  many  inhab- 
itants as  the  capital. 


SECTION  VI.     CHILE 


Surface 
features 


The  eastern  boundary  of  Chile  is 
the  divide  between  the  Atlantic  and 
Pacific  drainage  slopes;  and 
since  this  divide  runs  along 
the  Andes,  the  country  is  very  moun- 
tainous, and  narrow  from 
east  to  west.  Measure  its 
length  ;  also  its  width.  Ex- 
cept in  the  south,  the  coast 
line  is  regular,  like  that  of 
the  rest  of  South  America. 

The  climate  varies  more 
than  that  of  any  other 
„,.     ^  South  American 

Climate 

country.       Ihe 

northern  part  is  within  the 
torrid  zone,  while  the  south- 
ern end  reaches  far  into  the 
bleak  south  temperate  zone  ; 
and  on  the  mountain  slopes 
there  is  every  climate,  from 
torrid  to  frigid  (Fig.  447). 
The  very  name,  Chile,  comes 
from  an  Indian  word  for  snow. 

There  is  also  great  variation  in  rain- 
fall. Northern  Chile  is  arid,  and  in  some 
portions  a  desert ;  while  central  and 
southern  Chile  reach  into  the  rainy  belt 


of  prevailing  westerlies  (Fig.  405).  The 
best  developed  section  of  the  country  lies 
in  the  middle  part,  between  the  hot,  arid 
north  and  the  bleak,  rainy  south. 

There  is  much  mineral  wealth,  includ- 


FiQ.  447.  —  A  view  in  the  lofty  snow-eovered  Andes  of  Chile. 


Cop- 


ing gold,  silver,  coal,  and  copper, 
per  is  one  of  the  most  valu- 
able of  these  minerals,  and 
Chile,  like  the  United  States,  is  one  of 


CHILE 


Fig.  448.  — Indians  living  in  the  cold  southern  region  in  the  Straits  of 
Magellan. 


the  great  copper-producing  countries  of 
the  world.  Even  more  important  than 
the  copper  are  the  beds  of  nitrate  of 
soda,  which  yield  many  million  dollars' 
worth  of  nitrate  every  year.  This  sub- 
stance is  the  principal  export  of  the 
country. 

The  nitrate  beds  lie  in  the  midst  of  the  Des- 
ert of  Atacama  (Fig.  427),  in  which  rain  seldom 
falls.    The  substance  occurs  in  layers  from  a  few 


327 

inches  to  one  or  two  feet  thick,  over 
an  area  thirty  or  forty  miles  in 
breadth.  Its  chief  use  is  as  a  fer- 
tilizer, for  which  purpose  large 
quantities  are  shipped  from  the 
port  of  Iquique. 


Agriculture  is  extensively 
carried  on  in  Chile,  especially 
in  the  rainy  mid- 
dle portion.  The  ^*^" 
principal  crops  are  the  vari- 
ous grains,  tobacco,  fruits, 
and  vegetables.  More  wheat 
and  barley  are  produced  than  are  needed 
at  home,  so  that  Chile  helps  to  supply 
other  nations  with  these  grains.  Large 
herds  of  cattle  are  reared  ;  and  in  south- 
ern Chile  sheep  raising  is  one  of  the 
chief  industries.  Hides,  leather,  and 
wool  are  exported. 

There  is  more  manufacturing  than  in 
most  South  American  countries,  the 
principal    kinds    being    flour    milling, 


Fig.  449.  —  The  shippinji;  in  the  harbor  of  Valparaiso. 


328 


SOUTH  AMERICA 


cheese  making,  tanning,  and  shoeraak- 
ing.  Manufacturing  is  rapidly  increas- 
Manufac-  i^g  5  but,  as  in  other  South 
turing  American  countries,  it  is  still 

necessary  to  import  machinery  and  other 
manufactured  articles  from  Europe  and 
from  the  United  States. 

Chile  is  one  of  the  most  progressive 
nations  in  South  America.  Its  govern- 
Progress  of  ment  is  good,  and  its  indus- 
the  country  tries  are  well  developed.  It 
is  interesting  to  note  that  the  two  most 
advanced  nations  of  South  America  lie 
side  by  side  in  the  temperate  zone,  while 


the  next  most  progressive  country,  Brazil, 
is  partly  in  that  zone. 

Since  Chile  is  the  leading  Andean 
country,  it  is  natural  that  it  should  have 
the  largest  city  on  the  The  principal 
Pacific  coast.  This  is  San-  cities 
TiAGO,  the  capital,  which  has  a  popula- 
tion of  one  third  of  a  million.  It  is 
situated  fifty  miles- inland,  and  half  a 
mile  above  the  level  of  the  sea.  Val- 
paraiso (Fig.  449),  the  largest  and  bus- 
iest port  on  the  Pacific  coast,  is  also  in 
Chile.  It  is  about  half  the  size  of  San- 
tiasro. 


SECTION  VII.     ISLANDS   NEAR  THE   CONTINENT 


On  the 
north  side 


Just  off  the  coast  of  Venezuela,  oppo- 
site the  mouth  of  the  Orinoco,  is  the  low 
island  of  Trinidad,  a  British  possession. 
This  island  is  especially 
noted  for  its  pitch  lake, 
from  which  asphaltum  is 
obtained  for  use  in  making  asphalt  pave- 
ments. .  The  asphaltum  oozes  slowly 
from  the  ground ;  and,  as  it  is  dug  out, 
more  takes  its  place,  showing  that  there 
is  a  very  large  supply  beneath  the 
surface. 

Just  east  of  the  southern  tip  of  South  Amer- 
ica are  the  Falkland  Islands,  which  belong  to 
Great  Britain.     Still  farther  east 
,  are  the  islands  of  South  Georgia, 

also  British.     They  are  ice-bound 
lands,  with  no  permanent  inhabitants. 

West  of  Chile,  and  belonging  to  that  country, 
is  the  island  of  Mean  Fernandez.  This  is  the 
island  where  Selkirk  was  wrecked, 
and  by  some  is  thought  to  be  the 
island  on  which  Defoe  located  the  story  of 
Robinson  Crusoe.  It  seems  quite  certain,  how- 
ever, that  the  novelist  described  Tobago,  just 
north  of  Trinidad,  and  not  Juan  Fernandez. 

The    Galapagos   Islands,  about  six  hundred 
miles  west  of  Ecuador,  on  the  equator  (Fig.  107), 


On  the  west 


are  a  group  of  small  volcanic  islands  owned  by 
Ecuador.  They  are  too  far  from  the  continent 
to  appear  on  our  map. 

1.  Compare  North  and  South  America  in 
area  and  population.  2.  Why  might  it  have 
been  supposed  that  South  Amer- 
ica would  be  settled  as  rapidly 


Review 
Questions 


as  North  America?  3.  Give 
several  reasons  why  it  has  not  been  settled  so 
rapidly.  4.  Describe  the  plant  life.  5.  The 
animal  life.  6.  What  can  you  tell  about  the 
native  inhabitants  ?  7.  Compare  Argentina 
with  the  United  States  as  to  area,  climate,  and 
surface  features.  8.  What  are  its  principal 
products  ?  9.  AVhat  is  the  condition  of  manu- 
facturing ?  10.  What  are  the  conveniences 
for  transportation?  11.  Name  the  principal 
products  of  Paraguay  and  Uruguay.  12.  Name 
and  locate  the  capitals  of  Paraguay,  Uruguay, 
and  Argentina.  13.  What  can  you  tell  about 
Buenos  Aires?  14.  Locate  other  cities  men- 
tioned. 15.  Compare  Brazil  with  the  United 
States  in  area  and  population.  16.  Describe 
the  conditions  in  the  Amazon  valley.  17.  What 
is   the    appearance    of    the    tropical    forest? 

18.  What  valuable  products  are  obtained  there  ? 

19.  How  is  rubber  obtained  ?  20.  What  are 
the  agricultural  products  of  Brazil  ?  21.  State 
some  facts  about  the  coffee  industry  in  Brazil. 
22.  What  is  the  condition  of  mining  ?  Of 
manufacturing  ?      23.   Name    and    locate   the 


ISLANDS  NEAR    THE  CONTINENT 


329 


)iiiicipal  cities.  24.  Name  the  Guianas. 
iVhat  are  their  chief  products  ?  25.  Describe 
lie  surface  features  of  Venezuela.  26.  What 
ue  its  products  ?  27.  Locate  the  chief  city. 
.'<S.  What  can  you  tell  about  the  Andes  Moun- 
tains? 29.  Why  is  there  a  great  variety  of 
arm  products  in  the  tropical  Andean  countries  ? 
>0.  What  minerals  are  found  there  ?  31.  What 
ibout  the  surface  features  and  the  products  of 
Olombia  ?  32.  What  is  the  leading  city? 
!.'!.  What  are  the  agricultural  products  of 
I'.ouador?  34.  What  about  mining  and  manu- 
facturing ?  35.  Name  and  locate  the  principal 
•ities  of  Ecuador.  36.  What  climate  has 
I'eru?  37.  What  about  mining  there? 
iS.  Agriculture  ?  39.  Manufacturing  and 
transportation  ?  40.  Name  and  locate  its  chief 
titles.  41.  Describe  the  surface  features  of 
ISolivia.  42.  Tell  about  mining  in  that  coun- 
try. 43.  Agriculture.  44.  Commerce  and 
chief  cities.  45.  Describe  the  surface  of  Chile. 
U>.  The  climate.  47.  What  can  you  tell  about 
mining  there?  48.  Agriculture?  49.  Manu- 
facturing ?  50.  What  about  the  progress  of 
Chile?  51.  Locate  the  chief  cities.  52.  Name, 
h>oate,  and  tell  the  principal  facts  about  the 
islands  near  South  America. 

1.    Which  of  the  two  Americas  has  the  ad- 
vantage in  regard   to   latitude  ?     Show   how. 
2.   Locate   the   arid   sections  in 
Comparisons      g^ch  continent  (Figs.  406,  430). 
with  North  o     t>   •    *■       4-  ^i,         •    •     i.        *.- 

.       .  o.   I'oint  out  the  rainiest  section 

in  each.  4.  Which  of  the  two 
continents  has  the  better  position  for  world 
commerce?  Why?  5.  Into  what  ocean  do 
the  principal  rivers  of  South  America  flow? 
( )t'  North  America  ?  6.  What  can  you  say 
al)out  the  regularity  of  the  coast  of  the  two 
continents  ?  Which  has  the  advantage  in  this 
respect  ?     How  ?     7.    Locate  the  live  principal 


coast  cities  of  South  America  ;  of  North  Amer- 
ica. How  do  they  compare  in  size  ?  8.  What 
about  the  number  of  lakes  in  each  continent, 
and  their  value  for  commerce  ?  9.  What 
about  the  number  of  large  cities  in  the  interior 
of  each  continent  ?  10.  Compare  both  Brazil 
and  Argentina  with  the  United  States  in  area ; 
in  population.  (See  the  Appendix.)  11.  Com- 
pare Chile  with  Texas  in  these  two  respects. 
12.  Make  a  list  of  the  important  farm  prod- 
ucts common  to  South  America  and  the  United 
States.  13.  Name  some  products  that  are  ex- 
tensively raised  in  one  and  not  in  the  other. 

14.  Which  parts  of  each  continent  are  es- 
pecially noted  for  cotton  ?  Coffee  ?  Wheat  ? 
Cattle  and  sheep  ?     Copper  ?    Precious  metals  ? 

15.  What  is  the  prevailing  kind  of  government 
in  North  and  in  South  America  ?  What  sec- 
tions have  a  different  kind  of  government? 

1.  Make  a  sand  model  of  South  America, 
showing  the  highlands  and  lowlands.  2.  Eead 
about  Pizarro's  conquest  of  Peru. 
3.  Find  out  more  about  the  Inca 
Indians.  4.  What  are  the  five  leading  cities 
of  South  America  ?  5.  Compare  South  Amer- 
ica with  North  America  in  regard  to  distance 
from  Europe.  Which  has  the  advantage  in 
this  respect  for  immigration?  6.  Will  the 
Panama  Canal  be  of  importance  to  us  in  our 
trade  with  any  part  of  South  America  ?  Ex- 
amine a  globe  to  see.  7.  If  the  southern  end 
of  Chile  were  placed  at  San  Diego  in  California, 
where  in  North  America  would  the  northern 
end  reach  ?  8.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  South 
America,  putting  in  the  mountain  ranges,  chief 
rivers,  and  cities.  Add  the  boundaries  and 
names  of  the  several  countries.  9.  Name  and 
locate  the  capital  of  each  South  American 
country. 


Suggestions 


PART  VI.    EUROPE 


1.  Trace  the  boundary  line  between  Europe 
and  Asia,  naming  the  mountains  and  waters 
„  that  in  part   form  it.      2.    How 

^  does  the  coast  line  of  Europe  com- 
pare in  regularity  with  that  of  South  America  ? 
Of  North  America  ?  3.  Name  the  largest  pen- 
insulas, and  draw  an  outline  map  to  show  them. 
4.  Where  are  the  highest  mountains?  5.  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  rivers.  6.  Where  are 
the  plains  ?  Which  very  large  country  is  made 
up  mainly  of  plains  ?     7.   How  does   Eussia 


compare  in  size  with  the  other  countries  of 
Europe?  With  the  United  States?  (See 
Appendix.)    8.  In  what  zones  does  Europe  lie  ? 

9.  The  40th  parallel  of  latitude  crosses  what 
countries  of  Europe  ?  Through  or  near  what 
cities    in  the    United  States    does    it    pass  ? 

10.  Point  out  those  countries  of  Europe  in  which 
some  of  the  people  that  you  know  used  to  live. 

11.  What  route  did  they  probably  take  in 
order  to  reach  America?  12.  Walk  toward 
Europe. 


SECTION  I.    GENERAL  FACTS  ABOUT  EUROPE 


You  have  already  learned  (p.  95) 
that  Eurasia  is  the  largest  land  mass  on 
the  earth.  It  extends  north- 
ward far  within  the  Arctic 
Circle,  and  southward  almost  to  the 
equator.  From  east  to  west  it  reaches 
nearly  halfway  around  the  earth.  Show 
this  on  a  globe.  It  is  much  larger  than 
North  and  South  America  together. 

Eurasia  is  the  most  irregular  of  all 
the  lands,  having  many  large  peninsulas. 
The  peninsula  Name  four  or  five  of  these 
c&iied  Europe  (Fig,  506).  The  largest  of 
them  all  is  the  one  we  call  Eur(ype. 
Notice  on  the  map  (Fig.  450)  that  water 
borders  Europe  on  the  southern,  western, 
and  northern  sides,  me^^king  it  a  penin- 
sula. What  are  the  names  of  the  bodies 
of  water  that  so  nearly  surround  Europe  ? 

It  is  not  easy  to  tell  just  where  to 
draw  the  boundary  between  Europe  and 
Asia.  Indeed,  some  maps  show  one 
boundary   line,  some    another.      Trace 


the  boundary,  and  tell  what  parts  are 
natural  (p.  102),  and  what  parts  arti- 
ficial. Although  joined  to  Asia  on  the 
east,  it  is  common  to  class  the  peninsula 
of  Europe  as  one  of  the  continents. 

There  is  much  mountainous  land  in 
Europe,  as  you  can  see  on  the  relief 
map  (Fig.     451).      In     the  ^^      _^ 

The  surT8.ce 

northwest,   there     are     low  features 
mountains    in    the    British  i-  The 

T  1  11  1  1      •       mountains 

Isles,  and  a  long,  low  cham 
in  the  Scandinavian  peninsula.  Another 
long  range,  the  Urals,  extends  from 
north  to  south  along  the  eastern  bound- 
ary of  Europe.  The  most  mountain- 
ous section,  however,  is  in  the  south, 
and  here  the  mountains  are  highest. 
Name  the  different  ranges.  Which  lie 
farthest  east  ?  Which  farthest  west  ? 
What  is  the  name  of  the  range  in  the 
Italian  peninsula  ?  Are  all  the  pen- 
insulas mountainous  ?  Besides  these 
main  mountain  ranges,  there  are  other 


330 


^1 


^ 


fj?-:-/:',;^ 


<y^ 


o 


.) 


./ 


'/       .A       F 


M 


mmmmmmmmmmmmm 


332 


EUBOPE 


lower,    shorter  mountain  ranges,  as   in 
the  Spanish  peninsula,  and  north  of  the 


way    to    the    sea   through    several    of 
the  large  rivers  of  Europe.     What  are 


Fig.  453.  —  A  view  over  the  crests  of  the  lofty  snow-covered  Caucasus  Mountuiiis.    I  he  valley 
in  the  front  is  filled  with  clouds. 


Alps.     The  Caucasus  (Fig.  453)  are  the 
loftiest  of  all  these  mountains,  and  the 


the  names   of  the  largest   (Fig.    452)? 
Headwaters  of  four  of  them  are  within 


Fig.  454. — The  lofty  Alps,  from  whose  summits  the  snow  never  melts.     Many  people  visit  this 
place  every  summer  because  of  the  grand  scenery. 


Alps  (Fig.  454)  are  next  in  height.     The 
rains  and  snows  of  the  Alps  find  their 


forty  miles  of  one  another  in  the  Alps. 
Which  are  they  ? 


GENERAL   FACTS  ABOUT  EUROPE 


333 


Bounded  by  the  mountains  of  the  north- 
west, the  east,  and  the  south  there  is  an  ex- 
2.  The  low  tensive  lowland  (Fig.  451). 
plain  between     This     plain     exteuds    from 

these  mountains  ,-,  t?       -\       j        j  1.1 

southern  iiingland  and  north- 
ern France,  through  Belgium  and  Hol- 
land, or  the  "Low  Countries,"  entirely 
across  Germany  (Fig.  479)  and  Russia 
('Fig.  450).     It  broadens  toward  the  east 


Fig.  455.  — Map  of  the  coal  fields  of  Europe. 

until  it  includes  almost   all  of   Russia.  | 
Estimate  its  length  from  east  to  west. 
About  two  thirds  of  Europe  is  included 
in  this  plain. 

You  have  learned  that  the  irregular 
northeastern  coast  line  of  North  America 
3.   The  was  caused  by  the  sinking 

coast  une  of  the  land.     The  irregular 

coast  of  northwestern  Europe  was  caused 
m  the  same  way.  The  Baltic  Sea 
and  its  gulfs  are  old  land  valleys, 
sunk  beneath  the  sea;  and  some 
of  the  hills  of  this  sunken  land  rise 
as  islands  and  peninsulas.     Other  parts 


of   it  form  shallow  banks  where   food 
fish  abound. 

The  growth  of  the  mountains  in  southern 
Europe  has  caused  many  peninsulas,  with 
bays,  gulfs,  islands,  and  seas  between.  Even 
the  great  Mediterranean  Sea  lies  in  a  basin 
formed  by  the  sinking  of  a  part  of  the  earth's 
surface. 

As  a  result  of  all  these  movements 
of  the  land,  Europe  has 
the  most  irregular  coast 
of  all  the  continents. 
Name  the  larger  penin- 
sulas, gulfs,  and  seas  that 
border  Europe.  How 
about  the  number  of  fine 
harbors  ?  Show,  by  ex- 
amples, how  such  an  ir- 
regular coast  is  of  advan- 
tage in  allowing  vessels 
to  sail  far  into  the  interior 
of  the  continent. 

We  have  already  seen 
that  the  minerals  beneath 

the  soil  are  of   Mineral 

great  use  to  wealth 
man,  and  that  mining  and 
manufacturing  them  are 
important  industries. 
Europe  has  a  great  wealth  of  valuable 
minerals,  and  among  them  the  two  most 
useful  of  all,  —  coal  and  iron.  From 
the  map  (Fig.  455)  you  can  see  that  coal 
is  found  in  many  places,  and,  therefore, 
that  many  countries  of  Europe  have  a 
supply  of  this  valuable  fuel.  Most  of 
this  coal  is  bituminous,  but  some  is 
anthracite. 

Trace  the  50th  parallel  of  latitude  on 
a   globe  or   a   map   of   the  ^u^ate 
world.     Notice   that   while  i.  The  latitude 
the  49th  parallel  forms  the  "^  Europe 
northern   boundary  of  western    United 


334 


EUROPE 


States,  it  passes  entirely  south  of  Eng- 
land, crosses  France  near  Paris,  and 
extends  through  southern  Germany 
and  Russia.  From  this  it  is  seen 
that  by  far  the  larger  part  of  Europe 
lies  farther  north  than  the  United 
States,  and  due  east  of  Canada.  St. 
Petersburg  is  in  the  same  latitude  as 
northern  Labrador ;  and  the  tips  of  the 
peninsulas  of  southern  Europe  reach  no 
farther  south  than  the  southern  bound- 
ary of  Virginia. 

In  spite  of  its  northern  latitude, 
Europe  has  over  four  times  as  many 
„    _.  inhabitants  as  our  own  con- 

55.     Ine  popu- 
lation and  tinent,  or  nearly  four  hun- 
crops    ere         ^red   million  persons.     Yet 
it  is  less  than  half   the  size  of   North 
America. 

In  the  Far  North,  near  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  the  climate  is  bleak,  and  there 
are  barren,  frozen  tundras.  But  south 
of  this  is  a  belt  of  fir,  spruce,  pine,  and 
other  trees.  Within  the  forest  belt, 
and  south  of  it,  the  climate  is  mild 
enough  for  the  growth  of  the  grains 
and  fruits  that  flourish  in  southern 
Canada  and  northern  United  States. 
Farther  south,  in  southern  Europe,  in 
the  latitude  of  central  United  States, 
such  semi-tropical  fruits  as  oranges, 
lemons,  olives,  and  figs  are  cultivated. 
That  is  to  say,  the  products  of  the 
greater  part  of  Europe  are  such  as  grow 
several  hundred  miles  farther  south  in 
eastern  North  America. 

One  of  the  chief  reasons  for  this  mild 
climate,  so  far  north,  is.  the  direction  of 
3.  Explanation  *^^  ^iuds.  Northern  Eu- 
of  these  surpris-  rope  is  in  the  belt  of  pre- 

ing  facts  -t  ,  •     t  -, 

vailing  west  winds,  and 
these  blow  from  the  ocean  whicb,  as  you 
have  learned  (p.  303),  is  warmed  by  a 


great  ocean  current  that  flows  from  the 
south.  These  winds  bring  both  warmth 
and  moisture  to  the   land,  (i)  Th^  prevails 

Without    such    winds,    much    ing  west  winds 

of  this  densely  populated  continent  (Fig. 
457)  would  be  a  barren  waste,  like  Lab- 
rador. 

In  North  America,  where  high  moun- 
tains extend  north  and  south  along  the 
entire  western  side  of  the 
continent,  the  warm,  damp  ^^ ZltlT 
air  soon  loses  its  moisture  as  «outh  mountain 
it  moves  eastward  (p.  294).  thewesT 
In  Europe,  on  the  other 
hand,  where  the  high  ranges  extend 
nearly  east  and  west,  the  mountains 
interfere  much  less  with  the  movement 
of  vapor  to  the  interior.  For  that  rea- 
son the  west  winds  give  up  their  mois- 
ture little  by  little,  and  over  a  wide 
area.  This  is  the  chief  reason  why 
there  is  no  arid  land  from  western 
Ireland  to  eastern  Russia. 

Examine  Figure  456  to  see  where  the 
rainfall  in  Europe  is  light.  One  section  is 
in  the  east,  faraway  from  the  ^y  southern 
ocean.  Another  is  in  south-  Europe  has  a 
ern  Spain,  Italy,  and  Greece.  ^"^  *^^™^*« 
Here  the  rainfall  comes  mainly  in  the 
winter,  and  the  summers  are  quite  dry. 
The  reason  is  that  in  winter  the  west 
winds  blow  here.  But  in  summer  this 
section,  like  southern  California,  lies  in 
the  belt  of  horse  latitudes. 

Make  a  list  of  the  different  countries 
that  you  find  on  the  map  of  Europe. 
How  many  are  there?     Each  _^ 

I,  ■,  .  1  Why  so  many 

of  these   has  its   own   Ian-  countries, 
guage,  so  that  a  person  living  with  different 

.        ^  ,  ^         X        J         languages 

m  one  country  cannot  under- 
stand what  is  said  in  another,  unless  he 
has  learned  its  language. 

Some  of  the  reasons  for  so  many  coun- 


GENERAL  FACTS  ABOUT  EUROPE 


385 


lies  and  languages  are  easy  to  under- 
stand.    For   instance,  it   is    plain  why 

the  British  Isles  should  form 
late^"  ten*  *'"'  a  Separate  uatiou.  They  are 
separates  the       gurrounded  by   water,   and 

are  thus  cut  off  from  other 
people.  Naturally,  therefore,  the  British 
lave  remained  independent,  and  have 
[ormed  a  language  of  their  own. 


Fig.  456. — Rainfall  map  of  Europe. 

Italy  is  nearly  surrounded  by  water  ; 
and  on  the  north,  where  there  is  no  wa- 
-    ^      ,         ter,  the  Alps  Mountains  rise, 

2.    Or  water  .     '  ^  n        i  • 

and  mountains    like  a  great  Wall,  shutting 

separate  them       ^^^      ^^^^^^      ^^     ^^^^      ^-^^ 

Italy  has,  therefore,  developed  a  govern- 
ment and  language  of  its  own.  Note 
how  many  other  countries  of  Europe  are 
on  peninsulas.     Name  them. 

The  water  and  mountains  have  had 
much  influence  in  breaking  Europe  up  into 
so  many  countries  with  different  lan- 
guages. In  times  past,  when  there  were  no 
railroads,  and  there  was  little  travel,  each 


lot  of  people,  thus  separated  from  others, 
learned  to  govern  themselves  and  to 
speak  a  separate  language. 

There  is~  a  third  important  reason  for 
so  many  countries  and  Ian-  3    or  their 
guages.     Hundreds  of  years  quarrels  sepa- 

(•  J      rate  them 

ago  wars  were  very  irequent, 

—  much  more  so  than  now.     Groups  of 

people,  including  those  who  were  not 
separated  either  by  water  or 
by  mountains,  often  quarreled 
with  one  another,  went  to  war, 
and  finally  set  up  different 
governments.  What  coun- 
tries do  you  find  on  the  map 
that  do  not  seem  to  be  cut  off 
from  their  neighbors  on  all 
sides,  either  by  water  or  by 
mountains  ? 

There  was  a  time  when 
there  were  even  more  coun- 
tries in  Europe  than  now,  but 
in  recent  years  many  of  the 
smaller  divisions  have  been 
united.  This  shows  that 
people  are  gradually  learning 
to  live  together  in  peace. 

Although  Europe  is  called 
a  continent,  it  is  really  very 

small  to  be  given  that  name.   , 

*-'  .       .     .       ,        Area  and  pop- 

Next  to  Australia,  it  is  the  uiation  com- 
smallest  of  all  the  conti- 
nents. The  whole  of  Eu- 
rope is  only  a  little  larger  than  the 
United  States,  including  Alaska.  Yet 
it  contains  nearly  five  times  as  many 
inhabitants  as  our  country.  This  makes 
it  plain  that  Europe  is  much  more  thickly 
settled  than  the  United  States. 

In  spite   of  the  fact  that   Europe   is 
so   small,   it   is    really    the  How  Europe 
most  important   of   all  the  is  the  leading 
continents. 


pared  with 
our  own 


continent 


336 


EUROPE 


Fig.  457.  —  What  reasons  can  you  suggest  for  the  fact  that  certain  parts,  like  central  Spain,  Northern  Russia, 
Scandinavia,  and  the  country  between  the  Black  and  Caspian  seas,  are  not  densely  populated  ? 


and 


In  the  first  place,  it  is  the  mother  con- 
tinent for  the  New  World,  because  Amer- 

1.  The  mother  ica  has  been  settled  by  im- 
continent  migrants  from  Europe  (Fig. 
458).  What  different  countries  of  Eu- 
rope first  settled  North  America  (p.  101)  ? 
South  America  (p.  312)  ?  Point  out 
these  countries  on  the  map  of  Europe. 
What  country  of  Europe  still  holds  about 
half  of  North  America  as  its  colony  ? 
Europe  is  the  mother  continent  of  other 
parts  of  the  world,  also,  as  you  will  learn 
later. 

While  Europe  is  the  mother  continent 
of  much  of  the  world,  she  is  also  the 

2.  The  teacher  teachev  of  most  of  it.  Her 
of  the  world  children,  who  are  scattered 
over   the    New    World    and    elsewhere. 


naturally  look  to  her  for  instruction. 
Other  parts  of  the  world,  such  as  China 
and  Japan,  look  to  her,  too. 

The  countries  of  Europe,  being  so 
much  older  and  so  much  more  progres- 
sive than  many  other  countries,  have 
long  taken  the  lead  in  discovering  the 
best  ways  of  carrying  on  agriculture, 
mining,  manufacturing,  and  commerce. 
Most  of  the  best  books,  also,  and  a 
large  part  of  the  best  music,  paintings, 
and  sculpture  have  come  from  Europe. 
For  these  reasons  people  from  all  parts 
of  the  world  look  to  Europe  for  the  best 
thoughts  on  most  subjects,  and  they  often 
go  there  to  study. 

Some  of  the  countries  of  Europe  have 
been    far   more    active    than    others  as 


BRrilSII  ISLES 

Scale  of  Miles 


atietuith  over  1,000,000 LONDON 

citia  Kith  hoojioo  to  1,000,000 Glasgo  w 

Citiet  with  300,000  to  500,000 Edinburgh 

Citiet  with  100,000  to  300,000 Portsmouth 

Smallerplacei Inverness 

Capiialt  of  Countriet  ® 


FIG.  469. 


GENERAL  FACTS  ABOUT  EUROPE 


337 


Avorld  leaders.  There  are  six  that  are 
Europe's  ^ow    especially   prominent ; 

World  Powers  namely,  the  British  Isles, 
( Germany,  France,  Italy,  Avistria-Hun- 
gary,  and  Russia.     Locate  each  of  these. 


5'SCANDINAVTANS 
6 • SLAVS 
7' ITALIANS 
8=  ALL  OTHERS 


Fig.  458.  —  A  comparison  of  the  foreign-born  residents  of 
tlie  United  States,  according  to  the  nations  from  which 
tliey  come.  In  this  figure  the  space  marked  1  repre- 
sents the  native-born  Irish  living  in  the  United  States 
in  1900;  the  space  marked  2  represents  the  Germans, 
etc. 

They  are  called  the  Great  Poivers  of 
/jurope,  because  they  are  the  most 
])owerful  countries  on  that  continent. 
They  are  also  known  as   World  Powers, 


Review 
Questions 


because  they  are  among  the  most  power- 
ful nations  of  the  world.  The  United 
States  and  Japan  are  the  only  other 
World  Powers.  The  remaining  countries 
of  Europe  are  called  the  Lesser  Poivers. 
We  will  study  the  Great  Powers  first. 

1.  What  is  meant  by  Eurasia  ?  By  Europe  ? 
2.  Where  are  the  mountains  found  ?  3.  Name 
the  chief  ranges.  4.  Describe 
the  large  plain.  5.  Explain  the 
irregular  coast  line,  and  state 
some  of  its  advantages.  6.  What  about  mineral 
deposits  ?  7.  What  is  the  latitude  of  Europe  ? 
8.  What  about  the  population,  and  the  farm 
products  ?  9.  How  is  the  climate  influenced  by 
the  prevailing  west  winds  ?  10.  By  the  ab- 
scene  of  north  and  south  mountain  ranges  in  the 
west  ?  11.  Why  is  the  climate  of  southern 
Europe  dry  and  mild  ?  12.  Why  has  Europe 
so  many  independent  countries  with  separate 
languages  ?  13.  What  about  the  area  and 
population  of  Europe  ?  14.  What  reasons  are 
there  for  regarding  Europe  as  the  most  ijnpor- 
tant  continent  ?  15.  Name  and  locate  the 
Great  Powers  of  Europe.  Why  also  called 
World  Powers  ? 

1.   Draw  an  outline  map  of  Europe.     Put  in 
the    boundaries    of    the    principal    countries. 

2.  What  results  might  follow,  if 
the  mountains  of  Europe  ex- 
tended north  and  south  near  the  western  coast  ? 

3.  Can  you  tell  about  any  of  the  great  wars  and 
generals   of   Germany,   England,   or    France  ? 

4.  Learn  some  facts  about  Napoleon.  5.  Can 
you  tell  of  any  of  the  changes  in  boundary  lines  ; 
for  example,  in  Poland,  or  between  France  and 
Germany  ? 


Suggestions 


SECTION  II.  THE  GREAT  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


1.    The  British  Isles  (Fig.  459) 

1.   Walk  toward  the  British  Isles.    2.   W^hat 

two  large  islands  do  they  include?     3.    What 

^vaters     separate     these     two  ? 

4.   Name    the     three     divisions 

of    Great    Britain.       5.    Locate    the    Orkney, 

Hebrides,     Shetland,    and     Channel     islands. 


They  are  included   among  the   British  Isles. 

6.  What    sea    lies    east    of    Great    Britain  ? 

7.  What  country  on  the  continent  is  near- 
est to  Great  Britain  (Fig.  493)  ?  What  waters 
separate  the  two  ?  8.  Compare  the  coast  line 
with  that  of  Spain  (Fig.  493) ;  of  Norway 
(Fig.  450).  9.  What  part  of  North  America 
is  in  the  latitude  of  London  ? 


338 


EUROPE 


Fig.  460.  —  Loch  Lomond,  a  beautiful  lake  ou  the  southern  border  of  the  Scottish  Highlands. 


Why  most 
truly  our 
mother 
country 


Of  all  the  European  countries,  the 
one  most  nearly  related  to  us  is  the  United 
Kingdom  of  Great  Britain 
and  Ireland.  It  is  from 
these  two  islands,  called  the 
British  Isles,  that  we  have 
obtained  our  English  language ;  and 
from  them,  too,  a  larger  number  of 
settlers  have  come  to  our  shores  than 
from  any  other  country  in  the  world 
(Fig.  458).  Moreover,  we  carry  on 
more  commerce  with  the  United  King- 
dom  than  with  any  other  nation. 

While,  therefore,  other  European  coun- 
tries have  some  claim  to  be  called  mother 
countries  to  us,  —  since  they  have  sent 
so  many  settlers  here,  —  the  United 
Kingdom  is  most  truly  of  all  our 
Mother  Country. 

The  United  Kingdom  consists  of  two 
islands,  Great  Britain  and  Ireland.    The 


larger  of  these.  Great  Britain,  is  made 
up  of  three  parts  —  England,  Scotland, 
and  Wales.  The  two  islands  ^he  smaiiness 
together  are  much  smaller  of  this 
than  our  one  state  of  Call-  ki^s^om 
fornia,  but  there  are  nearly  half  as  many 
people  living  in  them  as  live  in  the 
entire  United  States.  This  shows  that 
the  British  Isles  are  very  densely 
settled. 

In  spite  of  its  small  size,  the  United 
Kingdom  is  in  many  respects  the  most 
powerful  and  the  most  im- 
portant country  in  the  world. 
It  carries  on  more  foreign  commerce  than 
any  other  nation ;  it  has  more  wealth 
than  any  other ;  it  has  more  and  larger 
colonies ;  and  in  it  is  London,  the  larg- 
est city  in  the  world. 

There  are,  of  course,  excellent  reasons 
why  so  small  a  country  should  have  be- 


lts importance 


t 


m 


THE  GREAT  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


339 


Fig.  4()2.  —  Sheep  grazing  on  the  mountain  slopes  in  the  Scottish  Highlands. 


Let 


us   see 


what 


lome  so  important, 
hey  are. 

It  is   certainly  not   agriculture   that 
las  given  the  United  Kingdom  its  rank. 

Indeed,  in  so  small  a  coun- 
areisnot  try,  one  would  hardly  ex- 
speciaiiy        pect  it  to  be.     Even  aside 

irom  its  size,  however,  there 
,re  two  reasons  why  agriculture  is  not 
if  great  importance  here. 
In  the  first  place,  much  of  the  land  is 

00  hilly  and  rocky  for  farming.     This 
true,    for   instance,    of   the    Scottish 

The  hilly        -^^  Cjhlands, 

which  occupy 
le  largest  part  of  Scot- 
md  (Figs.  460-462).  That 

1  a  region  of  low  moun- 
dns,  so  rugged  and  barren 
iat  few  people  live  there. 
'here  are  low  mountains 
Iso  in  northern  England 
nd  in  Wales ;  and  there  is 
rim  of  highlands  extend- 
ig  almost  entirely  around 
reland.  These  moun- 
ains    rarely 


than  two  thou- 
sand feet  above  the 
sea,  and  the  high- 
est peak  in  the 
Islands,  Ben 
Nevis,  is  only  forty- 
three  hundred  feet 
high.  Yet,  for  the 
most  part,  they 
are  too  high  or 
rugged  for  farm- 
ing. 

Not  all  parts  of 
these  islands  have 
a  rough  surface. 
There  are  fertile 
plains  and  valleys  in  England  and  in 
Ireland ;  and  even  in  Scotland  there  is 
a  fertile  lowland,  called  the  Loivlands 
of  Scotland,  which  lies  south  of  the 
Highlands. 

In  the  second  place,  the  islands  are  so 
far-  north  that  the  summer  climate  is  too 
cool  for  agriculture.  Lon-  2.  The  cool 
don,  for  instance,  is  seven  dilate 
hundred  miles  farther  north  than  New 
York ;  and  the  British  Isles  are  in  the 
same  latitude  as  Labrador.  It  is  too 
cool  even  for  wheat  raising  in  the  north- 


rface 


rise     more 


Fig.  403.  —  An   English   country  scene.    On  the  left  of  the  road,  bordered  by 
hedges,  is  a  field  of  wheat;  on  the  right,  watercress  is  being  raised. 


340 


EUROPE 


The  farm 
products 

1.  Grains, 
vegetables 
and  grass 


ern  part  of  the  British  Isles.  Indian 
corn  cannot  be  grown  in  any  part,  nor  is 
grape  culture  general.  Of  course,  then, 
such  products  as  cotton,  tobacco,  and 
sugar  cane  are  quite  out  of  the  question. 
However,  it  is  possible  to  raise  the 
grains  and  vegetables  of  cool  temperate 
climates, 
such  as 
oats,  bar- 
ley, cab- 
bages, tur- 
nips, peas,  beans, 
and  potatoes.  An- 
other crop  that 
thrives  here  is 
grass.  The  winds 
come  mainly  from 
the  west,  causing 
a  damp  climate 
(Fig.  464);  and 
since  they  blow 
from  the  warm 
ocean,  the  winters 
are  not  severe. 
Although  the  sum- 
mers are  cool,  the 
winters  are  milder 
than  in  northern 
United  States. 
Therefore,      grass 

remains  green  throughout  most  of  the 
year.  It  is  because  of  its  green  grass 
that  Ireland  is  often  called  the  Green, 
or  Emerald  Isle. 

Largely  on  account  of  the  fine  grass, 
the  chief  agricultural  industry  of  the 
British  Isles  is  grazing  (Fig. 
465).  There  are  large  num- 
bers of  horses  and  cattle,  and  still  greater 
numbers  of  sheep.  There  are  almost  as 
many  sheep  in  the  British  Isles  as  there 
are   people,  and   in   Scotland   there  are 


MILIUMS  EN6RAVI 


Fig.  464.  — Rainfall  of  British  Isles. 


2.    Live  stock 


five  times  as  many.  The  British  Isles 
are  noted  for  their  fine  cattle,  sheep, 
and  horses.  Some  of  the  breeds  of  sheep 
are  widely  known  for  their  fine  wool. 
The  Shetland  Islands  are  famous  for 
Shetland  ponies  ;  and  on  the  three  Chan- 
nel Islands,  —  Jersey,  Guernsey,  and 
Alderney,  near  the 
French  coast — 
three  breeds  of 
cattle  have  been 
developed,  which 
are  well  known  in 
the  United  States. 
These  animals 
supply  many  valu- 
able products,  such 
as  milk,  butter, 
meat,  hides,  and 
wool.  Yet  far  too 
little  food  is  pro- 
duced in  these 
islands  to  feed  tlie 
people.  There  are 
so  many  persons 
engaged  in  other 
occupations  that, 
if  no  food  came 
from  abroad,  they 
would,  it  is  said, 
begin  to  suffer 
from  famine  within  a  month.  How 
different  that  is  from  our  own  country, 
which  has  so  large  an  area,  and  so  varied 
a  climate,  that  it  supplies  not  only  the 
food  we  need,  but  enormous  quantities  to 
send  abroad  ! 

There  is  almost  no  lumbering,  for  there 
is  scarcely  any  forest  except  that  in  private 
parks.  Almost  all  the  wood  used 
in  the  British  Isles  has  to  be 
brought  from  abroad. 

Fishing  is  a  very  important  industry  alonj 
the   coast;  also  on   the  fishing  banks  of   th^ 


Lumbering 
and  fishing 


THE  GREAT  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


341 


North  Sea,  and  of  the  ocean  north  and  west  of 
the  islands.  Among  the  fish  caught  are  cod, 
haddock,  and  herring,  the  same  kinds  that  are 
caught  off  the  coast  of  New  England  and  New- 
foundland. Another  important  kind  is  a  flat- 
fish, the  sole,  which  resembles  the  flounder  of 
our  eastern  coast.  These  salt-water  fish  are 
much  used  as  food  by  the  British  people. 
Salmon  enter  the  rivers  of  northern  Great 
Britain,  and  oysters  are  found  along  the  south- 
ern coast. 


States  and  Germany,  produce  more  iron 
ore.  There  are  also  clays,  salt,  building 
stones,  and  other  valuable  minerals. 

Figure  466  shows  the  sections  of 
Great  Britain  in  which  coal  is  found. 
While  most  of  the  coal  is  bitumi- 
nous, that  in  southern  Wales  is  more 
like  our  anthracite.  Large  numbers 
of   miners    in   the    United    States    are 


Fig.  465.  —  An  English  farm  with  a  flock  of  sheep  and  a  herd  of  cattle  grazing  in  the  pasture. 


One  of  the  principal  reasons  why 
these  islands  have  made  such  progress 

.  is  the  abundance  of   useful 

minerals  that  lie  buried  in 

the  rocks.     More    than  half  a    million 

people  in  the  British  Isles  are  engaged 

in  mining. 

The  most  valuable  of  the  minerals 
are  coal  and  iron  ore,  which  are  widely 
scattered.  The  United  Kingdom  is  the 
second  greatest  coal-producing  country 
in  the  world,  ranking  next  to  the  United 
States.     Only  two  nations,  the  United 


Welshmen  who   have   come   from  that 
section. 

None  of  the  British  iron  ore  is  far 
from  coal ;  and  in  some  places  the  same 
shaft  is  used  to  bring  both  coal  and  iron 
to  the  surface.  Limestone  is  also  abun- 
dant and  near  at  hand.  This  reminds 
us  of  the  conditions  at  Birmingham,  Ala. 
(p.  160),  which  was  named  after  Birming- 
ham, England.  Find  Birmingham  in 
Figure  466.  Note  the  other  cities  near 
the  coal  fields.  Why  should  large 
manufacturing  cities  develop  here  ? 


342 


EUROPE 


With  plenty  of  coal  and  iron,  Great 

Britain  has  become  one  of  the  leading 

iron  and    steel  manufactur- 
Manufac-  .  •        j  i  i  i 

turing  ^^S   centers   m    the   world. 

1.  Iron  and      The  products  of  the  factorics 

steel  goods  ^^^  ^^^^    ^^^    ^^^y  at    hOHie, 

but  are  sent  abroad  in  great  quantities. 

The  leading  center  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  iron  and  steel  is  Birmingham,  in 
England.  The  next  center  is  in  and  near 
Glasgow,  in  Scotland.  The  two  cities, 
Glasgow  (Fig.  473)  and  Edinburgh, 
lie  in  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  a  fertile 
agricultural  region,  rich  in  coal  and 
iron.  Glasgow  is  the  principal  city  for 
steel  shipbuilding  in  the  world.  Shef- 
field, a  third  center  for  iron  and  steel 
manufacturing,  has  for  centuries  been 
noted  for  its  fine  cutlery.  In  the  smaller 
cities  and  towns  near  these  places,  also, 
there  is  much  iron  manufacturing. 

The  island  is  so  small  that  coal  and 
iron  are  easily  sent  to  the  coast  and  are 
cheaply  shipped  to  all  points.  There- 
fore manufacturing  is  carried  on  in 
many  places,  though  it  is  best  developed 


COALFIELDS 

OF 

OREAT  BRITAUr 


A  country  road  in  England. 


Fig.  4()6.  —  Map  showing  coal  distribution  in  British  Lsles. 

in  the  coal  fields.  Much  coal  and  iron 
from  England  and  Scotland  are  sent  by 
boat  across  the  Irish  Sea  to  the  coast  of 
Ireland.  Largely  for  "this  reason  the 
city  of  Belfast  is  also  noted  for  its 
iron  manufacturing,  espe- 
cially for  shipbuilding. 

The  United  Kingdom  has 
many  other  kinds  of  man- 
ufacturing. Vast  quan- 
tities of  wool, 
for  example, 
are  made  into  woolen  goods. 
In  the  mountainous  section 
of  northern  England,  near 
both  coal  and  wool,  there 
are  hundreds  of  factories 
for  the  manufacture  of 
woolen  cloth.  The  princi- 
pal center  of  this  trade  is 
Leeds,  which  also  has 
water  power.     On  the  west- 


2.    Woolen 
goods 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


343 


ern  side  of  this  hilly  region  is  Bradford, 
noted  for  its  broadcloth  and  its  worsted 
goods ;  and  neighboring  cities  manufac- 
ture woolen  yarn,  hosiery,  carpets,  and 
blankets.  The  woolen  industry  extends 
northward  into  Scotland  and  south- 
ward to  Leicester,  where  the  surround- 
ing plains  produce  a  breed  of  sheep  that 


Fig.  468.- 


•  A  country  village  in  Ireland,  surrounded  by  pastures  and 
fields  of  grain. 


yields  a  wool  suitable  for  the  manufac- 
ture of  worsted  yarn. 

In  spite  of  the  enormous  number  of  sheep  in 
the  British  Isles,  millions  of  pounds  of  wool 
must  be  imported  every  year  in  order  to  supply 
the  factories.  This  reminds  us  of  New  England, 
where  much  of  the  wool  is  brought  from  the 
West  or  from  foreign  countries. 

On  the  western  side  of  northern  Eng- 
land we  find  a  great  cotton-manufactur- 
3.   Cotton  iiig  industry.     Dampness  is 

goods  Qfr^Q  Qf  ^]^Q  points  in  favor  of 

that  section,  for  in  a  dry  air  cotton  is 
in  danger  of  becoming  too  brittle  to 
spin  and  weave  easily.  Another  reason 
why  this  work  is  best  developed  on  the 
western  side  of  the  island  is  the  fact 
that  it  is  nearer  the  United  States,  from 
which  so  much  of  the  raw  cotton  comes. 


Since  cotton  will  not  grow  in  the 
British  Isles,  it  is  necessary  to  import 
all  that  is  used.  Much  cotton  is  now 
obtained  from  Egypt,  India,  and  other 
parts  of  the  British  Empire ;  but  our 
Southern  States  still  supply  the  greatest 
quantity.  The  center  of  the  cotton 
manufacturing  is  Manchester.  What 
other  cities  do  you  find 
near  by  ?  Liverpool,  on 
the  western  seacoast,  about 
thirty-five  miles  from  Man- 
chester, is  the  seaport  for 
this  region,  and  is  itself  a 
great  manufacturing  city. 

The  central  portion  of 
Great  Britain,  including 
southern  Scotland  and  the 
two  sides  of  the  mountain 
range  of  northern  England, 
is  the  seat  of  the  greatest 
textile  industry  in  the 
world.  Can  you  name 
cities  of  New  England 
which  are  likewise  engaged 
in  cotton  and  woolen  manufacture  (p. 
131)  ? 

The  industries  connected  with  cotton, 
wool,  and  iron  have  made  Great  Britain 
one  of  the  great  workshops  of  the 
world.  The  most  important  is  cotton 
manufacturing;  iron  ranks  next;  and 
wool  is  third. 

Thus  we  see  that  here,  as  in  the  United 
States,  coal  makes  possible  an  enormous  manu- 
facturing industry.  There  is  so  much  coal  in 
Great  Britain  that,  in  spite  of  the  forest  of 
chimneys  in  England  and  southern  Scotland, 
more  coal  is  produced  than  is  needed  at  home 
Therefore  large  quantities  are  exported.  The 
home  production  of  raw  materials  for  manu- 
facture, however,  is  not  sufficient.  All  the 
cotton,  much  of  the  wool,  and  part  of  the  iron 
ore  must  be  imported;  and  in  addition  vast 
quantities  of  food  for  the  workmen. 


844 


EUROPE 


Contrast  of 
Ireland  with 
Great  Britain 
1 .    In  promi- 
nence of  its 
agriculture 


What  has  thus  far  been  said  applies 
chiefly  to  Great  Britain.  Ireland  is 
quite  different  from  Great 
Britain  in  several  respects. 
In  the  first  place,  it  is  mainly 
a  country  of  farms  instead 
of  manufactures  (Fig.  468). 
The  mild  climate  and  damp 
air  insure  excellent  grass  throughout  the 
year,  and  about  four  fifths  of  the  farm 
land  is  in  pasture.  There- 
fore, great  numbers  of 
cattle,  sheep,  and  horses 
are  raised.  As  in  Great 
Britain,  the  principal 
grain  is  oats ;  but  barley, 
wheat,  potatoes,  and  tur- 
nips are  grown. 

Unlike  Great  Britain, 
Ireland  is  very  barren  of 
minerals.  Building  stones, 
such  as  gran- 
ite, marble, 
and  sandstone,  are  found, 
but  there  is  almost  no 
coal  or  iron. 

There  is,  however,  an  abun- 
dance of  "  turf,"  or  peat,  which 
is  used  as  fuel  in  the  homes. 
Peat  is  the  woody  matter  and 
plant  remains  that  accumulate 
in  swamps,  or  bogs.  When 
dug  up  (Fig.  469)  and  dried,  it  makes  a  fairly 
good  fuel.  Since  about  one  twelfth  of  the  sur- 
face of  Ireland  is  swamp,  there  is  an  abundance 
of  this  fuel. 

On  account  of  the  lack  of  coal,  most  of 
the  manufacturing  in  Ireland  is  done  on 
3.  inmanu-  the  eastern  side,  where  fuel 
facturing  j^  easily  obtained  from  Eng- 

land or  Scotland.  At  one  point  the  two 
islands  are  only  thirteen  miles  apart. 

One  of  the  leading  manufacturing  in- 
dustries is  the  spinning  and  weaving  of 


linen  which  is  made  from  the  inner  bark, 
OT  fiber,  of  the  flax  plant.  Flax  is  grown 
in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  but 
mainly  for  the  seed,  from  which  linseed 
oil  is  obtained  for  use  in  mixing  paints 
and  in  making  varnish.  In  Ireland,  how- 
ever, flax  is  raised  chiefly  for  its  fiber. 
Some  of  the  manufacturing  is  done  in  the 
homes,  and  some  in  the  cities.  Belfast 
is  specially  noted  for  its  linen  factories. 


2.    In  mining 


^^^^ 

WM 

^ 

^t^^^^^Hfl^S 

m 

^^wSp'    <^ 

'      'Idi 

::ig»y 

iSL^ii^'-'^^'" 

*«-»■ 

< 

\\: 

"Sl--^* 

M 

Fig.  469.- — A  scene  in  Ireland,  sliowing  the  digging  of  peat  from  tlie  bogs.  It 
comes  out  of  the  bog  wet,  aud  is  then  wheeled  away  and  spread  out  in  the 
sun  to  dry. 


The  stem  of  flax  is  tall  and  slender,  and 
a  field  of  it  looks  somewhat  like  a  field  of 
oats.  Instead  of  being  cut,  like  grain,  it  is 
pulled  up  and  left  lying  upon  the  ground  for 
some  time,  exposed  to  the  weather,  so  that  the 
gummy  substance,  which  holds  the  woody  matter 
and  the  fiber  together,  may  decay. 

After  the  fiber  has  been  separated,  it  is  split 
and  combed  out  and  thus  prepared  for  spinning. 
It  is  made  into  thread  in  much  the  same  way 
as  cotton  and  wool  are,  and  this  is  then  woven 
into  napkins,  tablecloths,  and  other  fabrics. 
Name  other  articles  made  of  linen. 

A  fourth  respect  in  which  Ireland  differs  from 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


345 


Fig.  470.  —  London  Bridge  across  the  Thames,  over  which 
people  and  wagons  is  almost  constantly  passing 

Great  Britain  is  in  its  population.  Ireland  is 
far  less  densely  peopled,  and  the  number  of  in- 
4.  Inpopu-  habitants  is  becoming  less.  Tor 
lation  many  years  the  Irish  have   been 

leaving  their  country,  partly  because  they  have 
been  discontented  with  their  lot,  especially  with 
the  laws  made  by  the  English.  Since  1847,  the 
number  of  inhabitants  has  been  reduced  from 
eight  millions  to  four  millions  and  a  half.  They 
have  sought  refuge  chiefly  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada. 


The  cities  of  Great 
Britain  most  noted  for 
manufac- 
t ur  i  n  g 
have  al- 
ready been 
namely, 


titles  of  raw  materials  and 
food  must  be  imported, 
and  great  quantities  of 
manufactured  goods  must 
be  exported.  These  sea- 
ports are,  therefore,  the 
gateways  to  and  from  the 
island.  Since  Great  Britain 
lies  far  north,  between 
Europe  and  the  New  World, 
these  shipping  points  are 
naturally  located  on  the 
eastern,  western,  and  south- 
ern sides.  They  are  situ- 
ated at  those  points  where 
the  best  harbors  exist,  and 
not  far  from  the  great  industrial 
centers. 

The  largest  of  these  cities,  and  in  fact  the 
largest  city  in  the  world,  is  London.  It  is 
situated  fifty  miles  from  the  2.  London 
ocean,  as  far  up  the  Thames  (D  ^<«  '«'^«<^«'^ 
River  as  high  tide  allows  vessels  to  go. 
This  is  a  favorable  position  for  a  city  be- 
cause it  is  in  the  interior  of  the  island. 


a  stream  of 


Principal 
cities 
1.    Their 
location 


mentioned ; 
Leeds,  Bradford, 
Manchester,  Shef- 
field, Birmingham, 
and  Glasgow.  What 
industries  are  devel- 
oped in  each  ?  Tell 
where  each  is  located. 
There  are  other 
large  cities  along  the 
coast ;  for  great  quan- 


FiG.  471.  —  The  famous  Westminster  Abbey  in  London. 


346 


EUROPE 


and  yet  is  connected  with  foreign  conn- 
tries  by  water. 

Nearly  two  thousand  years  ago  the 
Romans  built  a  fort  where  London  now 
(2)  Early  stauds.     They   had  a  ferry 

history  and        here  forcrossiug  the  Thames. 

present  size  ^    ])ndge,    the    first    LoudoU 

Bridge,  was  not  built  until  about  eight 
hundred  years  ago.  This  gave  the  city 
a  great  start.  Since  that  time,  it  has 
grown  until  Greater  London  now  in- 
cludes  fully    7,300,000  persons.     How 


sugar,  meat,  tobacco,  hides,  and  cocoa- 
nuts.  Railways  extend  to  all  parts  of 
Great  Britain,  so  that  these  goods  are 
easily  distributed. 

London  is  the  capital  of  the  British 
Empire  (Fig.  476),  which  is  the  name 
given  to  the  United  King-  (^)  importance 
dom  and  its  dependencies,  in  other  loays 
It  is  a  center  for  the  publication  of 
books  and  magazines,  and  it  has  noted 
picture  galleries,  libraries,  museums,  and 
buildings  (Figs.  471,  472,  and  478). 


Fia.  473.  —  Shipping  in  the  busy  harbor  of  Glasgow. 


does  that  compare  with  the  number  in 
Scotland  ?  In  Ireland  ?  In  New  York 
City? 

As  in  all  great  cities,  one  of  the  chief 
industries  is  manufacturing.  Nearly  all 
,„-  ,,      .         kinds  of  goods  are  made  in 

(3)  Manufac-  ^ 

turingand        Loudou,  as   in   Ncw   York, 

commerce  /^u  •  j   "ni  m    j    i    l.  • 

Chicago,  and  rhiladelphia. 
London  is  the  greatest  shipping  point 
in  the  world,  being  the  point  of  entrance 
for  much  of  the  food  for  the  English. 
There  are  docks  along  the  river  for  a 
distance  of  twenty  miles,  and  there  are 
hundreds  of  great  warehouses  filled  with 
goods  from  all  climes,  including  tea,  flour, 


Its  wealth  and  trade  are  so  great  that 
it  has  long  been  the  leading  money 
center  of  the  world.  The  principal 
bank,  called  the  Bank  of  England,  is 
the  agent  of  the  government  in  much  of 
its  business,  and  employs  about  a  thou- 
sand persons. 

Southwest  of  London,  on  the  coast,  is 
Southampton  (Fig.  459),  where  many 
ocean  steamers  from  the 
United  States  stop.  Close 
to   Southampton   is   Ports-  (X)  i»  the  south 

^        ,  of  England 

has  a  great 


3.    Other 
English  cities 


MOUTH,  which 


navy  yard, 
don,   near 


Almost  due  west  of  Lon- 
the   head    of    Bristol  Chan- 


Fig.  472. —  St.  Paul's  Cathedral,  Loudou,  Iroiu  the  Thames  Kiver. 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


347 


nel,  is  Bristol.  It  was  formerly  next 
to  London  in  size,  but  Liverpool  has 
now  become  a  far  larger  city.  Just 
west  of  Bristol  is  Cardiff,  in  Wales, 
the  chief  port  for  the  export  of  coal. 

The  two  leading  seaports  in  the  north 

of  England  are  Liverpool,  on  the  west 

side,  and  Hull  on  the  east 

(2)  In  the  north      .  ,  tt    n  i  .        i        ^  •    n 

Side.  Hull  has  trade  chiefly 
with  Europe,  but  Liverpool  trades  with 
America  and  Africa  principally. 


to  London  in  size  among  British  cities. 
It  is  a  leading  manufactur-  4.   cities  of 
iiig     center     and     shipping  Scotland 
point,  and  has  a  flourishing  trade  with 
America. 

Edinburgh  (Fig.  474),  the  capital  of 
Scotland,  and  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
cities  in  the  British  Isles,  is  quite  unlike 
the  other  large  cities  named.  It  is  not 
important  either  as  a  shipping  point  or 
as  a  manufacturing  center.     In  former 


Fig.  474.  — The  city  of  Edinburgh. 


Before  the  discovery  of  the  New 
AVorld,  the  west  side  of  Great  Britain 
had  little  commerce.  With  the  settle- 
ment of  America,  however,  Liverpool 
irrew  until  it  now  has  an  immense  trade, 
and  is  third  in  size  among  the  cities  of 
tlie  United  Kingdom.  Besides  its  com- 
merce, Liverpool  is  also  important  for 
its  shipbuilding.  Why  is  this  a  favor- 
able place  for  such  an  industry?  A 
ship  canal,  about  thirty-five  miles  long, 
has  been  built  to  Manchester,  at  an 
expense  of  $75,000,000. 

Glasgow  (Fig.  473),  on  the  west  side 
of  the  Lowlands  of  Scotland,  is  second 


days,  before  Glasgow  had  commerce 
with  America,  Edinburgh  was  much 
more  important  than  Glasgow ;  for  it 
commanded  the  eastern  entrance  to  the 
Lowlands  of  Scotland.  It  still  has  ex- 
tensive trade,  and  is  a  noted  educational 
center.  Leith,  a  short  distance  away,  is 
the  port  for  Edinburgh. 

Farther  north,  on  the  coast,  are 
Dundee  and  Aberdeen.  The  former 
sends  a  number  of  whaling  vessels  to 
the  Arctic  Ocean  each  year,  and  is  also  en- 
gaged in- the  manufacture  of  linen.  Aber- 
deen has  many  manufacturing  industries. 

The  principal  cities  of  Ireland  are  on 


348 


EUROPE 


Commerce 


the  east  and  south  sides.  What  has  al- 
ready been  said  about  Belfast  (p.  344)  ? 
5.  Cities  of  Dublin  (Fig.  475),  the  cap- 
ireiand  ital  of  Ireland,  and  the  chief 

port  for  the  EngHsh  trade,  ships  farm 
and  other  products  to  England  and  re- 
ceives   manufactured    goods    in   return. 
QuEENSTOWN    has    a    fine 
harbor,   and  is   a    port   of 
call  for  vessels  bound  from 
America  to  Great  Britain. 

Many  millions  of  people 
are  employed  in  manufac- 
turing and  other  industries 
in  the  British 
Isles.  They 
produce  so  much  cloth,  iron 
goods,  and  so  many  other 
articles,  that  the  British 
people  cannot  possibly  use 
all  of  them.  A  market  for 
them  must  be  found  in 
other  countries. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
necessary  for  the  British 
people  to  import  much  of 
the  food  that  they  eat.  It  is  impossible 
to  raise  it  all  on  these  two  small  islands, 
just  as  it  would  be  impossible  to  raise 
enough  for  the  people  of  a  city  within 
the  city  limits.  Besides  food  they  must 
also  import  much  wool,  cotton,  and  other 
raw  products  for  manufacturing. 

The  export  of  so  many  goods,  and 
the  import  of  so  many  others,  gives  rise 
to  an  enormous  amount  of  trade.  This 
makes  the  transportation  of  goods  of  the 
greatest  importance.  ^Partly  for  these 
reasons  the  United  Kingdom  has  more 
ships  than  any  other  nation  in  the  world, 
and  they  sail  to  every  important  port  on 
the  earth. 

Having  many  ships,  it  has  been  easy 


for  the  British  people  to  explore  all  parts 
of  the  earth.  Also,  having  to  sell  so 
many  goods  abroad,  and  to  British 
buy  so  much  food  abroad,  it  colonies 
has  been  natural  for  the  British  nation 
to  take  possession  of  newly  discovered 
lands. 


Fig.  475.  —  A  street  scene  in  Dublin. 

In  this  way  the  United  Kingdom  has 
come  into  possession  of  Canada,  Australia, 
India,  several  large  countries  in  Africa, 
and  scores  of  islands  and  smaller  posses- 
sions (Fig.  476).  These  are  called  col- 
onies, and  the  British  have  more  of  them 
than  any  other  nation  in  the  world. 
You  will  remember  that  our  own  coun- 
try was  an  English  colony  before  our 
War  of  Independence. 

The  British  colonies  are  one  hundred 
times  as  large  as  the  British  Isles  them- 
selves, and  have  ten  times  as  many  in- 
habitants. These  colonies  help  greatly 
to  make  the  United  Kingdom  a  \\'oi'ld 
Power,  both  by  their  trade  and  by  their 
support  in  times  of  danger. 


I 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


349 


reat  Britain  and 
eland,  together 
ith  the  colonies, 
rm  the  British 
'mpire.  Its  govern- 
ent,  unlike  our 
own,  is  a  monarchy, 
and  the  name  of  the 
present 
king  is 
George 
V  (Fig. 
477).  It  is  not  an 
absolute  monarchy, 
however,  for  the  peo- 
ple have  an  impor- 
tant share  in  making 
the  laws,  as  in  our 
own  country.  They 
elect  representatives 
to  Parliament,  which 


The  British 
Empire  and 
its  form  of 
government 


Fig.  477.  —  George  V,  King  of  England. 


(Fig.  478),  and  cor- 
responds to  our  Con- 
gress at  Washington. 
There  are  two 
bodies  forming  Par- 
liament, one  called 
the  House  of  Lords, 
the  other  the  House 
of  Commons.  The 
House  of  Lords  is 
made  up  of  members 
of  the  nobility,  or 
men  with  inherited 
titles,  who  are  not 
elected  by  the  people. 
The  House  of  Com- 
mons, whose  mem- 
bers are  elected  by 
popular  vote,  has  far 
greater  power  in  raak- 


meets  in  London  |  ing  laws  than  the  House  of  Lords. 


Fig.  478.  —  The  Parliament  building  in  London,  with  the  Thames  River  in  front. 


350 


EUROPE 


1.  Give  reasons  for  regarding  the  British 
Isles  as  our  mother  country.  2.  What  are  the 
1.  Review  parts  of  the   United  Kingdom? 

Questions  What  about  their  area  and  popu- 

lation ?  3.  In  what  respects  is  this  country 
especially  important  ?  4.  Give  two  reasons  why 
agriculture  is  not  very  prominent.  5.  Where 
is  the  land  hilly  ?  Where  are  there  lowlands  ? 
6.  Name  the  main  farm  products.  7.  Tell 
about  the  raising  of  live  stock  on  these  islands. 
8.  What  about  lumber  and  fishing?  9.  What 
important  minerals  are  found  ?  10.  What 
can  you  tell  about  iron  and  steel  manufactur- 
ing ?  11.  Woolen  goods  ?  12.  Cotton  goods  ? 
13.  How  does  Ireland  compare  with  Great 
Britain  in  prominence  of  agriculture  ?  What 
are  the  farm  products  of  Ireland?  14.  How 
does  Ireland  contrast  with  Great  Britain  in 
mining?  15.  In  manufacturing?  Describe 
the  chief  manufacturing  industry.  16.  What 
about  the  population  of  Ireland  ?  17.  Where 
are  the  principal  cities  of  the  British  Isles 
located  ?  18.  Tell  further  about  the  location 
of  London.  19  Its  early  history  and  present 
size.  20.  Its  manufacturing  and  commerce. 
21.  Its  importance  in  other  ways.  22.  Locate 
and  state  the  important  facts  about  other  cities 
in  the  south  of  England.     23.    In  the  north. 

24.  Tell  about  the  leading  cities  of  Scotland. 

25.  Of  Ireland.  26.  Why  have  these  islands 
so  much  commerce  ?  27.  Why  have  they  so 
many  colonies  ?  28.  Locate  the  principal  col- 
onies. 29.  What  is  meant  by  the  British 
Empire,  and  what  is  its  form  of  government  ? 

1.  Name  some  early  English  explorers  who 
took  part  in  the  exploration  of  North  America. 
2.  What  names  of  British  cities 
have  you  met  in  your  study  of  the 
United  States  ?  In  what  portions  of  the  United 
States  are  they  ?  3.  What  books  have  you 
read  whose  authors  lived  in  the  British  Isles  ? 
4.  What  are  the  people  from  each  of  the  four 
parts  of  these  islands  called  ?  5.  What  waters 
surround  the  British  Isles  ?  6.  Make  a  sketch 
of  the  British  Isles,  putting  in  the  chief 
cities.  7.  Suppose  that  you  are  now  in  Lon- 
don; point  to  Wales,  Scotland,  Ireland,  the 
United  States. 

2.   German  Empire  (Fig.  479) 

1.  Compare  the  latitude  of  Berlin  with  that 
of  New  York  (Fig.  107).     2.    Of  London  (Fig. 


450).     3.   Estimate  the  greatest  length  of  Ger- 
many from  east  to  west  (Fig.  479)  ;  from  north 
to  south.     4.  How  does  Germany 
compare  in  size  with  the  British        ^        ^ 
Isles?     5.    With  Texas?     6.    What  parts   of 
the  boundary  are  natural  ?     7.   Name  and  trac 
the  principal  rivers.     8.   Point  out  the  moui 
tainous  sections.     9.    What  facts  do  you  notice! 
about   the   coast  .line?     10.   Which  probably] 
has  the  better  seaports,  the  North  Sea  or  th« 
Baltic  Sea  ?     Why  ? 

In  industry,  in  commerce,  and  in  other  | 
ways  Germany  is  one  of  the  leading  na-; 
tions  of  the  world,  ranking  R^nk  among 
among  the  first  three  of  the  the  World 
World    Powers.      The   two  ^^^^""^ 
others   that  rival  or  surpass  Germany 
are  the  United  States  and  the   United 
Kingdom. 

Germany  has  reached  this  high  rank 
only  very  recently.  For  until  the  year 
1871  the  region  marked  Ger-  states  forming 
man  Empire  on  the  map  was  t^e  Empire 
divided  into  many  parts  more  or  less 
independent  of  one  another,  and  often 
at  war  with  one  another.  In  1871,  just 
after  a  war  with  France,  these  differ- 
ent parts  were  united  to  form  the  Ger- 
man Empire,  which  is  now  made  up  of 
twenty-six  states.  The  smallest  of  these 
is  the  Free  Town  of  Bremen,  which 
contains  only  ninety-nine  square  miles. 
How  does  Bremen  compare  with  Rhode 
Island  in  area  ?  By  far  the  largest  state 
is  Prussia,  which  includes  more  than 
half  the  empire.  It  is,  however,  smaller 
than  our  own  state  of  Montana. 

These  states  are  united  under  a  cen- 
tral authority,  more  closely  than  our 
states.  Instead  of  a  Presi-  Form  of 
dent  they  have  an  Emperor,  government 
called  the  Kaiser,  who,  according  to  law, 
must  be  the  King  of  Prussia.  As  in  the 
United  Kingdom,  the  power  of  the  Kaiser 
is  limited,  for  there  is  a  leo;islature  with 


\ 


\ 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


351 


o  houses,  one  called  the  Reichstag, 
hich  is  elected  by  the  people.  The  form 
of  government  is,  therefore,  a  limited 
monarchy.  The  present  Kaiser  is  Em- 
peror William  II  (Fig.  480). 

Germany  contains  two  hundred  and 
nine  thousand  square  miles,  being  twice 

Area  and  tiie     Size 

population  of  Colo- 
rado, though  much 
smaller  than  Texas. 
It  has  more  than 
sixty  million  inhabit- 
ants, or  about  two 
thirds  as  many  as  the 
entire  United  States. 
The  position  of 
the  German  Empire 
is  very  different  from 
that  of  Great  Britain. 
Only 

Position  ,  ^ 

of  country  a  D  O  U  t 

1.   Advantages   one  third 

of  the  position  f      •  , 

O  I      1  t  S 

boundary  is  water, 
while  seven  inde- 
pendent countries, 
besides  Luxemburg 
(Fig.  479),  are  on  its 
borders.  What  are 
their  names  ? 

The  location  of  the  British  Isles  is 
favorable  for  world  commerce,  because 
densely  populated  Europe  lies  on  one 
side,  and  the  New  World  on  the  other. 
Germany  is  the  most  centrally  situated 
of  the  Eur(^ean  countries,  and  there- 
fore can  easily  trade  with  all  parts  of 
the  continent.  Further,  two  of  her 
principal  ports,  Hamburg  and  Bremen, 
face  Great  Britain  and  the  New  World. 
Name  some  of  the  large  European  cities 
(Fig.  450)  that  can  be  quickly  reached 


Fig.  480.  —  William  II,  the  Emperor  of  Germany. 


from  Germany.  In  these  days  of  rail- 
ways, Germany's  central  position  is  su- 
perior to  that  of  England  for  European 
trade. 

On  the  other  hand,  there  are  serious 
disadvantages  in  this  position,  for  the 
many  near  neighbors  have  caused  much 
trouble.  2.  itsdis- 

Notice    advantages 

what  an  irregular 
boundary  Germany 
has.  Mountains  form 
a  part  of  the  southern 
border,  and  water  the 
northern ;  but  the 
eastern  and  western 
limits  have  been 
largely  decided  as  a 
result  of  war  with 
neighbors.  That  is 
why  the  boundary  is 
so  irregular  and  so 
artificial.  Draw  an 
outline  map  of  Ger- 
many. 

In  order  to  keep 
the  present  bounda- 
ries the  Germans 
must  be  prepared  to 
defend  them  at  any 
time.  This  need  calls 
many  citizens  to  an  occupation  that  has 
not  thus  far  been  considered  in  this 
book ;  namely  that  oi  preparing  for  war. 
Each  of  the  great  European  nations  is 
ever  watching  the  others ;  and  since  no 
one  of  them  knows  how^  soon  a  dispute 
may  arise  with  its  neighbor,  each  keeps 
a  large  and  thoroughly  prepared  army 
and  navy. 

Able-bodied  young  men  in  Germany  are  re- 
quired usually  to  devote  two  full  years,  and 
parts  of  several  following  years,  to  active  train- 


352 


EUROPE 


itig  as  soldiers.  Most  of  them 
enter  the  service  at  about  the  age 
of  twenty ;  and  since  half  a  million 
men  reach  that  age  every  year, 
you  can  get  some  idea  of  what 
such  training  costs. 

Strong  forts  are  built  near  the 
boundary,  as  at  Cologne,  Metz,  and 
Strassburg  on  the  French  side,  and 
Konigsburgand  Posen  near  Russia. 
Forts  are  also  numerous  at  the  sea- 
ports, in  the  neighborhood  of  the 
great  interior  cities  along  the 
rivers,  and  at  other  important 
points.  The  United  Kingdom,  be- 
ing surrounded  by  water,  depends 
mainly  upon  a  navy  for  defense 
Germany  also  is  building  a  great 
navy  as  well  as  training  a  mighty  army.  Prep- 
aration for  war  is  one  of  the  great  occupations 
of  Europe  to-day,  and  no  nation  is  giving  more 
attention  to  it  than  Germany. 

Agriculture  is  much  more  important 
in  Germany  than  in  the  British  Isles. 
This  is  due  partly  to  the  fact  that  there 
is  in  Germany  a  very  large  amount  of 
land  suited  to  farming.     Even   in   the 


England 

1 .    Amount  of 

good  farm  land 


Fig.  482. — Vineyards  on  the  steep  slope  of  tlie  Rhine  Valley  near  Binyeii. 
The  laud  is  terraced  here  and  the  small  patches  of  vineyard  are  inclosed 
within  walls  of  rock. 


A  view  on  the  low  level  plain  of  north  Germany. 

south,  where  there  are  mountains,  there 

are    many    fertile    valleys. 

Central  Germany  is  a  low^  Why  more 

hilly     plateau      with     low  than  in 

mountains   rising    above    it 

in  a  few  places.      There  is 

much  good  farming  land  in 

this  section ;  and  there  is  still  more  in 

northern  Germany  which  is  almost 
wholly  a  lowland  (Fig. 
481),  very  low  and  flat  near 
Holland  and  gently  rolling 
in  other  parts.  This  is  a 
part  of  the  great  plain  of 
northern  Europe,  already 
mentioned  (p.  333). 

The  climate  also  is  more 
favorable  to  agriculture. 
A  large  portion 

„    ,,'=    i;        .        2.    Climate 

01  the  Empire 
is    south    of   the    southern 
portion  of  Engjand,  and  no 
part  extends  so  far  north 
as  northern  England. 

In  addition,  Germany  is 
less  under  the  influence  of 
the  ocean,  so  that  the  sum- 
mer climate  is  warmer  than 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


353 


Fig, 


483.  —  German  peasants  carrying 
vineyard. 


grapes  from  a 


that  of  Great  Britain.  This  allows  sev- 
eral important  crops  to  be  raised  in 
Germany  that  cannot  be  grown  in  the 
United  Kingdom.  There  is  plenty  of 
rain  in  all  parts  of  Germany,  as  there  is 
in  the  British  Isles. 


Among  the  chief  farm  products  are 
the  grains, — rye,  oats,  barley,  and  wheat. 
Far  more  rye  is  raised  than 

1         ,  T  n  J    •       3.    Farm  crops 

wheat,  and  rye  flour,  used  m 
making  "black  bread,"  is  a  common  food 
of  the  German  people.  Almost  no  corn 
is  grown,  partly  because  the  Germans 
have  not  learned  to  use  this  grain  and 
partly  because  in  most  parts  the  summers 
are  not  hot  enough,  although  they  are 
warmer  than  in  England.  Grapes  and 
tobacco,  neither  of  which  can  be  produced 
in  Great  Britain,  are  raised  in  large  quan- 
tities (Figs.  482,  483).  Potatoes,  which 
were  introduced  into  Europe  from  Amer- 
ica, are  a  very  valuable  crop,  forming 
one  of  the  chief  foods  of  the  people. 

The  Germans  have  so  improved  the 
beet  as  to  produce  a  new  kind,  known 
as  the  sugar  beet,  from  which  sugar  is 
made.  Hops,  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  beer,  are  cultivated  extensively,  and 
great  quantities  of  hay  also  are  raised. 


2a 


Fig.  484.  —  A  view  in  the  Black  Forest,  one  of  the  low  mountain  regions  of  southern  Germany. 


354 


EUROPE 


Much  of  the  lowland  is  too  sandy  for  culti- 
vation, and  much  of  the  highland  is  too  rugged. 
A  large  part  of  such  land  is  used 
for  pasturage,  and  thus  one  sixth 
of  the  surface  is  natural  pasture.  Cattle  for 
beef  and  for  dairy  purposes  are  kept  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  the  empire,  but  especially  in  the 
damper  climate  near  the  sea.  Largely  because 
wool  can  be  imported  so  cheaply,  the  raising  of 
sheep  in  Germany  is  a  much  less  important 
industry.  Swine  raising,  on  the  other  hand, 
is  increasing  because  of  the  cheap  feed  supplied 
by  the  refuse  from  the  beet-sugar  factories. 
Horses  are  raised  in  all  parts  of  the  empire, 
and  many  goats  are  kept,  especially  in  the 
mountains. 

Along  the  coast,  especially  in  the  North  Sea, 
there  is  much  fishing ;  but  it  is 
the  least  important  among  the 
prominent  industries. 

There  is  much  more  forest  land  in  Ger- 
many than  in  Great  Britain,  about  one 
Extent  of  fourth  of  the  empire  being 
forests,  and  wooded.  These  trees  are 
their  care  grown  on  lands  that  are  not 
suited  to  farming  or  pasturage  (Fig.  484). 
They  are  found  especially  on  the  sandy 
plains  of  the  northern  lowland,  and  in 
the  mountainous  sections  of  central  and 
southern  Germany  (Fig.  484). 

The  good  sense  of  the  German  people  is  well 
shown  by  the  way  they  treat  their  woodlands. 
Instead  of  wastefully  destroying  them  by  fire 
and  the  ax,  —  as  has  been  done  in  so  many 
parts  of  our  country,  —  the  Germans  have  de- 
veloped an  excellent  system  of  forest  culture. 
Trees  are  planted  in  place  of  those  that  are  cut 
for  timber,  and  they  are  given  proper  care,  so 
that  the  woods  continue  to  be  abundant.  In 
this  way  the  forest  is  made  to  yield  a  profit 
every  year,  just  as  a  farm  does.  Germany  pro- 
duces a  large  part  of  the  lumber  she  uses,  and 
also  exports  a  large  amount.  She  exports  also 
many  valuable  products  manufactured  from  the 
forest  trees. 

It  is  partly  the  example  of  the  Germans 
that  has  led  our  own  country,  at  last,  to  begin 
to  pay  attention  to  the  care  of  our  forests. 


Next  to  the  United  Kingdom,  Germany 
is  the  greatest  mining  country  in  Europe,! 
although  each  is  far  behind 
the  United  States  in  this  in- 
dustry. In  the  western  part  of  Ger- 
many, in  the  neighborhood  of  Cologne 
and  Aachen,  coal  is  abundant ;  and  from 
this  section  eastward  to  the  Russian 
border  there  are  several  important  coal 
fields.  As  in  our  own  country  and  in 
England,  there  is  valuable  iron  ore,  some 
of  it  near  the  coal  mines. 


Fig.  485.  —  Storks  in  Strassburg,  where  they  build 
their  uests  on  the  chimney  tops. 

Among  the  other  valuable  mineral  products 
are  lead,  copper,  silver,  zinc,  and  salt.  Nearly 
half  the  silver  mined  in  Europe  comes  from 
Germany  ;  and  Belgium  and  Germany  together 
produce  more  zinc  than  all  the  rest  of  the  world. 
There  are  immense  salt  mines  at  Stassfurt,  and 
there  are  valuable  clays,  cement  materials,  and 
building  stones. 


"'S^T 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


355 


iron 


The  Germans  make  use  of  the  most  scientific 
methods  in  their  mining  work  ;  and  other  na- 
tions have  learned  from  tliem  many  of  the 
methods  used  in  reducing  ores  to  metal. 

With  abundant  coal,  iron  ore,  and 
other  raw  materials,  Germany  has  become 
Manufac-  a  great  manufacturing  coun- 
turing  try.     Among  European  na- 

tions Germany  ranks  next  to  the  United 
Kingdom  in  manufacturing. 

The  position  of  the  coat 
mines    accounts   for   the 
location  of  the  principal 
1    .     ,.  centers      for 

1.    Leading 

centers  of  irOU        maUU- 

manufacturing 


u-on 

facturing 
The    busiest    section   is 
along  the  Rhine,  in  the 
vicinity    of    Cologne  ; 
and  this  region  may  well 
be  compared  with  nortli- 
ern    England     in    the 
extent    of    its    indus- 
tries.    A  second  center 
is    the    vicinity    of 
Dresden  and  Chem- 
nitz ;  and  a  third  is 
at  Breslau  in  the 
southeastern  corner 
of  the  empire. 

The  map  (Fig. 
479)  shows  no  cities  south  of  Breslau; 
yet  this  is  a  busy  manufacturing  region. 
Cities  are  lacking  here  because  the  people 
carry  on  the  manufacturing  mainly  in 
their  own  homes,  instead  of  in  factories. 
Therefore,  although  villages  stretch  for 
miles  along  the  valleys,  there  are  no 
large  towns. 

The  textile  industries  are  best  devel- 
„    ,     ,.  oped    near    the    coal   fields. 

«.    Leading  ^ 

kinds  of  Therefore  the  sections  men- 

manufacturing      ^-q^^^^    ^^^^^    ^^^    ^^^^g^    f^^ 


cotton,  woolen,  and  silk  factories,  as  well 
as  for  iron.     All  the  cotton  (d  Textile  and 
and  silk,  and  much  of  the  i'-on  goods 
wool,  for   these  textile  industries  comes 
from  abroad. 


The  extensive  forests  partly  account  for  a 
third   occupation   in    many  sections  ;  namely, 
the    manufacture    of    furniture,    (2)  Lumber 
paper,  and  other  materials  made   and  lumber 
of  wood.      Wood  carving  is  an   Products 
important   industry  in   the   Black  Forest  and 
other  parts  of  Germany. 

The  manufacture  of  spirituous 
liquors  is  another  prominent 
German  industry. 
A  portion  of   the 

immense  potato  crop, 
and  some  of  the  beets, 
are  made  into  spirits. 
But  beer,  in  the  manu- 
facture of  which  barley 
and  hops  are  used,  is 
made  in  much  greater 
quantities.  From  the 
grapes  of  southern  Ger- 
Jiiany  much  wine  is 
produced. 


(3)  Beverages 


Fig.  48(5.  —  A  German  peasant  girl  spiiming  wool. 


Germany  is  also 
a  great  sugar- manu- 
factur- 

(4)  Beet  sugar 

mg  na- 
tion. Until  a  few 
years  ago  nearly  all 
sugar  was  obtained  from  sugar  cane ; 
but  this  was  changed  when  the  Germans 
found  a  means  of  making  sugar  from 
beets.  This  industry  has  now  spread  to 
many  countries,  including  the  United 
States. 

Because   of   its  extensive  agriculture 
and  its  forests,   Germany   is    far  more 

independent    in    regard    to 

,      .   1      f,       f,      T      1    . 1  •  Comroerce 

materials  lor  lood,  clothmg, 

and  shelter  than  is  Great  Britain.     Yet, 

like  Great  Britain,  Germany  has  a  very 


356 


EUROPE 


able  one.  However,  the  Oder,  a  large 
river,  and  some  of  the  tributaries  of  the 
Elbe,  approach  so  near  each  other  in 
this  section  that  they  have  been  con- 
nected by  canal.  Thus,  Berlin  has  water 
connection  with  both  Hamburg  and 
Stettin,  two  important  seaports,  and 
with  all  parts  of  these  two  river  systems. 
This  is  a  very  important  aid  in  bringing 
fuel,  food,  and  raw  materials  for  manu- 
facture, and  in  taking  away  manufac- 
tured articles. 

Berlin  also  lies  on  the  direct  route 
from  Hamburg  to  Breslau,  and  from 
Stettin  to  Leipzig  ;  and  other  large  cities 
surround  it.  It  is,  moreover,  on  the 
route  of  several  of  the  chief  European 
railways,  and  is  therefore  one  of  the 
leading  railway  centers  of  the  continent. 

With  such  excellent  connections,  by 


dense  population,  and  some  of  the  things 
that  she  greatly  needs  cannot  be  raised 
at  home.  All  of  the  cotton,  much 
of  the  wool,  and  much  food,  especially 
meat  and  grain,  must  be  imported. 
What  countries  that  you  have  studied 
might  send  these  articles  to  Germany  ? 

Germany  exports  a  great  amount  of 
sugar,  wine,  beer,  textile  goods,  and  iron 
and  steel  goods.  Like  the  United  King- 
dom, Germany  has  important  colonies 
(Fig.  487),  although  they  are  not  nearly 
so  extensive  as  those  of  the  British.  Her 
trade  with  these  colonies,  which  are 
mainly  in  Africa,  is  of  considerable  value ; 
but  commerce  with  other  countries  is 
far  more  important. 

For  transportation  of  goods  from  one  part  of 
the  Empire  to  another,  Germany  is  greatly  fa- 
vored by  her  rivers.  From  the  map,  you  will 
see  that  most  of  them  flow 
northward.  What  rivers  do 
you  find  ?  Trace  their  courses. 
Navigation  is  possible  upon  all 
of  these,  but  it  is  most  extensive 
on  the  Rhine  (Fig.  492).  Boats 
can  ascend  this  stream  all  the 
way  from  the  sea  to  the  bound- 
ary of  Switzerland.  How  far 
is  that  ?  The  Elbe  is  navigable 
into  Austria.  Yoii  can  see  how 
very  valuable  these  rivers  must 
be  in  carrying  goods  across  the 
Empire.  There  are  also  many 
canals  and  railroads  which  ex- 
tend to  all  parts  of  Germany 
and  to  other  parts  of  Europe. 

The     capital     and     the 

largest   city  m    Vjermany  is  Fig.  488.  — The  Building  in  Berlin  where  the  German  Parliament  meets 

Berlin,    situated    on    the 

small  Spree  River  on  the 
North  German  plain,  mid- 
way between  the  coast  and 
the  highlands.  This  posi- 
tion may  not  at  first  seem  a  very  favor- 


Great  centers 
of  population 
1.    Berlin 

(1)  Its  location 


water  and  by  rail,  Berlin,   besides  being 
the  capital  of    the    empire,   (2)  ns  impor- 
has  become  one  of  its  princi-  '""'"^ 
pal   manufacturing    cities.      Fully    half 
the  residents  are  supported  by  manufac- 


THE  GEE  AT  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


357 


turing.  Berlin  is  the  center  of  German 
banking.  It  is  noted  for  its  art  and 
music,  and  for  its  great  university,  the 
largest  in  the  empire.  It  is  a  beautiful 
city,  with  many  palaces,  parks  and  fine 
public  buildings  (Fig.  488).  There  are 
several  suburbs,  among  them  Potsdam, 
which  has  royal  palaces. 

Amono;  the  cities  not  far  from  Berlin 
is  Leipzig,  the  fifth  largest  in  the  em- 
pire.    Formerly   it   was    at 

2.    Interior  t,  .  c     .  ,        , 

cities  near  the  crossiug  01  important 
Berlin  wagon   roads,    and   now    it 

(1)  Leipzig  °  . 

has  become  a  railway  center. 
Leipzig  is,  next  to  Berlin,  the  most  im- 
portant trade  center  of  Germany.     One 


(4)  Breslau 


ViG.  489.  —The  Dresden  Art  Museum  whicli  contains  many  treasures  of  art. 

of  its  leading  articles  of  commerce  is  fur. 

It  is  also  a  center  for  the  German  book 

trade. 

DRESDEisr,  southeast  of  Leipzig,  is  noted 

for  its  art  museiim  (Fig.  489),  in  which 
there  are  many  wonderful 
paintings.      The     beautiful 

Dresden  china  is  made  in  this  vicinity,  and 

there  is  much  other  manufacturing ;  for 

Dresden  is  situated  on  the  navigable  Elbe 


1 2)  Dresden 


and  h  as  coal  near  at  h  and .  It  is,  moreover, 
the  capital  of  Saxony,  the  most  densely 
settled  German  state. 


Chemnitz,  near  by,  has  important  textile  in- 
dustries.    Halle  and  Magdeburg,  farther   to 
the  northwest,  and  in  the  center 
of  the  chief  beet  growing  section,   (^)  Chemnitz, 

.  T    •       ,  1        Halle,  and 

are   extensively   engaged  in  tlie  Magdeburg 
manufacture  of  sugar. 

Breslau,  a  city  not  much  smaller  than  Leip- 
zig, is  on  the  Oder,  a  navigable  river.  It  has 
the  advantage  of  being  near  a 
very  rich  coal  and  iron  field, 
and  is,  therefore,  a  great  manufacturing 
center.  Its  location,  near  the  Russian  frontier, 
makes  it  an  important  market  for  eastern  and 
central  Europe. 

On  the  plateau  of  south- 
ern Germany  is  Munich, 
the  capital  of  the  kingdom 

of         Bavaria.    3.    Munich  and 
Although         so    Nuremberg 

far  south,  and  so  distant 
from  coal,  Munich  is  the 
third  city  in  size  in  the 
empire.  It  is  on  the  trade 
routes  from  Germany  to 
Italy  and  Austria,  and  is 
therefore  an  important  rail- 
way center.  Much  of  its 
renown  is  due  to  its  art 
collections  and  its  art  in- 
dustries, such  as  work  in 
bronze,  gold,  silver,  glass 
painting,  and  porcelain  manufactur- 
ing. 

North  of  Munich,  on  the  road  to  Ber- 
lin, is  Nuremberg.  This  quaint  city  was 
famous  in  former  centuries  for  its  art 
and  architecture,  and  many  of  its  treas- 
ures are  still  carefully  preserved.  At 
present  it  is  an  important  center  for  the 
manufacture  of  toys. 


PIamburg  is  the  second  city  in  Ger- 


358 


EUROPE 


many  and  the  most  important   seaport 
on    the    continent.      Name 

4.  Seaports  .   ,  »  , , 

some  articles  irom  the 
United  States  that  probably  enter  this 
port. 

Bremen  and  Stettin  also  admit  large  vessels, 
and  are  the  chief  rivals  of  Hamburg;  but  they 
together  have  less  than  one  half  as  much  com- 
merce as  Hamburg.  In  what  respects  is  the 
situation  of  Hamburg  more  favorable  to  com- 
merce than  that  of  Stettin  ?  Name  other  Bal- 
tic  ports  besides  Stettin.  Estimate  the  distance 
saved  to  the  Baltic  ports  by  the  cutting  of  the 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  south  of  Denmark,  which 
is  sixty-one  miles  in  length.  What  city  is  at 
the  eastern  end  of  this  canal  ? 

On  ascending  the  Rhine  into  Germany 

we  come  to  the  greatest  manufacturing 

region  of  the  empire.     What 

5.  Cities  along      .    .  r  i  i 

the  Rhine  River  cities     are     lound      there  ? 
(1)  Cologne        COLOGNE,  the  largest,  with 

and  vicinity  ,    , .  »  ,         i     -.i. 

a  population  oi  nearly  a  half 
million,  is  on  the  river  bank.  It  is  a 
great  shipping  point,  since  railways  cross 
the  river  here,  and  boats  from  London 
and  other  places  are  able  to  ascend  to 
this  point. 

Near  Cologne  are  Elberfeld  and  Barmen, 
which  have  textile  manufactories  ;  Essen,  whicli 
is  famous  for  its  steel  works ;  Krefeld,  which 
is  an  important  silk-manufacturing  town;  and 
Aachen  (Aix-la-Chapelle  in  French)  whicli 
manufactures  woolen  cloth. 

Just  beyond  the  chief  bend  in  the 
Rhine  is  Frankfurt,  on  a  navigable 
tributary,  the  Main.  The 
easiest  route  from  the  Rhine 
Valley  to  the  Danube  lies  along  this 
tributary;  and  the  railway  from  the 
German  plain  to  the  upper  Rhine  passes 
Frankfurt.  This  city  is  therefore  a 
center  of  important  trade  routes.  For 
this  reason  it  is  one  of  the  chief  trading 
and  banking  centers  in  Germany. 


(2)  Frankfurt 


The  Rhine,  the  most  important  river 
in  Germany,  is  often  compared  with  the 
Hudson.       In    both    rivers 
there  are   sections  that  are  and  the  Hud- 
shut  in  by  high,  rocky  cliffs,  son  compared 

well      wooded      to      the      top.    ^-    I^  scenery 

The  Rhine,  however,  is  much  narrower 
than  the  Hudson,  so   that   these  walls 


Fk;.  4'.KJ,  —  Tlu'  I'dlof^ne  Cathfdral,  one  of  tho  most 
famous  cburches  in  Europe. 

seem  loftier ;  and  since  the  stream  is 
more  winding,  at  some  points  they  stand 
out  more  boldly,  as  if  in  the  very  patli 
of  boats,  to  bar  their  further  progress. 

When  one  journeys  along  the  more  beautiful 
portion  of  the  Rhine,  a  fine  old  castle  often 
comes  into  view,  as  a  turn  in  the  river  reveals 
an  especially  bold  cliff  (Fig.  492).     Sometimes 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


359 


Fig.  491.  —  Some  of  the  quaint  houses  in  the  ancient  city  of  Frankfurt 


I'veral  such  relics  of  the  past  may  be  seen  from 
;i  single  point  on  the  river.  Many  of  these  are 
ill  ruins,  but  now  and  then  one  is  seen  that  is 


'iM^i/'^- 


'^^1^ 


Fig.  492.  —  The  Rhine  River  in  Geriuaiiy.     Notice  the  castle  perched   on   the 
hilltop  on  the  left,  and  the  vineyard  in  the  front  of  the  picture. 


still  kept  up  as  a  residence.  The  Hudson  lacks 
such  castles,  although  there  are  many  fine 
residences  along  its  lower  course. 

There  are  many  terraced  vine- 
yards on  the  sloping  hillsides 
bordering  the  Rhine  (Fig.  482), 
and  likewise  many  a  quaint 
village  built  on  a  narrow  strip 
of  flood  plain  between  the  river 
and  the  cliff  (Fig.  492).  Since 
the  Rhine  has  more  large  tribu- 
taries than  the  Hudson,  there 
are  more  wild  glens  on  the  sides, 
and  more  broad,  wooded  valleys, 
which  open  up  charming  views 
from  the  river.  The  openings 
in  the  valley  walls,  where  these 
tributaries  enter,  are  favorite 
sites  for  towns. 

The  Rhine,  like  the  Hud- 
son, is  a  busy  highway  of 
commerce.  Vessels  are  go- 
ing at    all   times,  heavily 


ISMsi 


360 


EUROPE 


laden  with  merchandise.  It  is  even 
more  busy  than  the  Hudson.  It  is  more 
2  In  com-  densely  populated  too,  with 
merce  and  cities,  towHs,  and  villages  all 

popuation  along  its  banks.     There  is, 

however,  no  such  vast  population  at  its 
mouth  as  is  found  at  New  York  City. 
What  is  the  name  of  the  city  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Rhine? 

1.  What  is  the  rank  of  Germany  among 
the  world  powers  ?  2.  State  some  facts  about 
1.    Review  its   form   of   government.     Also 

Questions  about    the   number    of    German 

states,  and  their  size.  3.  What  is  the  area 
of  Germany  ?  4.  The  population  ?  5.  How 
is  the  position  of  the  country  of  advantage  ? 
6.  Explain  some  of  the  disadvantages  of  the 
position.  7.  What  can  you  say  about  the 
amount  of  good  farm  land?  8.  About  the 
climate  ?  9.  Name  the  principal  farm  crops. 
10.  The  main  kinds  of  live  stock.  11.  What 
portions  of  the  empire  are  covered  with  forest? 
What  care  is  given  to  these  forests  ?  12.  Tell 
about  the  mining.  13.  Name  and  locate  the 
leading  manufacturing  centers.  14.  Name  the 
principal  kinds  of  manufacturing,  and  state 
some  facts  about  each.  15.  Name  Germany's 
chief  imports  and  exports,  giving  reasons. 
16.  How  is  transportation  within  the  empire 
provided  for?  17.  Give  the  leading  facts 
about    Berlin.       18.    Leipzig.       19.    Dresden. 

20.  Other      interior      cities      near      Berlin. 

21.  Munich  and  Nui-emberg.  22.  The  sea- 
ports. 23.  Cities  along  the  Rhine  River. 
24.  Compare  the  Rhine  with  the  Hudson  in 
scenery.     25.    In  commerce  and  population. 

1.  Find  in  an  atlas  in  what  parts  of  the 
empire  the  larger  states,  such  as  Prussia, 
Bavaria,  Saxony,  etc.,  are  situ- 
uggesions  ^^^^  ^^  People  of  ten  assert  that 
the  peace  of  Europe  is  preserved  by  careful 
preparation  for  war  ;  in  what  sense  can  this  be 
true  ?  3.  What  must  be  some  of  the  benefits 
of  two  years  of  active  training  in  the  army, 
aside  from  preparation  for  war  ?  What  are 
some  of  the  disadvantages  ?  What  relation 
has  this  had  to  emigration  ?  4.  What  is  the 
size  of  our  standing  army  ?  Why  so  small  ? 
5.  What  seaports  of  Europe  most  nearly 
approach   Hamburg    in   size?     6.    How  might 


the  Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal  possibly  prove  an 
injury  to  Hamburg?  7.  Find  out  something 
about  Goethe;  Schiller;  Humboldt;  Emperor 
William  the  First;  Bismarck;  Von  Moltke ; 
Wagner;  Schumann.  8.  Make  a  collection 
of  photographs  from  Germany.  9.  Make  a 
drawing  of  Germany,  including  the  principal 
rivers  and  cities.  10.  Write  the  names  of 
the  countries  on  its  boundary. 


3.    France  (Fig.  493) 

1.  France  is  the  nearest  country  to  the 
British  Isles.  Estimate  the  distance  between 
the  two  (Fig.  493).  2.  Com- 
pare the  two  countries  as  to  area. 
3.  As  to  population.  4.  What  countries  ' 
border  France  ?  5.  What  waters  ?  6.  In  _ 
what  respects  is  its  position  favorable  to  | 
commerce?  7.  What  do  you  observe  about  } 
the  general  direction  of  the  rivers  ?  Name  "* 
them.  8.  Locate  the  island  of  Corsica,  which  v 
belongs  to  France. 


Map  study 


France  is  one  of  the  few  nations  in 
Europe  that  has  a  republican  form  of 
government,  the  others  being  its  form  of 
Portugal  and  Switzerland,  government 
For  many  centuries  it  was  a  monarchy, 
and  one  of  the  former  emperors  was 
Napoleon  Bonaparte  ;  but  now  the  people 
elect  a  president  and  representatives,  as 
we  do  in  our  country.  The  President 
of  the  Republic  at  the  present  time  is 
Armand  FalKeres  (Fig.  494). 

France  has  natural  boundaries  on  most 
sides,  as  you  see  by  the  map.  The  coun- 
try is  inclosed  on  two  sides  by 
the  sea,  and  on  the  other  sides, 
in  large  part,  by  mountains.  Notice  how 
completely  the  Pyrenees  separate  France 
and  Spain ;  and  what  a  barrier  the  lofty 
Alps  form  along  the  Italian  and  Swiss 
borders.  Even  north  of  the  Alps,  a  part 
of  the  boundary  is  formed  by  highlands. 

It    is    natural    that   an  independent 
country,    with    a     separate     language,  i, 


Its  boundaries 


FIG.  493. 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


361 


Fig.  494.  —  Armand  Fallieres,  President  of  France. 

should  develop  in  a  region  so  well 
inclosed  by  natural  boundaries.  But 
here,  as  in  other  parts  of  Europe,  there 
were  many  separate  king- 
doms centuries  ago.  All 
these  are  now  united  under 
one  government  excepting 
three  small  sections.  These 
are  Monaco,  Andorra  and 
Luxemburg. 

Monaco,  in  the  southeast,  is  a 
small  principality  only  eight 
square  miles  in  area.  Andokra 
is  a  small  state  in  the  Pyrenees. 
Luxemburg  is  a  small  duchy  on 
the  German  border.  Agriculture, 
iron  mining  and  manufacturing 
are  its  principal  industries.  It 
is  governed  by  a  grand  duke  and 
a  parliament. 

The  chief  highlands  of 
France  are  in  the  south  and 
southeast.  Among  these  the 
loftiest  are  the  Alps,  whose 


highest  peak,  Mont  Blanc  (15,781 
feet),  is  in  France.  There  is  also  a 
low  plateau  in  southern  surface 
France,  but  fully  three  features 
fourths  of  the  country  is  a  plain,  sloping 
westward  from  the  highlands  of  the 
south  and  east.  All  but  one  of  the  large 
rivers  rise  in  these  highlands,  and  flow 
gently  across  the  plain  to  the  Atlantic. 
Thus  navigation  is  possible  far  into  the 
country.  Locate  and  name  the  four 
largest  rivers.  How  does  the  Rhone 
differ  from  the  other  three  ? 

Since  there  are  no  mountains  on  the 
west  to  cut  off  the  vapor-bearing  winds 
from  the  ocean,  there  is  ample 
rainfall  for  agriculture  in  all 
parts  of  France.  The  summer  climate  is 
warmer  than  that  of  England  because 
France  lies  farther  south, and  is  less  under 
the  influence  of  the  ocean.  The  southeast- 
ern section,  although  it  lies  as  far  north 
as    Boston,  has  a  semi-tropical  climate 


Climate 


Fig.  495.  —  \  ruad  across  the  rugged  Pyrenees,  which  lie  between  France 
and  Spain. 


362 


EUROPE 


(Fig.  496).  This  is  be- 
cause of  the  influence  of 
the  warm  Mediterranean 
waters,  and  the  protection 
from  cold  north  winds 
which  the  mountains  give. 

With  so  favorable  a 
climate,  and  so  much  level 
Agriculture  land,  France 
1.   Crops  has    naturally 

become  a  farming  country. 
Nearly  half  the  people  are 
engaged  in  agriculture. 
The  same  grains  are  raised 
as  in  England.  What  are 
they  (p.  340)  ?  Wheat  is 
the  most  important,  and 
more  of  this  grain  is  pro- 
duced than  in  any  other 
European  country  except- 
ing Russia.  Yet  France 
raises  only  about  half  as  much  wheat  as 
the  United  States,  and  not  nearly 
enough  for  the  needs  of  her  people. 

Grapes,  not  cultivated  in  the  British 
Isles,  thrive  in  the  warmer  climate  of 
central  and  southern  France.  This 
fruit  is  the  most  valuable  of  all  French 


Fig.  4%. 


•A  view  in  Nice  showing  the  semi-tropical  foliage  of 
southern  France. 


crops,  and  more  grapes  are  grown  in 
France  than  in  any  other  country  of  the 
world.  In  the  Rhone  Valley,  and  on 
the  warm  Mediterranean  coast,  there  are 
groves  of  olive,  orange,  lemon,  and  mul- 
berry trees.  The  leaves  of  the  latter 
furnish  food  for  the  silkworm  (p.  363). 

As  in  England  and  other 

countries,  the   highlands   are 

unsuited   to   cultivation,   and 

are  in  large  part   ^ 

^    ^    ,       2.    Livestock 
given    over    to 

grazing.  As  in  England,  too, 
there  are  broad  tracks  of  low- 
land that  are  used  for  pasture. 
These  facts  explain  why  there 
are  in  France  more  than  four- 
teen million  cattle  and  eighteen 
million  sheep,  besides  large 
numbers  of  horses,  swine,  and 


Fig.  497. 


■  A  scene  in  a  whcut  lickl  in  central  France.    Notice  that  the  women, 
as  well  as  the  men,  work  in  the  field. 


goats. 

Neither  lumbering  nor 
fishing  is  of  very  great 
importance     in     France. 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


363 


Mining 


Yet,  as  in  Germany,  the  French  carry 
on  forestry  on  the  poorer  lands.  There 
Lumbering  is  some  fishing  along  the 
and  fishing  coast,  and  many  vessels  go 
to  the  fishing  banks  of  the  North  Sea. 

There  is  some  coal,  especially  near  the 
boundary  of  Belgium,  but  France  has  no 
such  important  coal  beds  as 
are  found  both  in  Germany 
and  in  England.  It  is  necessary,  there- 
fore, to  import  coal  from  Germany,  Bel- 
gium, and  Great  Britain.  Neither  is  there 
so  much  iron  ore  in  France  as  in  these 
other  countries,  although  there  is  some. 
Fine  clays  for  porcelain  are  found  in 
central  France,  and  building  stones  are 
quarried  in  many  places. 

In  spite  of  the  limited  supply  of  fuel, 
France  is  a  great  manufacturing  nation. 
Manufac-  ^^  leads  in  the  production  of 
taring  silk  and  wine,  and  there  is 

1.  Why  very      extcnsive  manufacturing  of 

metal,  cotton,  and  woolen 
goods.  One  reason  for  these  manufac- 
tures is  the  fact  that  coal  is  easily 
obtained,  either  in  France  or  from  the 
neighboring  countries  of  Belgium,  Ger- 
many, and  England. 

Another  reason  is  the  nature  of  the  people 
themselves.  Frenchmen  have  very  artistic 
tastes.  On  this  account  the  French  have  given 
much  attention  to  the  manufacture  of  the  finer 
kinds  of  goods.  Some  of  them  are  so  fine  that 
they  are  easily  sold  to  the  people  of  other 
countries.  This  has  had  great  influence  upon 
both  the  kind  and  amount  of  their  manufactures. 

The  northern  part  of  France,  including 
Lille,  Roubaix,  and  Reims,  as  well  as 

2.  Leading  citics  near  the  mouth  of  the 
kinds  Seine,  is  .the  section  especi- 
ally noted  for  the  woolen  industry. 
Here  coal  is  most  easily  obtained  ;  and 
large  numbers  of  sheep  are  raised  near 


by,  while  foreign  wool  is  imported  from 
Argentina  and  Australia.  Remembering 
that  the  hosiery,  carpets,  ^^  ^,,,,,  ,,^ 
underclothing,  and  other  cotton  manu- 
goods  are  of  high  grade,  and  •^"^'"'■^''•^ 
such  as  wealthy  people  use,  we  see  that 
this  location,  between  the  two  wealthiest 
capitals  of  the  world,  is  especially  favor- 
able. Next  to  silk  goods,  woolen  cloths 
form  the  most  important  French  export 
to  Great  Britain. 

There  is  also  much  cotton  manufac- 
turing near  the  coal  fields  of  northern 
France.  An  important  reason  for  this  in- 
dustry here  is  the  ease  with  which  Ameri- 
can cotton  may  be  imported  ;  and  this  ex- 
plains why  Rouen,  on  the  Seine,  is  the 
center  for  cotton  goods.  There  are  other 
cotton  factories  in  the  highlands  of  east- 
ern France,  where  water  power  is  used 
instead  of  steam  power. 

Because  the  climate  and  soil  of  the 
Rhone  Valley  are  favorable  to  the  growth 
of  the  mulberry  tree,  and  (2)Siikmanu- 
because  coal  mines  are  near,  factxiring 
this  valley  is  famous  for  the  manu- 
facture of  silk.  Lyon  is  the  chief  center, 
but  St.  Etienne  and  Paris  are  also  noted 
for  this  industry.  Some  of  this  manu- 
facturing is  done  in  large  factories,  some 
in  the  homes  of  the  workmen  where 
hand  and  foot  power  are  used  in  place 
of  steam. 

The  traveler  in  the  Rhone  Valley  sees  grove 
after  grove  of  mulberry  trees,  carefully  tended 
in  order  to  supply  an  abundance  of  leaves  for 
the  silkworm  to  eat  in  summer.  The  silkworm 
moth,  at  the  end  of  the  caterpillar  stage, 
weaves  a  cocoon  about  itself  (Fig.  498).  The 
material  of  which  the  cocoon  is  made  is  a  thread, 
about  two  miles  in  length,  which  must  be  care- 
fully unwound.  The  single  thread  is  so  very 
fine  that,  in  order  to  make  a  filler  strong  enough 
for  spinning  and  weaving,  it  must  first  be 
united  with  several  others. 


364 


EUROPE 


Since  the  worms  are  reared  under  cover,  the 
silk  industry  may  be  carried  on  in  any  climate 
in  which  the  mulberry  tree  will  grow.  It  is 
possible,  therefore,  to  produce  raw  silk  in  many 
parts  of  the  world ;  but  feeding  the  worms  and 
taking  the  silk  from  cocoons  require  much 
labor,  care,  and  skill.  On  that  account  silk 
production  is  carried  on  chiefly  in  those  parts 
of  the  world  where  laborers  will  accept  low 
wages.  China  produces  the  greatest  amount  of 
raw  silk;  but  France,  in  the  midst  of  Europe, 
where  the  market  for  silk  goods  is  greatest, 
also  produces  a  large  quantity.  It  is  the  lead- 
ing country  for  the  manufacture  of  silk.  Make 
a  list  of  articles  made  from  silk. 

The  extensive  cultivation  of  grapes 
has  been  mentioned.  Great  quantities 
(3)  Other  ^f  wine,  for  export  or  for  use 

inanufaciuring  ^^  hoHie,  are  made  from  the 
grapes  grown  in  France.  In  that  coun- 
try nearly  every  one  drinks  wine  at  his 
meals,  or  wine  mixed  with  water. 

The  manufacture  of  steel  goods  is 
important  in  some  places,  but  to  no  such 
extent  as  in  Great  Britain  and  Germany. 
A  great  many  different  kinds  of  manu- 
facturing are  carried  on  in  the  cities  of 
France,  as  in  other  countries. 


Commerce 


Fig.  498.  —  Piles  of  silkworm  cocoous  ready  to  be 
unwound. 


France  exports  large  quantities  of 
textile  goods,  wine,  and  leather  goods. 
She  imports  coal,  iron,  wool, 
cotton,  raw  silk,  and  many 
articles  of  food.  Thus  she  has  a  very 
extensive  commerce  with  foreign  coun- 
tries. 

The  republic  has  a  number  of  colonies 
(Fig.  487)  with  which  she 
carries  on  extensive  trade. 


Fio.  499.  —  Notre  Dame  Cathedral,  one  of  the  most  famous  buildings  in 
Paris.    General  view  from  the  river. 


The  most  important  of  these  are 
in  Africa,  as  follows :  (1)  Algeria 
and  Tunis,  across  the  Mediterra- 
nean; (2)  a  vast  area  south  of 
these  countries,  including  a  largo 
part  of  the  Sahara  Desert,  the 
Sudan,  the  upper  Niger,  and  thi' 
country  north  of  the  Kongo  River  ; 
and  (3)  the  large  island  of  Mada- 
gascar, east  of  southern  Africa. 
France  also  holds  a  part  of  Indo 
('hina  and  a  very  small  bit  of  India, 
besides  islands  in  different  parts  of 
the  world. 

For  the  transportation  of 
goods  across  the  seas,  France 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


365 


has  the  advantage  of  facing  both  the 
Atlantic  Ocean  and  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  ;  and  there  are  good  seaports  on  both 
coasts.  What  ports  do  you  find  on  the 
map  ?  What  rivers  connect  these  ports 
with  the  interior?  Trace  each.  Boats 
pass  freely  up  these  rivers,  except  the 
Loire,  which  is  too  shallow  for  navigation. 


It  proved  to  be  a  favorable  site  for 
the  growth  of  a  great  city,  for  it  is  in 
the  midst  of  a  very  fertile  region,  and 
not  far  distant  from  several  other 
densely  settled  countries.  There  are 
excellent  means  of  transportation  to  the 
surrounding  country  by  river,  canal,  and 
railway.     The   Seine   leads  to  the  sea, 


.,.» ■ 

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^^!^Hr*     J^^^ 

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pi 

Bfc,«^y!^^^^^? 

MmmM 

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5 

• 

Fig.  500.  —  A  view  along  the  finest  street  of  Paris. 


Paris,  the  capital  of  France,  is  the 
Principal  cities  largest  city  on  the  conti- 
1.   Paris  nent    of    Europe,    and   the 

third  largest  in  the  world.  It  has  more 
than  2,700,000  inhabitants. 

Paris  is  situated  on  the  Seine  at  a 
point  where  there  is  a  small  island  in  the 
ii)  Importance  ^iver.  In  early  days  this 
"■''  *'*  location  island  was  easily  defended, 
and  it  was  easy  to  cross  the  river  here. 
So  the  people  built  a  town  here  which 
later  grew  to  be  a  large  city. 


and  is  also  navigable  far  inland,  and 
canals  give  water  connection  with  the 
Loire,  Seine,  and  Rhine. 

Napoleon  and  other  rulers  collected 
art  treasures  from  various  nations,  and 
founded  museums  and  schools  ,„,  ^^  . 

(2)  Its  impor- 

that  have  made  Paris  famous,  tance  as  an 
For  this  reason  large  num-  "'"*  '^^"'^^'^ 
bers   of   Americans    go    to    Paris  every 
year   to    study   art.     One    of    the    old 
palaces,  known   as    the    Louvre,  is    the 
most   noted   art   gallery  in   the   world. 


366 


EUROPE 


It    contains     thousands    of    wonderful 
works  of  art. 

Among  the  many  interesting  suburbs  of  Paris 
is  Versailles,  where  there  is  another  palace 
that  was  built  in  the  days  of  kings.  It  is 
how  used  mainly  as  a  museum,  and  scores  of 
the  large  rooms  are  decorated  with  the  finest  of 
paintings.  It  is  among  such  treasures  that 
students  of  art  spend  much  of  their  time. 


and  both  this  and   the  Limoges   ware, 
manufactured  at  Limoges,  are  celebrated  | 
for  their  beauty,  ■'( 

Although   so   far  inland,  Paris  ships  f 
more   goods   by  water   than  any  other 
French  city.     The  extensive  (4)  ks  com- 
system  of  canals,  by  which  "*^''^« 
the  country  is  crossed  in  all  directions 


Fig.  501.  —  A  view  in  Paris  sliowing  the  broad  streets  and  parks. 


It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  Paris  should 
be  noted,  the  world  over,  for  its  beauty  as  a 
city  (Fig.  500).  The  wide  streets,  the  beauti- 
ful parks  with  their  fountains  and  statues,  and 
the  fine  public  buildings  and  old  royal  palaces 
are  wonderfully  attractive.  Even  the  dwelling 
houses  are  in  good  taste,  for  it  is  required  by 
law  that  new  buildings  be  so  planned  as  to  be 
in  keeping  with  those  near  by.  Therefore  one 
seldom  sees  an  unattractive  building  in  Paris. 

Like  other  great  cities,  Paris  has  many 
manufacturing  industries.  The  people 
(Z)  Its  manu-  have  paid  special  attention 
factures  ^q     ^]^g     manufacture      of 

articles  which  combine  usefulness  with 
beauty,  such  as  jewelry,  furniture,  gloves, 
and  fashionable  shoes.  The  Sevres  por- 
celain is  made  in  the  suburbs  of  Paris ; 


have  already  been  mentioned.  Vast 
suras  have  been  spent  in  dredging  the 
lower  Seine,  so  that  small  vessels  can 
proceed  directly  to  Paris.  Larger  ships 
transfer  their  goods  to  trains,  or  smaller 
boats,  at  Havre  and  Rouen. 

Havre,  one  of  the  two  busiest  French 
ports,  has  an  extensive  trade  in  coffee 
from  Brazil,  and  in  wheat 
and  other  materials  from 
the  United  States.  Farther 
to  the  northeast  is  Bou- 
logne, where  some  of  the  steamships 
from  America  stop ;  and  not  far  distant 
is  Calais,  the  nearest  port  to  England, 
where  boats  cross  the  Strait  of  Dover  to 
England. 


2.    Other  cities 
(1)  Havre, 
Boulogne,  and 
Calais 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


367 


Bordeaux,  on  the  Garonne  River 
(Fig.  602),  in  the  midst  of  a  fertile 
(2)  Bordeaux  grape-raising  district,  is  the 
'uui  Lyon  chi^f  port  f or  the  export  of 

I'rench  wines.  Locate  the  manufactur- 
ing cities  previously  named  (p.  363),  and 
tell  for  what  each  is   important.     Note 


colonies     of     Algeria 
northern  Africa. 


and    Tunis,     in 


government  ? 


1.   What    is     the     form     of 

2.  What  about  the  boundaries? 

3.  Locate  and  state  some  facts 
about  Monaco, Andorra,  and  Lux- 
emburg.    4.   Describe  the  surface   of  France. 


Review 
Questions 


Fig.  502.  —  A  part  of  Bordeaux  and  the  Garonne  River. 


especially  Lyon,  the  center  of  the  silk 
industry,  which  is  the  third  city  in  size 
in  France. 

The  leading  seaport  of  France,  and 
the  second  city  in  size,  is  Marseille.  It 
is  on  the  Mediterranean  near 
the  mouth  of  the  Rhone. 
The  delta  of  the  Rhone  is  too  marshy  for 
a  city,  and  Marseille  occupies  the  nearest 
point  where  there  is  a  good  harbor  and 
high  ground.  It  has  especially  impor- 
tant trade  with  the  countries  bordering 
the  Mediterranean,  including  the  French 


5.  What   can   you    say    about    the    climate  ? 

6.  What  crops  are  raised  ?  7.  What  about  live 
stock  ?  8.  Lumbering  and  fishing  ?  9.  What 
minerals  are  found  ?  10.  Why  is  manufactur- 
ing extensive  in  spite  of  limited  supply  of  fuel  ? 
11.  Tell  about  the  woolen  and  cotton  manufac- 
turing. 12.  Silk  manufacturing.  13.  Other 
manufacturing.  14.  Name  and  locate  the  chief 
manufacturing  cities.  15.  What  advantages 
for  commerce  has  France  ?  16.  Name  and  lo- 
cate the  principal  colonies.  17.  Explain  the 
importance  of  the  location  of  Paris.  18.  Show 
how  Paris  is  important  as  an  art  center.  19.  As 
a  manufacturing  center.  20.  What  about  its 
commerce  ?  21.  Locate  and  state  the  impor- 
tant facts  about  other  cities  in  France. 


368 


EUROPE 


1.   Make  a  collection  of  photographs  of  scenes 
in  Paris.     2.   Raise  a  silkworm  from  the  egg. 
3.   When  a  hole  is  broken  into  a 
ugges  ion         cocoon,  its  value  for  silk  is  de- 
stroyed.    Why  ?     4.    Examine  a  cocoon,    and 
see   if  you   can   unravel  some  of  its   thread. 

5.  Also  unravel  a  piece  of  silk 
goods  and  examine  the  threads. 

6.  See  if  you  can  find  any 
Sevres     or     Limoges     ware. 

7.  Draw  an  outline  map  of 
France,  with  the  principal 
mountains,  rivers,  and  cities. 

8.  Bound  France. 

4.  -  Italy  (Fig.  517) 

1.  How  does  the  latitude 
of  Italy  compare  with  that  of 
New  England?  2.  What 
neighboring  islands  belong  to 

„       ^  _,  it?      3.     Point 

Map  study  ,    . , 

out  the  princi- 
pal river.  4.  What  moun- 
tains extend  from  north  to 
south?  5.  What  mountains 
lie  on  the  northern  boundary  ? 
6.  What  countries  border 
Italy  ?  7.  What  seas  border 
it  ?  8.  How  does  its  position 
seem  to  be  favorable  for  com- 
merce ? 

This  country  is  mainly 
a  long  peninsula,  shaped 
somewhat  like  a  boot, 
The  parts  of  which  extends  down  into  the 
the  country  Mediterranean  Sea.  What 
sea -lies  to  the  east  of  it?  The  island 
of  Sicily,  on  the  south,  and  also  Sardinia 
on  the  west,  both  belong  to  Italy. 

The   area   of  Italy   is   only   a   little 
greater  than  that  of  Colorado  ;  but  its 

Its  area  and  population  •  is  over  thirty- 
population  three  millions.  It  is  the 
smallest  of  the  six  Great  Powers,  but  is 
the  most  densely  settled  of  all  except 
the  United  Kingdom. 

Like  Germany,  Italy  was  for  a  long 


Fig.  503. —  Victor  Kiiuuiiiel  HI, 
King  of  Italy. 


time  divided  into  several  independent 
countries.  Now,  however,  itsgovern- 
these  are  all  united  under  ™ent 
a  single  government.  As  in  Germany 
and  the  United  Kingdom,  the  form 
of  government  is  a  limited 
monarchy,  the  king  at  the 
present  time  being  Victor 
Emanuel  III  (Fig.  503). 
Most  of  the  Italian 
peninsula  is  mountainous. 
In  the  north  are  the  Alps, 

some  of  whose      surface 
highest   peaks     features 

are  on  the  boundary  be- 
tween Italy  and  Switzer- 
land. In  northwestern 
Italy  the  Alps  curve 
around  and  join  the 
Apennines,  which  extend 
the  entire  length  of  the 
peninsula  like  a  backbone. 
The  principal  lowlands 
are  the  narrow  coastal 
plains  and  the  broad  Po 
Valley.  There  are  also 
many  small,  fertile  valleys 
among  the  mountains. 

We  think  of  Italy  as  a 
sunny  land  of  flowers,  al- 
though Milan  and  Venice  are  in  nearly 
the  same  latitude  as  Mon- 
treal. One  reason  for  the 
pleasant  Italian  climate  is  that  the  lofty 
Alps  form  a  wall  that  cuts  off  the  cold 
north  winds.  Another  reason  is  that 
the  air  is  kept  warm  by  the  Mediter- 
ranean Sea  whose  water  remains  warm 
even  in  winter.  On  these  accounts  the 
Italian  winters  are  mild ;  and  in  the 
extreme  south  the  temperature  seldom 
falls  to  the  freezing  point. 

There    is    plenty    of    rain    in    many 


Climate 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


369 


parts  of  Italy  during  the  winter  ;  but  in 
summer,  when  crops  need  it,  there  is 
far  too  little. 

A  large  part  of  the  agriculture  of 
Italy  is  carried  on  by  the  aid  of  irriga- 
tion. Indeed,  they  irrigate 
1.  Importance  the  land  even  where  there 
of  irrigation  jg  plenty  of  rain  for  crops. 
This  is  done  because  then  plants  can  be 
given    water    when    they    need    it,  and 


Fig.  504.  —  Lago  di  Garcia,  one  of  the  Italian  lakes  on  the  southern  side  of 
the  Alps.    Groves  of  lemon  trees  are  found  along  the  shores  of  the  lake. 


there  need  be  no  fear  of  drought.  Irri- 
gation makes  better  crops,  for  the  flood- 
ing of  the  land  keeps  the  soil  damp 
and  also  fertilizes  it. 

The  most  extensive  farming  district 
is  the  fertile  plain  of  the  Po  Valley. 
The  tributaries  of  the  Po,  fed  by  the 
rains,  snows,  and  glaciers  of  the  moun- 
tains, furnish  a  large  supply  of  water 
for  irrigating  the  plain.  Many  of  these 
streams  flow  through  lakes  —  some  of 
them  among  the  most  beautiful  in  the 

2b 


world  (Fig.  504)  —  which  act  as  great 
reservoirs  for  water  supply.  By  the 
aid  of  irrigation  from  four  to  ten  crops 
may  be  raised  in  a  year. 

With  such  extensive  use  of  irrigation, 
and  with  such  a  warm  chmate,  agricul- 
ture flourishes  in  Italy.  It  is  the  lead- 
ing occupation  of  the  country,  and 
agricultural  products  are  the  chief 
exports. 

Among  the  products  are 
many  that  thrive  in  semi- 
tropical  climates,  as  well  as 

others    that    are    2.    Agricultural 

common  in  products 
northern  Europe.  Where 
irrigation  is  so  easy,  the 
extensive  cultivation  of  rice 
is  possible.  This  is  an  im- 
portant crop  in  northern 
Italy ;  but  corn  and  wheat 
are  raised  in  still  greater 
quantities.  Grapes  are  grown 
to  such  an  extent  that  Italy 
ranks  second  among  the 
wine-producing  countries  of 
the  world ;  and  so  many 
silk  worms  are  raised  that 
raw  silk  is  the  most  valuable 
export.  Among  the  other 
products  are  eggs,  which  are 
exported  in  large  quantities ;  also 
olives,  oranges,  lemons,  tobacco,  hemp, 
and  vegetables.  Many  horses  and  cat- 
tle are  reared  on  the  farms. 

On  some  of  the  mountain  slopes  forests  are 
grown,  but  most  of  the  natural  forest  was  cut 
off  long  ago.  Among  the  useful  trees  are  the 
chestnut.  These  are  planted  in  groves  for  the 
nuts,  which  serve  as  an  important  food.  The 
Italian  chestnut  is  much  larger  than  ours,  and 
is  ground  up  into  a  kind  of  meal,  as  wheat  is 
ground  into  flour. 

Among  the  mountains  there  is  much  natural 


370 


EUROPE 


Fig. 


pasture,  to  which  herds  of  sheep  and  goats  are 
driven  in  summer.  Many  goats  are  raised  in 
Italy  for  their  milk,  and  they  are  even  driven 
into  the  cities,  and  milked  at  the  doors  of  the 
customers  (Fig.  505). 

One  great  drawback  to 
the  development  of  agri- 
culture in  Italy  is  the  pres- 
ence   of    broad,    marshy 

tracts  in- 
3.  Important  fegted  with 
drawback  to  ., 

agriculture  mosquitoes, 

whose  bite 
causes  malaria.  This  is 
especially  true  in  the 
southern  half  of  the 
country,  and  there,  even 
with  fertile  soil  and  a 
warm  climate,  large  tracts 
of  land  have  had  to  be 
abandoned.  One  sixth  of 
the  population  suffers 
from  malaria,  and  there 
are  thousands  of  deaths 
from  that  disease  every 
year.  It  is  not  to  be 
wondered  at  that  the  Italian  government  is  try- 
ing to  stamp  out  this  dread  disease. 

The    fishing    industry    is    important. 
Among    the    peculiar    products   of    the 

sea     are     fine     coral     and 

sponges.  You  will  remem- 
ber that  we  found  sponge  fishing  impor- 
tant also  among  the  Bahama  Islands 
east  of  Florida. 

Italy  is  not  very  rich  in  valuable  min- 
eral deposits.     Except  in  the  island  of 

Elba  there  is  almost  no  iron  ; 

and  no  coal  of  value  is  found 
in  the  kingdom.  Indeed  coal,  next  to 
cotton,  is  the  leading  import.  There  is 
a  little  zinc  and  copper  ore ;  but  one  of 
the  most  valuable  mineral  products  is 
the  sulphur  of  Sicily.  Another  mineral 
product  is  the  pure  white  Carrara  mar- 
ble, of  such  rare  quality  that  it  is  prized 
the  world  over. 


Water  power  supplies  the  place  of 
coal  to  some  extent,  and  is  often  used  to 
produce  electricity.  There  is,  therefore, 
more  manufacturing  than,  from  the  lack 


Fishing 


505.  —  A  herd  of  goats  in  the  streets  of  Naples.    They  are  driven  from  door  to 
door,  and  milked  whenever  the  customers  wish  to  buy  the  milk. 


of  fuel,   one   might  suppose.     There  is 
much  silk  manufacturing,  but   a   large 
part  of  the  raw  silk  is  sent  Manufac- 
to  France,  Switzerland,  and  tunng 
elsewhere,  to  be  made  into  cloth.     There 
are  also  woolen  and  cotton  factories. 

The  northern  part,  at  Turin,  and  near  the 
Alps,  is  especially  noted  for  its  manufacturing, 
and  many  different  things  are  made  here. 
Among  the  manufacturing  industries  are  glass 
work,  lace  making,  earthenware  manufacture, 
the  making  of  statuary,  wood  carving,  coral 
carving,  and  straw  plaiting.  The  Italians  are 
very  artistic,  and  they  make  many  beautiful 
things  that  are  highly  prized  in  other  countries. 

Italy  has  much  less  commerce  than 
any  one  of  the  Great  Powers  so  far 
studied.  One  reason  for 
this  is  tliat  Italy  is  not  such 
a  great  manufacturing  country.  An- 
other is  that  it  is  situated  at  one  side 
of  the  densely  settled  part   of  Europe, 


Commerce 


THE  GREAT  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


371 


md  its  ports  are  farther  from  the  New 
I  World  than  those  of  France,  England, 
and  Germany. 

It  has  some  commerce,  however,  for 
it  has  products  to  export,  and  must 
import  others.  For  commerce  in  the 
Mediterranean,  Italy  is  more  favorably 
situated  than  any  other  nation,  as  it 
lies  in  the  very  heart  of  this  great  in- 
land  sea.     It  therefore    has  important 


lages,  partly  concealed  among  groves  of 
orange,  lemon,  and  olive  trees.  All 
around  the  bay  is  a  succession  of  towns 
and  villages. 

This  is  one  of  the  most  densely  settled 
regions  in  Europe.  One  reason  for  this 
is  the  fact  that  the  land  ,„,  „ 
here  is  very  fertile,  made  so  the  dense  popu- 
by  the  volcanic  ashes  of  "'*''" '^^''^ 
Vesuvius.  Another  reason  is  the  warm 
climate,  and  a  third  is  the  fine 
harbor.  There  is  more  shipping 
here  than  in  any  other  Italian 
port,  with  the  single  exception 
of  Genoa. 

One  reason  for  so  large  a  city,  and  for 
so  many  towns  and  villages  in  this 
farming  region,  is  the  character  of  the 
Italians.  They  do  not  like  to  be  alone. 
Instead,  therefore,  of  living  in  scat- 
tered houses  on  farms,  as  is  common  in 
the  farming  districts  of  the  United 
States,  they  crowd  into  the  villages 
and  cities.  They  do  this,  too,  even 
though  they  must  travel  long  distances 
to  their  fields  of  work,  or  suffer  now 
and  then  fi'om  extreme  want. 


Fig.  506.  —  A  team  in  Naples  consisting  of  a  horse,  a  cow, 
and  a  donkey. 


trade  with  Africa  and  with  Asia.     Its 
only  colonies  are  in  eastern  Africa. 

The  largest  city  of  Italy  is  Naples,  in 
the  southern  part  of  the  peninsula.     The 

Bay  of  Naples  on  which  it 
Principal  cities  jg  situated,  is  wonderfully 
1.  Naples  and  bcautiful.  On  the  north 
vicinity  giJe,    near  the  head  of  the 

StoSr"^     bay,  is  the  city  itself,  rising, 

street  above  street,  upon  an 
amphitheater  of  hills ;  toward  the  east 
is  Mount  Vesuvius  (Fig.  507),  with  the 
crests  of  the  Apennines  in  the  distance ; 
and  on  the  south  side  of  the  bay  is  a 
steep,  rocky  coast,,  with  numerous  vil- 


Within  plain  sight  of  Naples 
stands  Mount  Vesuvius,  a  cone  of 
lava  and  ashes  nearly  a  mile  in  height, 
from  whose  crater  volumes  of  steam 
pour  forth  almost  constantly,  g  ^^ 
At  the  time  of  Christ  the  vius;  us  history 
slopes  of  this  mountain  were  ""^  ««'-«^'^°'« 
dotted  with  farms,  while  thriving  towns 
spread  over  the  country  at  its  base. 
But  in  the  year  79  a  terrible  eruption 
took  place  that  completely  buried  Pom- 
peii, Herculaneum,  and  many  villages, 
beneath  showers  of  ashes  and  streams  of 
volcanic  mud.  Since  then  Vesuvius  has 
been  in  eruption  many  times,  the  last 
violent  outbreak  being  in  1906,  when 
much  damage  was  done. 


372 


EUROPE 


During  the  last  century  the  buried  city  of 
Pompeii  has  been  uncovered  at  great  labor  and 
cost.  By  these  excavations  much  has  been 
learned  about  the  buildings  and  customs  of  the 
people  who  lived  here  at  the  time  of  Christ. 
One  can  walk  along  these  deserted  streets  (Fig. 
509),  and  wander  among  the  ruined  homes  from 
which  the  people  were  driven  forth  on  that 
terrible  day,  nearly  two  thousand  years  ago. 


The  principal  city  south  of  Naples  is 
Palermo,  the  capital  of  Sicily.  .It  is 
situated     in    the    midst   of 

.  .  .  ,  1    2.     Palermo 

extensive     vineyards     and 

fruit   groves.     What   fruits  would  you 

expect  to  find  there  ? 

The  site  of  Rome,  the  capital  of  Italy, 


Fig.  507.  — Vesuvius  in  eruption  (1892).    Huge  volumes  of  steam  and  ash  rise  from  the  crater,  while  flows  of 

liquid  rock,  or  lava,  stream  down  its  slopes. 


At  present,  one  is  able  to  go  to  the  summit  of 
Vesuvius  on  almost  any  day.  There  can  be  seen 
one  of  the  most  awful  sights  in  the  world,  when 
one  cautiously  approaches  the  very  edge  of  the 
crater — an  opening  several  hundred  yards 
across  —  and  peers  down  into  the  abyss.  Re- 
ports like  the  thunderings  of  cannon  come  from 
far  below,  and  lumps  of  white  hot  lava,  several 
feet  in  diameter,  are  often  hurled  upward.  At 
times  lava  lumps  are  thrown  above  the  mouth 
of  the  opening  and  fall  here  and  there  outside, 
making  one's  visit  full  of  excitement. 


and  the  ancient  capital  of  the  mighty 
Roman   Empire,   was   well  chosen.     It 
lies  near  the  center  of  the     Rome 
Italian  peninsula,  and  near  i-  its  location 
the  center  of  the  Mediterranean  as  well. 
It  is  not  a  seaport,  but  lies  at  some  dis- 
tance from  the  sea,  on  the  Tiber,  the  larg- 
est river  of  the  country  except  the  Po. 
Fine  residences,  public  buildings,  art 
galleries,  and  notable  ruins  are  numer- 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


373 


Fig.  509.  —  A  street  in  Pompeii.  Even  the  tops  of  the  houses  were  buried 
beneath  volcanic  ash  which  was  erupted  from  Vesuvius  (seen  in  the 
background)  in  the  year  79. 


2.  Its  attractions 


between     men     and     wild 
beasts. 

The  Forum  is  another  ex- 
tensive ruin  of  ancient  Rome 
(Fig.  513).  It  was  the  great 
pubhc  square,  on  a  lowland 
among  some  low  hills ;  but 
during  the  centuries  that  fol- 
lowed the  fall  of  the  Roman 
Empire,  its  monuments, 
arches,  and  other  ornaments 
became  entirely  buried  un- 
derneath rubbish.  Whole 
buildings,  as  well  as  smaller 
objects,  were  so  buried. 

With    the    exception     of 
Rome  and  Naples  the  large 
cities  of  the  Italian  peninsula 
are    in    the    northern   part. 
The  first  one  north  of  Rome  is  Florence, 
in  a  beautiful  valley  at  the  western  base 
of   the    Apennines.      Straw 


Principal  cities 

plaiting,  mosaic  work,  and  in  the  north 
silk  manufacturing  are  iui-  ^-   Florence 
portant  Florentine  industries.     Florence 
is  famous  for  its  art  galleries,  which  are 
among  the  finest  in  the  world. 

Milan,  in  the  Po  Valley,  is  the  leading 


ous  in  Rome.     The  dome  of  St.  Peter's 
—  the  largest  and  most  famous  church 

in  the  world  —  towers  above 

everything  else ;  and  the 
Vatican,  where  the  Pope  resides,  is  the 
most  noted  palace  in  Christendom  (Fig. 
510).  In  the  Vatican  are  some  of  the 
finest  and  most  beautiful  of  Michael 
Angelo's  paintings. 

The  ruins  of  ancient  Rome, 
which  have  been  partly  ex- 
cavated, cover  so  many  acres 
that  the  city  is  almost  as 
much  a  tomb  as  a  living  city. 
One  of  the  most  notable 
relics  of  the  past  is  the  Col- 
osseum (Fig.  512),  a  huge, 
oval-shaped  amphitheater, 
open  to  the  sky,  with  seats 
for  forty  or  fifty  thousand 
persons.  In  the  days  of  the 
Roman  Empire  it  was  used 
to     witness     life-aud-death 

,11,  1  Fig.  510.  —  St.  Peter's  Catliedral  (on  the  left)  and  the  Vatican 

struggles  between  men,  and  (on  the  right)  in  Rome. 


374 


EUROPE 


city  of  northern  Italy. 
Turin  is  another  large  city 

2.  MUanand  in  the  same 
Turin  valley.  From 
very  early  times  these  cities 
have  been  important  trade 
centers  because  of  their  posi- 
tionaatthe  crossings  of  trade 
routes  in  a  fertile,  densely 
populated  valley.  The  rail- 
ways recently  built  across 
the  Alps,  through  long  tun- 
nels, have  greatly  increased 

their  importance.  They  are  busy  manu- 
facturing centers,  making  silk  goods, 
cutlery,  and  other  articles. 

Genoa,  although  separated  from  the 

Po   Valley   by   the    Apennines,   is    the 

natural    seaport   for   Milan 

3.  Genoa  ;i    ny      -  c-  -i.    • 

and  iurm.  bmce  it  is  a 
port  of  outlet  for  so  fertile  a  region, 
and  is  now  connected  with  central 
Europe  by  railway,  this  city  is  the  lead- 
ing seaport  of  Italy. 

The  principal  port  on  the  Adriatic 
Sea  is  Venice,  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing of  European  cities.     It  was  once  one 


4.    Venice 


Fig.  512.  —  The  Colosseum,  one  of  the  ruius  of  ancient  Rome. 


of  the  most  powerful  cities  of  Europe, 
and  had  extensive  commerce  with  Cen- 
tral Europe,  the  countries  of 
the  Mediterranean,  and  Asia. 
Its  citizens  gained  great  wealth  and 
made  Venice  one  of  the  most  beautiful 
cities  of  the  world.  Many  fine  houses, 
churches,  palaces,  and  museums  still  re- 
main to  remind  us  of  the  ancient 
splendor  of  Venice. 


Fig.  513. 


The  city  is  built  upon  more  than  a  hundred 
small  marshy  islands,  about  two  and  a  half  miles 
from  the  mainland,  with  which  it  is  now  con- 
nected by  railway.  Canals  take  the  place  of 
streets.  There  are  one 
hundred  and  fifty  canals, 
the  main  one,  or  Grand 
Canal,  being  bordered  by 
white  marble  palaces, 
whose  doorsteps  lead 
down  into  the  water. 
Nearly  four  hundred 
bridges  join  the  differ- 
ent islands,  and  there 
are  many  narrow  foot- 
paths; but  since  the 
chief  highways  are 
canals,  gondolas  (Fig. 
515)  take  the  place  of 
wagons,  carriages,  and 
street  cars.  No  doubt, 
thousands  of  chiUlren 
„  .       ,  f^,    /-       ,,,•,,•         f       •     *  1.  1-  I  f  ill  that  city  have   never 

Ruins  of  some  of  the  fine  old  buiUiiiiiis  of  aneient  Rome,  which  for  •' 

centuries  were  buried  beneath  rubbish.  seeu  a  horse. 


Fig.  511. — A  street  scene  iaFloreuce,  Italy,  the  Duomo,  or  cathedral,  iu  the  background. 


THE  GEE  AT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


376 


Fig.  514. — The  Milan  Cathedral,  one  of  the  most  magnificent  cathedrals  in 
the  world.  It  is  built  of  white  marble,  and  is  adorned  with  a  hundred 
spires,  and  fully  four  thousand  statues. 


San  Marino,  although  surrounded  by  lands 
that  belong  to  the  Kingdom  of  Italy,  is  a  tiny 
independent  republic.  It  is  the  oldest,  as 
well  as  the  smallest,  republic   in  the  world, 

and  owes  its  in- 
San  Marino  dependence  partly 
to  the  fact  that  the 
city  is  on  a  high,  steep  hill  (Fig, 
616)  and  was  therefore  difficult 
to  capture. 

South  of  Sicily  is  the  small 
island  of  Malta  (Fig.  450),  which, 
like  Gibraltar,  belongs  to  Great 
Britain,  and  is  strongly  forti- 
fied. 

1.  What  islands  belong  to 
Italy?  2.  What 
are  the  area  and 
population  of  Italy? 
kind  of  government 
4.  Describe  the  sur- 
face features.  5.  The  climate. 
6.  Why  is  irrigation  especially 
common  there  ?  7.  Name  the 
agricultural  products.  8.  How 
does  malaria  interfere  with  agri- 
culture ?  9.  State  the  principal 
facts  about  fishing  and  mining. 
10.    Manufacturing.        11.   What  Fig 


about  the  commerce  of  Italy? 
12.  Describe  the  beauty  of  the 
location  of  Naples.  13.  State 
the  reasons  for  the  dense  pop- 
ulation near  Naples.  14.  Tell 
about  Mount.  Vesuvius;  its 
history  and  attractions.  15.  Lo- 
cate Palermo.  16.  Describe  the 
location  of  Rome.  17.  What 
are      its      present     attractions  ? 

18.  Locate  and  state  the  prin- 
cipal     facts      about      Florence. 

19.  Milan       and      Turin. 

20.  Genoa.  21.  Venice.  22. 
San  Marino  and  Malta. 

1.    What  copies  of  great  paint- 
ings from  Italy  have  you  seen  ? 

2.   Find  pictures  of  „ 

£  \.i  Suggestions 

some  of  the   rums      ^^ 

in  Eome,  or  elsewhere.  3.  Find 
out  about  the  Catacombs  of 
Eome ;  the  Appian  Road ;  the 
Aqueducts.  4.  Ask  some 
lawyer  to  tell  you  what  influ- 
ence Roman  law  has  had  upon  our  own  law, 

5.  Find    some    facts    about    Caesar,    Cicero, 
Dante,  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  and  Michael  Angelo. 

6.  Where  was  Columbus  born?    7.  Bound  Italy. 


Review 
Questions 

3.   What 
has    it? 


A  gondola  on  one  of  the  canals  in  Venice. 


376 


EUROPE 


•i 


8.    Make  a  drawing  of  the  country  and  show 
the  location  of  the  chief  cities  and  rivers. 

5.   Austria-Hungary  (Fig.  517) 

1.  Compare  AustriarHungary  with  Germany 
in  area.     (See   Appendix.)     2.    In  population. 

3.  In   number   of    large    cities. 

4.  How  much  of  the  boundary 
is  formed  by  water  (Fig.  517)  ?  5.  What 
countries  border  this  empire  ?  6.  What  por- 
tions are  mountainous  ?  7.  Make  a  sketch 
of    the    mountains,    with    names    (Fig.    451). 

8.  Trace    the    course    of    the    largest    river. 

9.  What  parts  of  Austria-Hungary  do  not  be- 
long to  the  Danube  basin  ? 

This  empire  is  larger  than  any  other 
country  in  Europe  except  Russia  ;  yet  it 
Area  a "d  parts  is  not  SO  large  as  our  state 
of  the  country  of  Texas.  It  is  made  up  of 
two  main  parts :  (1)  Austria,  on  the 
west,  where  many  of  the  people  are  of 
the  same  race  as  the  Germans,  and 
where  the  German  language  is  spoken ; 
and  (2)  Hungary,  where  entirely  differ- 
ent languages   are    spoken,  and  where 


Fig.  518.  —  Francis  Joseph,  Emperor  of  Austria-Hungary. 


Fig.  51(5.  — The  citadel  of  the  Republic  of  San  Marine 


the  people  are  of    very  different  races, 
some  having  come  from  Asia. 

Austria  and  Hungary  are  united  to 
form  a  monarchy  under  a  single  ruler ; 
yet  each  is  independent  of 

,1         ,1         •  ,       Government 

the  other  m  some  respects, 
and   each    has   its   own   capital.      The 
present   emperor   is    Francis   Joseph    I 
(Fig.  518). 

Austria-Hungary  is  one  of  the  most 
mountainous  countries  in  Europe.  It 
includes  the  eastern  half  of  surface 
the  Alps  (Fig.  519),  besides  features 
several  other  ranges.  These  mountains 
form  a  circle  inclosing  a  broad  level 
area  (Fig.  451),  called  the  Hungarian 
plain,  through  which  the  Danube  River 
flows.  The  inclosing  mountains  are 
broken  at  only  two  points,  —  one  near 
Vienna,  where  the  Danube  enters  the 
Hungarian  plain  (Fig.  523),  and  the 
other  on  the  southeastern  boundary, 
where  that  river  leaves  it. 

Everywhere    except    on    the    higher 
mountains,  the  temperature  is  favorable 
for   the   growth    of    grains 
and  other  crops  of  temper-      '™*  ^ 
ate    latitudes.      That   is,    the   summers 
are  warm  and    the   winters   are   cold ; 


Jonkopingf 


■0  ^^arii'us 


_.BORNHOLM 


(T„  Uen.) 

(jf^UGEN 

vAltoa^o -nambure  ^^( 

^^  n  Stettiin)  '    , 

IgdeburgW'       Cfiarlotte^upg         ° 

Stassfurtr^iS^  \  I^^V 


VDanzig^ 


„Kbnlgsberg  ) 
/ 


CENTRAL  EUROPE 

Scale  of  Miles 


60  lUO 

CUiu  with  over  1,000,000 

Citia  with  200,000  to  1,000,000- 
Citiea  with  100,000  to  200,000 


800 

Berlin 
-Naples 

.-Venice 

Erfurt 


Smaller  placet x-iiu.v 

Capitals  with  lets  than  100,000 BeKNE 

Capitals  of  Countriuf^  Ot/ier  Cities  o 


,.Carliil,a,l 


<N. 


I  Psessburg 


Czetfl 


Vienna  fi 

Odenburgf       jS  a 

\  Grata      /■^Budapest/ 

■^ "  s 

Maria  Theijsiopel 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


377 


people,  but  at  least  a  doz- 
en languages  are  spoken 
in  the  empire,  and  even 
two  or  three  in  a  single 
town. 


y^jSFA 


Fig.  519.  —  A  street  in  Innsbruck  in  Austria,  witli  the  snow-covered  Alps 
rising  steeply  in  the  distance. 


but  the  difference  between  summer  and 
winter  is  much  greater  than  in  Eng- 
land.    Why? 

The  rainfall  of  the  lowlands  is  only 
about  enough  for  crops,  and  there  are 
occasional  summer  droughts  in  some 
places. 

Austria-Hungary  is  different  from  any 
country  so  far  studied  in  one  very  im- 
Peopie  and  portant  respect.  Its  people 
language  are   not   of    one   race,   and 

they  do  not  even  have  a  common  lan- 
guage. About  one  fourth  of  the  people, 
mainly  in  Austria,  are  of  German  stock. 
In  Hungary,  on  the  other  hand,  nearly 
half  the  population  is  Magyar,  a  people 
related  to  the  Mongolians.  Even  more 
numerous  than  either  of  these  are  the 
Slavs,  of  Russian  origin.  In  the  south- 
west there  are  many  people  related  to 
the  Italians ;  and  there  are  a  number 
of  other  races  in  the  empire.  Ger- 
man is  spoken  by  most  of  the  educated 


This  great  mixture  of  races 
is  the  result  of  three  causes. 
In  the  first  place,  the  empire 
is  in  the  center  of  Europe,  sur- 
rounded by  other  nations  dif- 
fering in  speech,  and  it  has 
been  easy  for  these  to  push 
across  the  borders.  A  second 
reason  is  that  the  empire  has 
been  enlarged  through  war,  and 
thus  people  of  different  lan- 
guages have  been  forced  to  join 
the  nation.  The  third  reason 
is  that  in  this  mountainous 
country,  with  many  inclosed 
valleys,  people  have  tended  to 
develop  customs  and  languages 
different  from  those  of  their  neighbors. 


Fig.  520. 


A  family  of  gypsies  and  their  bouse, 
in  Austria. 


378 


EUROPE 


Many  of  the  mountain  slopes  are 
forest-covered,  and  wild  animals  are  still 
Lumbering  found  in  the  remoter  parts. 
and  Since  nearly  a  third  of  the 

agriculture  empire  is  wooded,  lumbering 
is  one  of  the  important  industries. 

Where  the  woods  have  been  cleared 
away  from  the  mountain  slopes,  there 
are  pastures  for  sheep  and  goats.  Cattle 
also  are  raised,  especially  on  the  low- 
lands. 

Near  the  Adriatic  Sea,  and  in  the 
warmer  valleys,  there  are  many  vine- 
yards ;  and  the  mulberry  tree  furnishes 
food  for  the  silkworm,  as  in  northern 
Italy  and  in  southern  France.  Flax, 
hemp,  potatoes,  sugar  beets,  and  to- 
bacco are  other  important  crops.  But 
the  grains,  especially  wheat,  rye,  bar- 
ley, oats,  and  corn,  are  the  chief  agri- 
cultural products  of  both  Austria  and 
Hungary.  The  broad  plains  of  the 
Danube  form  one  of  the  leading  wheat- 
producing  regions  of  Europe.  So  much 
wheat  is  raised  that  a  large  amount 
is  exported. 

There  is  much  mineral  wealth  in  the 
mountains,  including  the  precious  stone 
called  opal,  and  deposits  of 
salt,  gold,  silver,  lead,  quick- 
silver, and  copper.  There  are  deposits 
of  clay  used  in  the  manufacture  of  fine 
porcelain  ware ;  and  of  quartz,  which 
supplies  the  material  for  the  Bohemian 
glass  blowers,  who  make  some  of  the 
finest  glassware  in  the  world. 

Iron  ore  is  widely  distributed  ;  and 
Austria-Hungary  ranks  third  among  the 
coal-producing  countries  of  Europe 
(Fig.  455).  Some  of  the  best  deposits 
are  in  the  northwest,  near  Prague. 
Petroleum  is  also  found  in  this  empire. 

There  is  much  less  manufacturing  in 


Mining 


Austria-Hungary  than  in  Great  Britain,, 
Germany,    or    France.    .Yet    there    arel 
numerous    cotton,     woolen,  Manufac- 
flour,  and  paper  mills,  iron  turing 
manufactories,  and  beet-sugar  refineries. 
There  is  also  much  silk  weaving.     The] 
chief   manufacturing    region   is   in   the 


Fig.  521.- 


All  Austrian  villagf  with  mountains  in 
the  background. 


northwest,  near  Germany,  while  the 
principal  agricultural  sections  are  in  the 
central  and  eastern  parts. 

This  empire  has  only  a  small  strip  of 
coast  on  the  Adriatic  Sea,  remote  from 
the    Atlantic    Ocean.       Its 

,1  p         •      Commerce 

ocean  commerce  thereiore  is 
not  very  extensive,  and  it  is  easy  to 
understand  why  it  has  no  colonies.  The 
means  of  transportation  in  the  interior 
are  also  poor.  This  is  partly  due  to  the 
mountainous  country,  which  makes  the 
building  of  canals  and  railways  difficult. 
It  is  also  partly  due  to  the  direction  t)l' 
the  rivers.     The    largest  of    these,  the 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


379 


Danube,  which  is  navigable  from  Ger- 
many to  its  mouth,  flows  eastward  and 
its  lower  course   is  in  other   countries. 


central  part  of  Europe.     The  railways 
which  lead  from  St.  Petersburg  to  Rome, 
and  from  Berlin  and  Paris  to  Constan- 
tinople, meet  at  this  point, 
making   the    city  a    great 
railway  and  trade  center. 

Vienna  is  a  beautiful  city, 
with  many  fine  public  build- 
ings (Fig.  522),  including  the 
palace  of  the  emperor  and  some 
noted  museums.  As  in  most 
large  cities,  there  is  much  man- 
ufacturing of  various  kinds. 

Budapest,  made  up  of 
two  towns  (Buda  and  Pest), 
on    opposite 


Fig.  522.  —  A  view  in  Vienna  sliowing  some  of  the  fine  public  buildings. 


banks    of    the 


2.    Budapest 


It  leads  away  from  the  great  markets 
of  Europe  and  of  the  New  World,  instead 
of  toward  them.  The  navigable  Elbe 
connects  the  northern  part  of  the  empire 
with  the  sea,  and  there  are  also  several 
railway  lines  to  the  Atlantic 
and  Baltic  seaports.  The 
greater  part  of  the  foreign 
commerce  is  carried  on 
through  the  German  ports. 

There  are  many  small  cities 

in  this  empire,  but  few  large 

ones.   The  largest 

Principal  cities    ,  xr  ,i 

two,  VIENNA,  the 

capital  of  Austria,  and  Buda- 
pest, the  capital  of  Hungary, 
are  on  the  Danube  River. 

Vienna,  which  is  larger 
than  Philadelphia,  is  the 
greatest  city  in  Austria-Hun- 
gary and  the  fourth  in  size 
,    „.  in  Europe.      The  main  rea- 

1.     Vienna  »       ^  .  ,        ,. 

sons  tor  its  size  are  the  tacts 
that  it  is  the  capital  of  a  great  empire 
and  is  located  on  a  large  river  in  the 


Danube,  is  the  capital  of 
Hungary  and  the  home  of  the  Emperor 
for  a  part  of  each  year.  The  city  lies 
in  the  midst  of  the  fertile  wheat-raising 
plains  of  the  Danube,  and  is  engaged  in 
flour  manufacture  and  grain  shipment. 


Fig.  523.  —  A  view  of  the  Danube  River  at  Budapest. 


Prague,  the   third   city   of   Austria- 
Huny;ary,  is  situated  on  the  „ 

^      •  .3.     Prague 

navigable    Elbe,  which    has 

been    an    important   trade    route    since 


REINDEER 


WOLF 

The  M.N.Ca.BurFALO. 


Jjl  "CHAMOIS 

The  M.N.Co.,BufF*'-o, 


Fig.  524.  —  Some  of  the  native  auimals  of  Europe. 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


381 


sarly  times.  Located  in  the  midst  of  a 
rich  mineral  region,  it  is  a  noted  manu- 
facturing center. 

Trieste  is  the  largest  Austrian  sea- 
[)ort.  Although  separated  from  the 
4.  Trieste  i^^ain  part  of  the  country  by 
andFiume  mountain  rauges,  it  is  con- 
nected with  the  interior  by  a  railway. 

FiUME,  southeast  of  Trieste,  has  an 
excellent  harbor,  but  has  little  trade 
and  is  a  small  town. 


5     Lichtenstein 


On  the  boundary  between  Austria  and  Switz- 
erland   is    Lichtenstein,    a    very 
small  independent  country. 
1.  How  large  is  Austria-Hungary  ?    2.  What 
about  its  two  parts  ?     3.   What  kind  of  govern- 
ment  has  it?     4.    Describe   the 
Review  surface  features  of  Austria-Hun- 

^"^   *  gary.     5.  The  climate.     6.    Tell 

about  the  mixture  of  races  here.  7.  Give 
reasons  for  such  a  mixture.  8,  State  the  prin- 
cipal facts  about  lumbering.  9.  About  agricul- 
ture. 10.  What  minerals  are  found  ?  11.  What 
can  you  tell  about  manufacturing?  12.  Why 
is  there  so  little  commerce?  13.  Locate  and 
t^nve  the  principal  facts  about  Vienna. 
14.  Budapest.  15.  Prague.  16.  Trieste  and 
Flume.     17.    Locate  Lichtenstein. 

1.  How  far  is  Vienna  from  Rome  ?  From 
I'aris  ?  From  Berlin  ?  2.  Trace  the  course 
you  would  take,  if  you  traveled 
by  water  from  New  York  to 
Vienna.  3.  In  an  atlas  look  up  Austria- Hun- 
gary to  find  the  portions  which  are  called  Tyrol, 
Moravia,  Bohemia,  Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and 
Transylvania.  4.  Look  up  some  facts  about 
the  history  of  Poland.  5.  Find  out  something 
about  Kossuth.  6.  Bound  Austria-Hungary. 
7.  Make  a  drawing  of  it,  inc hiding  in  the 
sketch  the  Danube  Eiver  and  the  principal 
cities. 

6.   Russia  (Fig.  450) 

1.  About  how  much  of  Europe  is  included 
in  Russia  (Fig.  450)?  2.  What  part  of  the 
distance  from  pole  to  equator  is 
Map  study  included?  3.  What  does  this 
Buggest  concerning  the  climate  ?  4.  What 
parts  of  the  boundary  of  Russia  are  seacoast  ? 


Suggestions 


5.  Name  the  seas  which  border  it.  6.  Name 
the  mountains  on  or  near  the  border.  •!.  What 
portion  of  Russia  is  occupied  by  plains  (Fig. 
451)  ?  8.  In  what  directions  do  the  large 
rivers  flow  ?  Name  the  longest  three.  9.  Is 
there  any  outlet  from  the  Caspian  Sea  ?  What 
does  that  fact  suggest?  10.  Find  Poland, 
Finland,  and  Lapland.  11.  What  parts  of 
Asia  are  in  the  Russian  Empire  (Fig.  566)  ? 

Russia  is  larger  than  all  the  other 
countries  of  Europe  combined,  but  only 
about  two  thirds  the  size  of  Area  and 
the  United  States.  Its  popu-  population 
lation,  however,  is  considerably  larger 
than  ours,  and  about  twice  that  of  any 
other  European  country. 

The  Ural  Mountains  form  a  part  of 
the  eastern  boundary  of  European  Russia. 
The  Russian  Empire,  however,  extends 
thousands  of  miles  farther  east,  reaching 
across  Asia  even  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 
The  part  of  the  Empire  beyond  the  Urals 
is  called  Siberia.  Including  Siberia,  and 
other  Russian  possessions  in  Asia,  the 
area  of  the  whole  Empire  is  greater  than 
that  of  all  North  America.  Only  the 
European  part  is  now  to  be  studied. 

The  people  of  Russia  belong  to  differ- 
ent races.  Some  have  come  from  the 
vast  plains  of  Asia,  and 
some  from  other  parts  of 
Europe.  The  country  is  so  large,  and 
so  much  of  it  is  a  plain  over  which  it  is 
easy  to  travel,  that  people  from  very 
different  sections  have  migrated  to  it. 

Most  of  the  Russians  are  Slavs,  a 
division  of  the  white  race  that  speaks  a 
very  different  language  from  that  of 
any  other  Great  Power.  The  Lapps  of 
Lapland  and  the  Finiis  of  Finland  are 
under  the  rule  of  Russia,  but  they  both 
belong  to  the  yellow,  or  Mongolian  race. 
These  are  only  a  few  of  the  kinds  of 
people  in  Russia,  for  in  all  about  forty 


People 


Government 


38^ 

different       languages       are 
spoken  in  this  empire. 

All  these  people,  with  dif- 
ferent languages  and  customs, 

are    kept   under 

control  by  a 
government  which  is  very 
different  from  any  thus  far 
studied.  France  is  a  repub- 
lic, and  the  four  other  Great 
Powers  of  Europe  are  called 
limited  monarchies ;  but  the 
Russian  government  is  an 
absolute  monarchy,  or  desjyot- 
ism.  This  means  that  the 
ruler,  who  is  called  the  Czar,  can  do 
more  nearly  as  he  pleases  than  can  any 
of  the  other  rulers  of  Europe.  The  name 
of  the  present  Czar  is  Nicholas  II  (Fig. 
526). 

The  common  people  of  other  European 
nations  have  been  steadily  getting  move  and 
more    liberty    and   better   education ;   but   the 


TROPE 


Fig.  526.  —  Nicholas  W,  Czar  of  Russia. 


Fig.  525.  —  A  family  of  Russian  peasants. 

Russian  people  have  been  kept  in  poverty  and 
ignorance  (Fig.  525).  Until  the  middle  of  the 
last  century  the  common  people  were  serfs,  who 
were  little  better  than  slaves  to  their  lords, 
the  nobles.  Even  now  that  they  are  freed,  little 
attempt  is  made  to  educate  them,  and  they 
have  little  liberty. 

In  recent  years  the  people  have  been  allowed 
to  elect  representatives  to  the  Duma,  which 
somewhat  resembles  our  Congress.  Yet  even 
in  the  Duma,  the  representatives  are  not  free 
to  speak  and  vote  as  they  choose. 

Most  of  Russia  is  a  very  level  plain, 
the  highest  part  of  which  is  near  the 
center,  where  the  elevation  surface 
is  only  about  twelve  hundred  features 
feet  above  sea  level.  Several  large 
rivers  have  their  sources  in  this  central 
hilly  region,  and  flow  outward  in  differ- 
ent directions.  What  are  their  names  ? 
These  rivers  flow  with  gentle  course 
over  the  vast  plains,  and  are  therefore 
very  useful  for  navigation. 

Mountains  are  found  in  Russia  only 
on  the  borders.  Name  those  on  the 
eastern  border.  What  is  the  name  of 
the  mountains  in  the  south?  Mt. 
Elbruz,  in  these  mountains,  is  the  high- 
est  peak  in  Europe.     At  the  northern 


THE  GREAT  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


383 


Fig.  527. 


The  city  ol  ^loscow,  situated  in  the  midst  of  the  vast,  level 
Russian  plain. 


base  of  the  Caucasus  there  are  broad 
plains,  some  portions  of  which  are  below 
sea  level.  It  is  in  these  plains  that  the 
Caspian  Sea,  a  great  salt  lake  without 
outlet  to  the  sea,  is  situated. 

Russia   lies    so    far   from    the    ocean 
that  it  is  much  less   under 
the    influence  of  the    ocean 
winds   than    France,    Germany,  or   the 


Climate 


British  Isles.  The  northern 
half  of  the  country,  tliere- 
fore,  has  cold  winters,  and 
in  the  far  north  a  frigid 
climate.  But  Russia  ex- 
tends so  far  south,  that  in 
the  southern  portion,  near 
the  Caucasus,  the  climate 
is  that  of  the  warm  tem- 
perate zone. 

In  most  of  the  country 
there  is  rainfall  enough 
for  agriculture  (Fig.  456), 
though  in  parts  farthest 
from  the  sea  droughts  are 
common.  Southeastern 
Russia,   near   the   Caspian 

Sea,  has  a  very  dry  climate,  and  in  places 

this  region  is  a  true  desert. 

It  is  because  of  this  dry  climate  that  the 
Caspian  Sea,  the  greatest  inland  sea  on  the 
earth,  is  salt.  The  water  evaporates  from  its 
surface  faster  than  it  can  be  poured  in  by  the 
rivers,  even  though  it  receives  the  Volga,  the 
largest  of  European  rivers.  The  Caspian  Sea 
cannot,  therefore,  rise  high  enough  to  flow  out 
to  the  sea.     In  fact,  there  is  so  much  evapora- 


Fiu.  528.  —  Reindeer,  used  in  winter  for  drawing  sleds  over  the  snow-covered  ground  of  northern  Russia. 


384 


EUROPE 


Agriculture 
1 .     Sections 
unsuited  to 
agriculture 


tion  that  the  surface  of  the  Caspian  Sea  is  kept 
eighty-five  feet  lower  than  the  level  of  the  ocean. 
The  Aral  Sea,  nearby,  also  is  salt.       \ 

In  some  parts  of  Russia  the  climate 
is  unsuited  to  agriculture.  In  the  north- 
ern part,  for  instance,  the 
plains,  called  tundras,  are 
always  frozen.  Even  in 
summer  they  thaw  out  only 
at  the  surface,  and  trees  cannot  grow 
upon  them.  Mosses  and  grasses  are  the 
chief  plants  there,  and  the  reindeer,  which 
feeds  upon  them,  is  the  prin- 
cipal domestic  animal  (Fig. 
528).  It  is  the  main  support 
of  the  few  people  who  live  on 
the  tundras. 

Southeastern  Russia,  on 
the  other  hand,  is  too  dry  for 
agriculture  without  irrigation. 
This  is  the  region  of  the 
stej)pes,  which  resemble  the 
arid  lands  of  our  Western 
States ;  here  grazing  is  the 
leading  industry. 

Although  agriculture  is  im- 
possible in  some  parts  of 
2.   Chief  Russia,     a     very 

products  |^j.ge  p^j.|.   Qf  ^ijg 

vast  empire  has   level   land, 
good  soil,  and  a  climate  favor- 
able to  farming.     Fully  nine 
tenths  of  the  people  are  supported  by 
farming,   which   shows   that   Russia   is 
mainly  an  agricultural  country. 

The  chief  crops  are  the  grains,  espe- 
cially rye,  wheat  (Fig.  529),  barley,  and 
oats.  Russia  ranks  nex,t  to  the  United 
States  among  the  grain-producing  coun- 
tries of  the  world,  and  wheat  is  one  of  its 
principal  exports.  Another  important 
crop  is  hay ;  and  potatoes,  sugar  beets, 
and  flax  are  raised  in  the  cool  temperate 


climate.  In  southern  Russia  the  warm 
climate  permits  the  culture  of  grapes,  to- 
bacco, and  corn ;  and  south  of  the  Cau- 
casus even  olives  and  cotton  are  grown. 

On  the  grazing  lands  of  the  arid  steppes 
many  sheep,  cattle,  and  horses  are  raised.  The 
nomadic  herdsmen  still  retain 
niany  of  the  customs  of  the  shep- 
herds and  herders  of  Bible  times,  who  dwelt 
farther  south  in  Asia.  This  is  the  home  of  the 
Cossacks,  a  people  of  Tartar  descent,  noted  for 
their  skill  as  horsemen,  and  for  their  tierce 
bravery. 


1 

.-._.ijlf^ 

■1 

^^matm^^mwj^^^' * 

m^^ 

f^    -  smmtsaamteaaA 

w. 

^lf^-"rmi 

H^^^' 

f 

^B^^^^^^^K  ^t^^^    ' 

'  ^  ^^^^Pii 

fj- 

-  -jgm* 

M     »^  ' ^ '    l^nftr  rf-sp:, ^iiii» JM 

\^ 

''  '-m 

!• 

,-.,,,^-  .1^ ' 

Fig.  5U9.  —  A  Russian  peasant  girl  harvesting  wheat  by  hand. 

Nearly  a  third  of  Russia  is  forest  cov- 
ered, and  timber  is  one  of  the  leading 
resources.  Many  fur-bear-  Lumbering 
ing  animals  live  in  the  for-  and  fishing 
est,  and  Russia,  like  Canada,  exports 
large  numbers  of  valuable  furs.  Fish- 
ing is  an  important  industry  in  Russian 
waters,  both  in  the  sea  and  in  the  rivers 
and  lakes. 

Russia   is    a   noted    mining    country. 
In  the  Ural  Mountains  are  gold,  silver, 


THE  GREAT  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


385 


copper,  and  platinum,  besides  some  pre- 
cious stones  and    graphite,    or    "  black 
lead,"  used  in  lead    pencils. 

Mining  n      i         j    •  •      j    • 

Coal  and  iron  are  mined  m 
several  parts  of  Russia,  particularly  in 
the  east,  in  Poland  (Fig.  455).  The 
Russian  Empire  ranks  next  to  the 
United  States  in  the  production  of  pe- 
troleum.    This  oil   is   found  in  several 


Commerce 


Fig.  530.  —  A  Grseco-Kussiau  church  iu  Moscow. 

places,  but  mainly  near  Baku  on  the 
Caspian  Sea.  Large  quantities  are  used 
as  fuel  for  steamers  on  the  Caspian  Sea 
and  the  Volga  River ;  and,  as  in  Cali- 
fornia, the  oil  is  used  in  locomotives. 

Numerous  factories  have  recently  been 
started  in  Russia,  but  most  of  the  man- 
Manufac-  ufacturing  is  still  done  by 
turing  hand   in  the  homes  of  the 

workmen.  How  different  this  is  from  the 
United  States  and  Great  Britain  !     Dis- 

2c 


tilling  and  brewing,  cotton  manufactur- 
ing and  sugar  refining,  are  the  principal 
forms  of  manufacturing  carried  on  in 
factories.  Flour  mills,  woolen  and  linen 
factories,  and  iron  works  rank  next  m 
importance.  What  raw  products  of 
Russia  encourage  these  industries  ? 

Since  Russia  is  mainly  an  agricul- 
tural country,  its  exports  are  largely 
food  products  and 
raw  materials  for 
manufacture,  and  its  imports  are 
chiefly  manufactured  goods. 
How  different  this  is  from  Eng- 
land, Germany,  and  France ! 

Russia  is  unfortunate  in  lack- 
ing good  seaports.  A  part  of 
the  seacoast  is  on  the  Arctic 
Ocean,  where  the  harbors  are 
icebound  nine  months  of  the 
year.  A  part  is  on  the  Baltic 
Sea,  and  there,  also,  the  harbors 
are  frozen  over  in  winter.  The 
Caspian  Sea  has  no  outlet,  so 
that  vessels  cannot  get  out  of  it. 
The  best  seacoast  is  on  the 
Black  Sea ;  but  to  get  from  this 
to  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  it  is  nec- 
essary to  pass  through  a  narrow 
strait,  called  the  Bosporus,  and 
then  through  the  Mediterranean 
Sea.  This  is  a  very  long  journey. 
Russia  therefore  resembles  Austria  in  its 
lack  of  good  and  convenient  seaports. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  interior  of  Russia  is 
so  level  that  it  is  easy  to  build  railroads  there. 
Water  transportation  is  easy,  too,  because  of 
the  large  rivers.  Into  what  water  does  each  of 
these  rivers  empty  ? 

The  value  of  the  rivers  is  greatly  increased 
by  means  of  canals,  which  have  been  easily 
built  across  the  plains.  It  is  possible  to  go, 
by  river  and  canal,  from  both  the  Caspian  and 
the   Black   seas  to  the  Baltic   Sea.     On  what 


386 


EUROPE 


rivers  might  one  travel  in  making  each  of  these 
journeys  ? 

Moscow  (Fig.  527),  the  second  city  in 
size,  and  once  the  capital  of  Russia,  is  lo- 
cated almost  in  the  center 

Principal  cities      »    , ,  .  -r  i    i         i 

1.  Moscow  of  the  empire.  It  has  long 
and  Nizhni         had  conuection  with  distant 

ovgoro  parts    of    Russia    by   river 

and  canal,  and  is  now  a  great  railroad 
center.  Being  situated  in  the  midst  of 
a  fertile,  densely  settled 
region,  Moscow  has  become 
one  of  the  chief  manufac- 
turing cities  of  the  empire. 
It  is  the  holy  city  of  Russia, 
being  the  center  of  the 
Graeco-Russian  Church,  and 
has  many  fine  royal  palaces, 
government  buildings,  and 
churches  (Fig.  530). 

East  of  Moscow,  on  the  Volga 
River,  is  Nizhni  Novgokod, 
renowned  for  its  yearly  fairs. 
For  centuries  this  has  been  a 
great  trade  center  for  the  ex- 
change of  Asiatic  and  Russian 
products,  which  have  been 
easily  carried  on  the  navigable 
Volga.  The  fairs,  held  in  Au- 
gust and  September,  are  the  greatest  in  Europe, 
and  attract  as  many  as  two  hundred  thousand 
strangers  each  year.  In  a  single  season  goods 
are  here  exchanged  to  the  value  of  nearly 
f  200,000,000,  and  prices  are  fixed  on  crops  and 
other  materials  for  the  coming  year. 

While   the   two  cities  just  described 
are  very  old,  their  position  in  the  inte- 

2.  St.  Peters-  I'ior  is  not  favorable  for 
burg  and  Riga  commerce  with  distant  na- 
tions. It  was  this  fact  that  led  Peter 
the  Great,  in  1703,  to  found  St.  Peters- 
burg at  the  head  of  the  Gulf  of  Fin- 
land. This  is  now  the  largest  city  in 
Russia,  and  the  fifth  in  size  in  Europe. 


Its  growth  is  partly  due  to  the  need  of 
a  seaport  in  this  section,  and  partly  to 
the  fact  that  the  city  is  the  capital  of  a 
great  empire.  More  goods  are  shipped 
from  this  point  than  from  any  other 
Baltic  port.  Riga,  to  the  southwest,  has 
about  half  as  much  shipping. 

Odessa,  another   important   seaport, 
is  the  chief  outlet   for   the     3.  Odessa 
vast  grain  trade  of  southern  Russia,  and 


Fig.  631.  —  A  Russian  sleigh  iu  St.  Petersburg. 


the  principal  port  on  the  Black  Sea.     It  « 
is  an  important  flour-milling  center,  like 
Minneapolis. 

At  one  time  there  was^  a  powerful 
kingdom,  called  Poland,  in  central  Eu- 
rope.       But      this     kingdom    ^     Warsaw 

was  conquered  and  divided  and  Lodz,  in 
among  Russia,  Austria,  and 
Germany.  Russia  obtained  the  largest 
share,  and  in  this  portion  are  situated 
Warsaw  and  Lodz,  two  of  the  leading 
cities  in  the  empire.  The  former  is  a 
center  for  the  railways  that  connect 
Russia  with  western  Europe,  and  the 
latter    is   an   important    manufacturing 


THE  LESSER  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


387 


city.     Much  coal  and  iron  are  mined  in 
this  vicinity. 

Finland,   whose   capital   is  Helsing- 

FORS,  is  a  part  of  the  Russian  Empire, 

but  is  allowed  some  voice  in 

Finland  .,  j.  tj. 

its  own  government.  it 
has  a  parliament  which  makes  its  laws, 
])ut  the  Czar  has  the  right  of  veto  upon 
them.  Unlike  the  Russians,  most  of 
whom  belong  to  the  Graeco-Russian 
Church,  the  Finns  are  mainly  Protes- 
tants, belonging  to  the  Lutheran  Church. 
They  are  a  nation  of  highly  educated 
people.  But  it  has  been  the  policy  of 
the  Russian  government  to  destroy  their 
existence  as  a  nation.  On  account  of 
mistreatment  from  the  Russians,  many 
Finns  and  Poles  have  migrated  to  the 
United  States. 


1.   What  about  the  area  and  population  of 

Russia?      2.    What   different   races   can    you 

name,  and  how  many  languages 

are  spoken  in  Russia  ?    3.    What 

is     the    kind    of    government  ? 

4.  What    is    the    condition    of    the   people  ? 

5.  Describe   the   surface   features.      6.   What 
can   you   say   about  the   climate  ?      7.   What 


Review 
Questions 


sections  are  unsuited  to  agriculture  ?  8.  What 
are  the  agricultural  products  ?  9.  Where  is 
grazing  carried  on  ?  10.  What  about  the  forest 
products?  11.  Name  the  chief  mineral  prod- 
ucts. 12.  What  is  the  condition  of  manufac- 
turing ?  13.  What  are  the  chief  exports  and 
imports  ?  14.  State  some  facts  about  the  sea- 
ports. 15.  How  is  transportation  of  goods 
in  the  interior  favored  ?  16.  Locate  and  state 
the  principal  facts  about  Moscow  and  Nizhni 
Novgorod.  17.  St.  Petersburg  and  Riga. 
18.  Odessa.  19.  Warsaw  and  Lodz.  20.  Fin- 
land. 

1.  Compare  Russia  with  the  United  States 
in  area  and  population  (See  Appendix) ;  also 
in  degrees  of  latitude  contained. 
2.  Name  some  city  in  the  United  Suggestions 
States  that  has  almost  the  same  latitude  as 
Odessa.  3.  What  part  of  eastern  North  Amer- 
ica is  in  the  same  latitude  as  St.  Petersburg? 
4.  Compare  the  area  of  the  Caspian  Sea 
with  that  of  Lake  Superior.  5.  Show  the 
route  a  vessel  might  take  in  going  from 
Odessa  to  St.  Petersburg.  6.  What  did  Kos- 
ciusko, the  Pole,  do  to  make  his  name  mem- 
orable to  Americans  ?  7.  Have  you  read  the 
story  of  Thaddeus  of  Warsaw  ?  If  so,  what 
can  you  tell  about  him  ?  8.  Read  how  Peter 
the  Great  wandered  through  European  coun- 
tries, as  a  common  workman,  in  order  to  learn 
W^estern  customs.  9.  Bound  Russia.  10.  Make 
a  sketch  map  of  Russia,  with  principal  rivers 
and  cities. 


SECTION   III.     THE  LESSER  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


1.   Norway  and  Sweden  (Fig  450) 


Map  questions 


1.  The  Scandinavian  peninsula  is  the  largest 
in  Europe.  AVhat  is  its  length  in  degrees  (Fig. 
450)  ?  In  miles  ?  2.  How  does 
its  western  coast  remind  you  of 
the  western  coast  of  Scotland  ?  3.  What  do 
you  observe  about  the  rivers  of  Sweden  ? 
4.  What  points  in  North  America  have  about 
the  same  latitude  as  Christiania  and  Stock- 
holm? 5.  Find  a  city  north  of  the  Arctic  circle. 
6.  What  does  this  location  suggest  as  to 
climate  ? 


The   two   kingdoms   of  Norway  and 
Sweden,  on  the  Scandinavian  Peninsula, 
are    each    larger    than   the  why  thinly 
British  Isles.     Yet  both  to-  settled 
gether  have  a  very  much  smaller  popu- 
lation. 

One  reason  for  the  sparsity  of  popula- 
tion is  the  latitude.  Look  upon  a  globe 
to  see  what  part  of  North  America  is 
in  the  same  latitude.  It  would  not  be 
possible  for  the  few  million  inhabitants  of 


388 


EUROPE 


these  two  countries  to  live  so  far  north 
if  it  were  not  for  the  west  winds,  which 
blow  from  the  ocean.  Even  in  spite  of 
that  influence,  most  of  the  region  has 
a  cold  climate. 

A  second  reason  for  the  small  number 
of  inhabitants  is  the  roughness  of  the 
surface.  A  mountain  range  extends  al- 
most the  whole  length  of  the  peninsula, 
and  some  of  the  peaks  rise  more  than 
a  mile  above  the  sea  level.  Most  of  the 
peaks  are  lower  than  this  and  of  nearly 
equal  height,  forming  a  rough  mountain- 
ous plateau.  The  mountains  descend 
steeply  to  the  ocean  on  the  western  side, 
so  that  Norway  is  a  narrow,  mountainous 
country.  The  surface  is  less  rugged  in 
the  south  and  the  east,  so  that  southern 
Norway  and  southern  and  eastern  Swe- 
den have  more  farming  land  than  the 
northern  portions. 

Most  of  the  people  live  in  the  south- 
ern and  eastern  parts,  where  the  climate 
Their  relation  is  milder  and  the  land  more 
to  us  nearly  level.     The  Scandin- 

avian people  have  been  closely  connected 


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Fig.  533.  —  Laplanders  who  live,  mainly  by  fishing,  in  northern  Norway 


Fig.  532.  —  Peasants  of  Norway  in  their  native  dress. 

with  our  own  history.  They  made 
some  of  the  early  invasions  and  settle- 
ments in  Great  Britain,  and  thus  are 
numbered  among  our  ancestors.  Their 
daring  seamen  reached  Greenland,  by 
way  of  Iceland,  and  discovered  America 
nearly  five  hundred  years  before  Colum- 
bus visited  it.  During  the  last  century 
they  have  migrated  to  the  United  States 
by  thousands  (Fig.  458), 
and  have  chosen  homes 
in  many  states. 

It  is  easy  to  see  that 
agriculture  must  be  a  far 
less  important  industry  in 

the     Scandina-   Agriculture, 

vian  peninsula  lumbering, 
than     in     the  and  fishing 

countries  that  we  have 
just  been  studying.  The 
hardy  grains  and  vegetables 
are  the  principal  farm 
crops,  and  many  cattle  and 
sheep  are  raised  on  the 
mountain  pastures.  Why 
would  you  not  expect   to 


I 


THE  LESSER   POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


389 


find  cotton,  grapes,  or  tobacco  growing 
here  ? 

Where  the  mountain  slopes  are  too 
rugged  for  farming,  there  are  extensive 
forests.  About  one  fourth  of  Norway, 
and  much  of  Sweden,  is  covered  with 
forest.  Therefore,  lumber  is  one  of  the 
leading  products  of  both  counti-ies. 


Fig.  5'M.  —  A  view  in  one  ol  the  fiords  on  the  coast  of  Norway. 

Since  crops  are  not  extensively  raised, 
fish  are  much  used  for  food.  There  are 
many  of  these,  especially  cod  and 
herring,  in  the  shallow  waters  near  the 
coast.  More  than  a  hundred  thousand 
Norwegians  are  engaged  in  the  fishing 
industry.  Along  the  coast  almost  every 
family  owns  a  boat,  and  often  knows  how 
to  make  one  as  well  as  how  to  use  it. 
While  the  men  are  at  sea,  the  women 
work  the  small  farms  or  garden  patches. 

Some  valuable  minerals  are  found  in 
Scandinavia,  especially  iron  in  Sweden. 
Mining  and  There  is  also  some  silver 
manufacturing  ^nd  copper,  but  no  coal. 
The  mountain  streams,  however,  furnish 


much  water  power,  some  of  which  is 
used  in  manufacturing.  Most  of  the 
manufacturing  is  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  peninsula,  where  it  is  easy  to  im- 
port coal  for  fuel. 

On  the  map  you  will  notice  that  the  coast 
of  Scandinavia  is  very  irregular,  especially  in 
Norway.     Here  the  sea  enters  the  deep  moun- 
tain valleys,  forming   _ 
1  J   7  o   Scenery 

long,   narrow    bays, 

with  steep  walls.  Some  of  these 
inlets,  called  fiords  (Fig.  534), 
reach  many  miles  into  the  land. 
They  make  excellent  harbors  and 
form  some  of  the  grandest  scenery 
in  Europe. 

The  cliffs  are  often  only  barren 
rock ;  but  here  and  there,  where 
the  slopes  are  not  too  steep,  green 
forests  cover  the  surface.  Glaciers 
are  often  in  sight;  and  waterfalls 
abound  on  every  hand.  In  some 
places  the  swollen  streams  from 
the  mountains  plunge  downward 
for  a  thousand  feet  or  more,  over 
the  nearly  vertical  cliffs  that  in- 
close the  fiords.  ."^ 

Here  and  there,  upon  a  level 
patch,  a  group  of  fishermen's 
homes  is  seen.  These  are  usually 
upon  the  deltas  of  small  streams, 
and  are  connected  with  the  outer  world  by  no 
road  or  pathway  except  the  waters  of  the  fiord. 
Thus  cut  off  from  others,  each  man  must  learn 
to  do  many  things,  —  farm,  fish,  tan  his  leather, 
make  his  shoes,  build  his  boat,  his  house,  etc. 
Many  tourists  go  up  the  coast  of  Norway 
every  summer  in  order  to  enjoy  the  scenery  of 
the  fiords,  and  to  see  the  great  glaciers  that  de- 
scend from  the  high  mountains.  The  tourist 
steamers  cross  the  Arctic  Circle  and  go  as  far 
as  North  Cape,  where  in  summer  one  is  able  to 
see  the  midnight  sun  (Fig.  535).  During  sev- 
eral weeks  of  summer,  the  sun  circles  around 
the  heavens  and  does  not  set  even  in  the  middle 
of  the  night.  For  this  reason  the  northern 
part  of  the  peninsula  is  sometimes  called  "  the 
land  of  the  midnight  sun." 

The  fiords  of  Norway  and  the   pro- 
tected bays  of  Sweden  form  excellent 


390 


EUROPE 


harbors,  and  the  Scandinavian  people 
have  become  skillful  sailors.  In  fact,  in 
Transporta-  some  of  the  Nor- 
tion  of  goods  wegian  fiords 
the  only  way  to  get  from 
one  point  to  another  is  by 
boat.  The  need  of  obtain- 
ing fish  for  food  has  helped 
also  to  make  the  people  skill- 
ful in  handling  vessels,  while 
the  abundance  of  lumber 
has  made  it  possible  to  build 
them  very  cheaply. 

Largely  for  these  reasons, 
the  Norwegians  and  Swedes 
are  extensively  engaged    in 
shipping.     They  build  boats, 
and  man  them  with  sailors 
for  use  in  fishing  and  in  carrying  goods. 
Navigation  is  one  of  their  leading  in- 
dustries, especially  the  carrying  of  goods 
for  people  of  other  countries. 


canal,  or  rail  with  the  chief  points  of  the 
country.     Gothenburg,  also  a  seaport, 


"     '     '-'"'      ■ 

^^^^Ei^^ 

1^ 

^ll^'-^^ 

Fig.  536.  —  A  view  of  Stockholm. 


The 


chief  cities  are  in  the  south. 
Chief  cities  Stockholm,  the  largest,  is 
and  the  capital  of  Sweden.     It 

government      j^  beautifully  situated  on  an 
excellent  harbor  and  is  connected  by  lake, 


Fig.  535.  —  The  midnight  sun  at  North  Cape,  the  northmost  point  in  Norway. 

is    the   second   largest   city  in   Sweden. 

Locate  each  of  these  cities. 

Christiania,  the  capital  and  principal 

city  of  Norway,  is  situated  at  the  head 
of  a  long,  narrow  fiord  which 
makes  an  excellent  harbor. 
Bergen,  the  second  city  in 
size  in  Norway,  is  an  im- 
portant fishing  port. 

For  a  long  time  Norway 
and  Sweden  were  united 
under  the  same  king,  but  a 
few  years  ago  they  separated. 
Now  each  is  a  limited  mon- 
archy with  its  own  king. 


1.  Why  are  these  countries 
thinly  settled  ?  2.  Describe  the 
mountains.  3.  How  Review 
are  the  Scandina-  Questions 
vian  people  related  to  us  ? 
4.  Tell  about  their  agriculture,  lumbering,  and 
fishing.  5.  Mining  and  manufacturing.  6. 
Describe  the  scenery  of  the  fiords.  7.  What 
do  people  see  at  North  Cape  ?  8.  Why  is 
transportation  of  goods  so  important  ?  9.  Name 
and  locate  the  chief  cities  of  Sweden.     10.   Of 


THE  LESSER  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


391 


Norway.  11.  What  is  the  kind  of  govern- 
ment ? 

1.   Sketch  the  peninsula.     Put  in  the  prin- 
cipal  cities,   and    North   Cape.      2.    What    is 
the    latitude    of    North    Cape? 
Suggestions       3     -g^^^^    Norway.      4.    Bound 

Sweden.  5.  Why  should  Bergen  be  one  of  the 
rainiest  cities  of  Europe  ?  6.  Give  reasons  why 
harbors  on  the  Baltic  are  blocked  by  ice  much 
oftener  than  those  on  the  western  coast  of 
Norway.  7.  Find  out  about  the  early  Norse  ex- 
plorations of  North  America.  8.  Read  and  tell 
stories  of  the  Norse  gods  in  oldtime  mythology. 
9.  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Scandinavian  penin- 
sula, and. show  the  boundary  line  between  the 
two  countries. 

2.   Denmark  (Fig.  517) 

1.    Locate   Denmark ;  point  out  the  islands 

that  form   a   part   of  the  country.     2.    At  the 

entrance  to  what  sea  does  Den- 
Map  study         ^^^^^   j.^  ^p.g    ^gQ^^     3    pj^^ 

does  Denmark  compare  in  size  with  Maine  ? 
In  population  ?  (See  Appendix.)  4.  Locate 
the  Faroe  Islands.     5.    Iceland. 


Fig.  5;i7.  —  A  scene  in  Copenhagen. 

Just  south  of  Scandinavia  is  a  small 
peninsula  called  Jutland.  On  its  north- 
Its  relation  to  ^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  little  Country 
Scandinavia  of  Denmark,  which  also  in- 
cludes several  small  islands  near  the 
mainland.     The  people  of  Denmark  are 


closely  related  to  the  Scandinavians  in 
language  and  customs,  and  at  one  time 
were  united  with  them  in  one  nation. 
In  fact,  these  three  countries,  Norway, 
Sweden  and  Denmark,  are  often  called 
the  Horse  nations,  or  the  countries  of 
the  Norsemen,  or  Northmen. 

Denmark  is  quite  unlike  Scandinavia 
in  one  respect ;  it  has  no  mountains. 
Everywhere  the   surface   is  surface 

low,   and   much   of   the  land   features  and 
is  either  sandy  or  swampy.  <^^™**« 

The  climate  is  quite  like  that  of  south- 
ern Sweden,  but  is  a  little  milder  be- 
cause Denmark  lies  farther  out  in  the 
ocean,  and  there  is  water  on  almost  all 
sides.     There  is  plenty  of  rain  for  crops. 

Farming,  especially    dairying,  is   the 

chief  industry  of  Denmark.    In  this  small 

country  there  are  more  than  one  and  a 

half  millions  of  dairy  cows  and  about  half 

as  many  sheep,  industries 

besides     large    l-    Agriculture 

numbers  of  horses,  goats, 
and  pigs.  Butter  forms  one 
half  the  exports. 

Since  the  country  is  sur- 
rounded by  salt  water,  there 
is  much   fishing,  2.   Fishing 

but  the  fisheries  of   ■°<^  commerce 

Denmark  are  of  much  less 
value  than  those  of  Scandin- 
avia. The  Danes  have  ex- 
tensive commerce,  and  some 
of  the  men  serve  as  sailors 
on  the  ships  of  other  nations. 
There  is  neither  coal  nor 
metal  in  the  rocks  of  Denmark,  so  that 
there  is  no  mining  in  the  3.  Mining  and 
country.  The  only  mineral  manufacturing 
product  of  value  is  clay.  As  in  Ireland 
the  lack  of  coal  for  fuel  is  partly  met  by 
peat  from  bogs  and  swamps. 


892 


EUROPE 


Tn  spite  of  their  lack  of  raw  materials 
the  Danes  have  much  manufacturing. 
They  make  machinery,  ships,  beautiful 
porcelain,  and  many  other  articles. 
They  are  a  highly  educated  people  and 
very  industrious.  The  fact  that  Den- 
mark lies  on  one  of  the  leading  highways 
of  European  commerce  has  helped 
greatly  in  the  progress  of  the  Danes,  for 
it  has  brought  them  into  close  contact 
with  the  rest  of  the  world. 

The  coast  of  Denmark  is  so  low,  and 
so  shut  in  by  sand  bars,  that  good  har- 
Chiefcity;  bors  are  lacking.  In  fact, 
government  the  only  harbor  that  admits 
large  vessels  is  Copenhagen  (meaning 
merchants'  harbor),  on  Seeland  Island. 
Since  this  point  guards  the  entrance  to 
the  Baltic  Sea,  Copenhagen  has  become 
an  important  city.  It  is  both  the  larg- 
est city  and  the  capital  of  the  country, 
which  is  a  limited  monarchy. 

The  daring  sailors  living  here  in  early  times, 
called  Norsemen,  explored  many  lands,  and  had 
.  colonies    even   before   the  other 

countries  of  Europe.  When  Nor- 
way and  Denmark  separated,  these  colonies  re- 
mained a  part  of  Denmark.  Although  some 
of  them  have  been  lost,  Greenland  (p.  261)  and 
the  Faroe  Islands  are  still  Danish  colonies, 
and  Iceland  is  a  Danish  dependency.  The 
Faroes,  are  a  group  of  small  islands  north  of 
Scotland.  Denmark  owns  also  three  islands  in 
the  West  Indies  —  St.  Croix,  St.  Thomas,  and 
St.  John. 

Iceland,  which  is  larger  than  Ireland,  and 
more  than  twice  as  large  as  Deninark,  is  an  island 
having  more  than  a  hundred  volcanoes,  the  most 
noted  of  which  is  Mount  Hekla.  Destructive 
volcanic  eruptions  and  earthquakes  are  common, 
and  there  are  also  geysers  similar  to  those  found 
in  our  Yellowstone  National  Park.  The  in- 
terior is  a  desert  plateau,  in  part  covered  by 
glaciers,  and  hence  not  inhabited.  Near  the 
sea,  however,  there  is  some  good  pasture  land, 
and  here  the  people  are  engaged  in  raising  sheep 
as  well  as  in  fishing.     Eider  down,  from  the 


eider  duck,  is  one  of  the  important  products  of ; 
the  island.     The  people  are   highly  educated. 
What  is  the  capital  of  Iceland  ? 

1.  What  is  the  relation  of  Denmark  to  Nor- 
way and  Sweden  ?  2.  What  are  the  surface 
features  ?  3.  How  does  the 
climate    compare   with   that    of 


Review 
Questions 


Sweden  ?  4.  What  are  the  agri- 
cultural products  ?  5.  State  the  chief  facts 
about  the  other  industries.  6.  Name  and  lo- 
cate the  capital.     State  the  kind  of  government. 

7.  Name  and  locate  the  colonies  of  Denmark. 

8,  State  the  principal  facts  about  Iceland. 

1.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  Denmark.     2.  What 
part  of  North  America  is  in  the  same  latitude 
as  Denmark  ?     3.    Hans   Christ- 
ian  Andersen  was   a   native   of 
Denmark.     What   fairy    stories  do  you   know 
that  were  written  by  him  ? 

3.   The  Netherlands  (Fig.  479) 

1.  Compare  the  area  of  the  Netherlands 
with  that  of  Denmark.  With  that  of  the  State 
of  Maryland.  2.  What  large 
river  crosses  the  Netherlands  ? 
Through  what  countries  does  it  flow  ?  3.  What 
countries  border  the  Netherlands  ?  4.  What 
sea  lies  west  of  this  countrv  ? 


NORTH 


iLesa  than  S&feet  above  Sea  level 
\0ver3b/eet 


Fig.  538.  —  Map  to  show  the  portion  of  the  Netherlands 
that  is  below  sea  level. 

This    little    country   is    often    called 
Holland  ;  but  the  nature  of  the  country 


THE  LESSER  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


393 


Fig.  540.  —  A  Dutch  "windmill,  u.sed  for  pumping  the  water  from  the 
low  lauds  behind  the  dikes. 


is  more  clearly  shown  in  its  other  name, 
Nature  of  "^he  Netherlands,  which 
the  country  means  low  lands  (Fig.  538). 
There  is  some  hilly  land  in  the  eastern 
and    southern    parts,  but    most   of    the 


country  is  a  low  plain,  partly  the 
delta  of  the  Rhine  River.  In- 
deed, much  of  it  is  even  lower 
than  the  surface  of  the  sea,  and 
in  some  places  the  country  is  as 
much  as  fifteen  feet  below  sea 
level.  If  there  were  no  protection 
against  the  sea  and  the  river, 
about  one  half  of  the  country 
would  be  under  water  at  times. 

In  order  to  live  on  this  very  low 
part,  the  inhabitants  have  built  em- 
bankments, called  dikes,  to  keep  the 
sea  ont,  and  have  dug  canals  to  drain 
the  land.  The  water  that  collects  in- 
side the  dikes  is  pumped  out  by  wind- 
mills (Fig.  540),  or  by  steam.  Canals 
extend  in  all  directions,  and  furnish 
excellent  highways  for  travel.  They 
are,  in  fact,  among  the  most  important 
highways  (Fig.  589),  being  used  in 
summer  for  boats,  and  in  winter  for 
skating  and  sledding. 

The  damp,  level  land  is  well  suited  to 
agriculture,  and  this  is  the  principal  in- 
dustry.     The  leading  farm    . 

T  '^  .         ^     ,  Agnculture 

products  are  grams,  such  as 

rye,  oats,  wheat,  barley,  and  buckwheat. 


Fig.  541.  —  A  Dutch  scene.    Cattle  feeding  in  the  rich  pastures  of  Holland. 


394 


EUROPE 


Potatoes,  sugar  beets,  beans,  peas,  and 
flax  are  also  grown.  There  are  many 
gardens,  including  flower  gardens  where 
bulbs  are  raised.  The  Dutch  raise  such 
excellent  bulbs  that  they  are  sold  over 
all  the  world. 

More  land  is  devoted  to  pasture  (Fig. 
541)  than  to  all  these  crops.  This  is 
largely  because  the  moisture 
in  the  lowlands  aids  in  the 
growth  of  excellent  grass. 
Cattle,  hogs,  sheep,  and  horses 
are  raised  in  great  numbers ; 
but  cattle  raising  and  dairy- 
ing are  the  most  important 
industries.  The  dairy  prod- 
ucts, especially  butter  and 
cheese,  are  shipped  to  other 
countries. 

Both  the   Zuider  Zee  and 
the    North     Sea, 
near     at     hand, 
contain  many  food  fish  ;  and 
this  has  made  fishing  an  im- 
portant Dutch  industry. 

In  so  level  a  country  there 
can  be  little  water  power ; 
Manufac-  and  there  is  no 
turing  coal,    and    little 

other  mineral  wealth.  One 
might  not,  therefore,  expect 
to  find  much  manufacturing. 
There  is,  however,  an  abun- 
dance of  coal  near  by,  in  Belgium,  Ger- 
many, and  England.  And,  since  the 
Dutch  people  require  quantities  of  cloth, 
shoes,  machinery,  and  other  manufac- 
tured articles,  they  import  both  coal 
and  some  of  the  raw  materials  in  order 
to  manufacture  for  themselves. 

The  Hollanders,  or  Dutch,  as  they 
are  usually  called,  have  been  great  ex- 
plorers.    They  once  had   possession   of 


the  Hudson  Valley,  even  the  part  where 
New  York  City  now  stands  ;  and  they 
still  own  some  of  the  richest  Navigation 
islands  in  the  East  Indies,  and  commerce 
What  part  of  South  America  belongs  to 
The  Netherlands?  The  Dutch  have 
much  commerce  with  their  colonies,  as 
well  as  with  other  parts  of  the  world. 


Fig.  542.  —  A  canal  iu  the  city  of  Amsterdam. 

In  their  commerce  they  are  aided  greatly 
by  the  rivers  and  the  many  canals,  which 
cross  the  country  in  every  direction  and 
offer  a  cheap  means  of  transportation. 
The  most  important  interior  waterway 
is  the  Rhine  River,  which  is  navigable 
entirely  across  Germany.  Therefore, 
much  of  the  trade  of  Central  Europe 
with  America  and  other  parts  of  the 
world,  is  carried  on  through  Holland. 


THE  LESSEE  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


395 


Principal  cities 

Baltimore. 


Amsterdam  and  Rotterdam  are  the 
two  principal  cities.  The  former,  the 
largest  city  in  The  Nether- 
lands, is  about  the  size  of 
It  is  connected  with  the  ocean 
by  canal,  and  is  noted  for  its  shipping, 
manufacturing,  and  diamond  cutting. 
The  kings  of  Holland  are  crowned  at 
Amsterdam,  although  they  live  at  The 
Hague,  where  the  government  buildings 
are  situated.  The  government  is  a  limited 
monarchy. 

Rotterdam,  next  to  Amsterdam  in 
size,  is  the  chief  seaport  of  The  Nether- 
lands. Its  location,  near  the  mouth  of 
the  Rhine,  makes  it  one  of  the  principal 


Suggestions 


the  colonies  ?     7.    What  facts  favor  commerce  ? 
8.   Name  and  locate  the  principal  cities. 

1.  Find  out  something  aboutthe  Dutch  flower 
gardens,  where  bulbs  are  raised.  2.  Find  out 
why  the  Pilgrims  went  to  Hol- 
land before  coming  to  America  ? 
3.  What  reasons  are  there  for  selecting  so  small 
a  country  as  The  Netherlands  for  the  peace  con- 
ferences held  at  The  Hague  ?  4.  Tell  what 
you  would  expect  to  see  in  crossing  Holland 
on  a  train  ?  5.  What  would  result,  if  a  dike 
were  to  give  way  ?  6.  Who  is  the  present 
monarch  ? 

4.    Belgium  (Fig.  479) 


1.    How   does 
with  Maryland  ? 


Fig.  543.  — A  view  in  the  hilly  southern  portion  of  Belgium. 

ports  for  entrance  to  the  interior  of  the 
continent.  This  is  why  Rotterdam  is 
the  European  terminus  for  some  of  the 
important  steamship  lines  from  New 
York  and  other  parts  of  the  world. 

1.   What   is   the    nature    of    the    country  ? 

2.    How    has    its   condition   been    improved? 

.  3.  What  are  the  chief  agricultural 

r,    ^  X-  products  ?  4.    Tell  about  fishing. 

Questions  ^  .f     ^x^    ■  .  ^o 

5.    Account  for  the  importance  of 

manufacturing.     6.   What  can  you  tell  about 


Belgium    compare    in    area 
With  Maine  ? 
2.   What   countries   border    Bel- 
gium ?     3.   Draw  an  outline  map  of  Belgium. 
4.   Does  any  part  of  the  United 
States  reach  as  far  north  as  the 
latitude  of  southern  Belgium  ? 

Holland  is  smaller  than 
Denmark,  but  Belgium  is 
even  smaller  Area  and 
than  Holland.  Papulation 
Yet  it  contains  more  people 
than  The  Netherlands,  and 
is,  in  fact,  the  most  densely 
settled  country  in  Europe. 
Find  its  area  and  population 
in  the  Appendix,  and  com- 
pare it  in  these  respects 
with  your  own  State. 

Belgium,  together  with 
parts  of  France  and  The  Netherlands, 
once  formed  the  country  of 
Flanders,  and  nearly  half 
the  Belgian  people  still  speak  the  Flem- 
ish language.  Since  1830,  Belgium  has 
been  an  independent  country,  and  the 
present  form  of  government  is  a  limited 
monarchy. 

The  northern  part  of  Belgium  is  a  low. 
plain,  but  the  southern  half  is  much 
higher,  and  in  places  is  hilly  (Fig.  543). 


396 


EUROPE 


Agriculture 


Most  of  the  kingdom  is 
well  suited  to  agriculture, 

andmorethan 

half  the  in- 
habitants are  engaged  in 
that  occupation.  The 
chief  products  besides  live 
stock  are  grain,  flax,  hemp, 
fruit,  and  sugar  beets. 
Among  the  farm  animals, 
the  Flemish  horses  are 
especially  noted  for  their 
great  size  and  strength. 

In  Belgium  the  method  of 
farming  is  very  different  from 
that  in    the    United    States. 
Instead  of  farms  of  from  one 
hundred   to   several  thousand 
acres,  as  in   our  country,  the    Belgian   farms 
usually  contain  not  more  than  two  or  three  acres. 
To  a  large  extent,  spading  takes  the  place  of  plow- 
ing ;  and  such  hand  labor,  guided  by  the  experi- 
ence of  many  generations,  secures  large  crops  of 
the  best  quality.  In  spite  of  such  careful  cultiva- 
tion of  the  soil,  however,   there   are  so   many 


Fig.  545.  —  A  Belgian  woman  working  at  the  spinning 
wheel.    There  is  much  of  this  hand  work  in  Belgium. 


Mining 


Fig.  544. —  Women  in  Belgium  taking  milk  to  market  in  a  cart  drawn  by  dogs. 

people  in  Belgium  that  much  food  has  to  be 
imported. 

In  the  hilly  southern  part  of  Belgium 
there  are  valuable  minerals,  especially 
coal  and  iron.  And,  as  in 
England,  these  two  minerals 
occur  near  together.  Lead,  zinc,  and 
silver  are  also  found  here;  and  there  is 
much  quarrying  of  marble  and  other 
building  stones.  More  than  on^findred 
thousand  meft  are  engaged  in  miiffiti;ga;.and 
coal  is  one  of  the  leading  exports. 

The  northwest  slope  of  the  hilly  re- 
gion is  one  of  the  world's  busiest  indus- 
trial regions.  As  in  Eng-  Manufac- 
land,  the  most  important  tunng 
kinds  of  manufacturing  are  cotton,  wool, 
and  iron  and  steel.  Linen  and  glass  also 
are  made.  The  country  is  so  small,  and 
there  are  so  many  waterways  and  rail- 
ways, that  coal  can  be  carried  cheaply  to 
all  sections.  Manufacturing,  therefore. 
is  carried  on  in  all  parts  of  the  kingdom, 
although  coal  is  found  only  in  the  south. 
As  a  great  manufacturing  country  Bel- 


THE  LESSEE   POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


397 


gium  may  be  compared  with  Germany 

and  Great  Britian. 

Like  Holland,  Belgimn  is  a  gateway 

to   and    from    the    interior  of    Europe. 

There  is  no  large  river,  like  the  Rhine, 

but  two  smaller  streams,  ris- 
Cominerce  .        .      -,^  •11 

mg  m  ]^ ranee,  are  navigable 

for  some  distance  across  the  plain.  There 

is  also    an  extensive   system  of  canals. 


Brussels,  the  capital  and  the  largest 
city,  is  situated  in  the  center  of  the  king- 
dom.    The    name   Brussels  ^ .    .    , 

„  ,      .        Principal  cities 
carjjets  suggests  one  01  its  m- 

'dustries ;  but  carriages  and  lace  are  at 
present  among  its  most  important  man- 
ufactures. It  is  a  beautiful  city,  with 
many  picture  galleries,  museums,  and 
public  buildings. 


Fig.  546.  —  Some  of  the  quaint  houses  of  Ghent  facing 

Besides  these  waterways,  Belgium  has 
more  miles  of  railway,  for  its  size,  than 
any  other  country.  Partly  for  these 
reasons  the  transportation  of  goods  is 
one  of  the  leading  industries. 

The  Belgians  do  not  possess  such  valuable 
colonies  as  do  the  Dutch,  but  they  haA'e  been 
prominent  in  African  exploration.  It  was  the 
Belgian  king  who  sent  Stanley  to  Africa,  and 
the  Congo  State  is  a  Belgian  colony. 


lie  (if  the  canals  on  the  low  plain  of  northern  Belgium. 

Antwerp,  next  in  size,  is  about  sixty 
miles  from  the  sea,  on  the  broad 
lower  course  of  the  small  Scheldt  River. 
Some  of  the  great  steamship  lines 
from  New  York  have  their  European 
terminus  here,  and  the  port  is  one  of 
the  busiest  in  Europe.  The  leading 
kinds  of  manufacturing  are  sugar  re- 
fining, distilling,  lace  making,  and  ship 
buildino;. 


898 


EUROPE 


Suggestions 


Many  other  cities  and  towns  are  important 
manufacturing  centers.  The  largest  are  Liege, 
the  "  Birmingham  of  Belgium,"  engaged  in  the 
manufacture  of  firearms,  cutlery,  glass,  and  va- 
rious kinds  of  machinery ;  and  Ghent  (Fig.  546), 
noted  for  linen  and  cotton  goods,  and  for  ma-- 
chinery. 

1.   What  about  the   size   of  this   country  ? 
2.    What  was  Flanders  ?     3.    What  is  the  kind 
of  government  ?    4.  What  crops 
Review  .^^^  raised?      5.    What    is    the 

Questions  condition  of  agriculture  ?     6.  Of 

mining  ?  7.  What  can  you  say  about  manu- 
facturing ?  8.  How  is  commerce  favored  ? 
9.  What  colony  has  Belgium  ?  10.  Locate 
and  state  important  facts  about  the  principal 
cities. 

1.  Towns  in  Belgium  are  often  known  by 
two  names.  Why  ?  2.  Figure  out  the  num- 
ber of  persons  per  square  mile 
(See  Appendix),  in  Belgium  and 
compare  it  with  the  number  in  New  York, 
or  in  your  own  State.  3.  Find  out  some  facts 
about  the  battle  of  Waterloo,  which  was 
fought  in  Belgium.  From  what  material  is 
lace  made,  and  how  is  the  work  done? 
5.  Sketch  The  Netherlands  and  Belgium  to- 
gether, putting  in  the  chief  cities.  6.  Make  a 
sand  map  of  them,  showing  elevation  of  the 
land,  and  the  position  of  some  of  the  dikes. 


5.    Spain  and  Portugal  (Fig.  493) 

1.  What  cities  in  the  New  World  are  in  about 

the   same   latitude   as   Madrid  (Fig.   493)  ?  2. 

Compare  the  area  of  the  Spanish 

^      peninsula  with  that  of  France  (See 

Appendix) ;   the  population.     4.    Compare   the 

directions    taken    by    the    rivers     (Fig.   452). 

5.  What  mountains  are  on  the  eastern  border  ? 

6.  What  plateaus  and  what  mountains  do 
you  find  in  the  Spanish  peninsula?  (See  Fig. 
452.)  7.  What  islands  in  the  Mediterranean 
Sea  belong  to  Spain  ? 

There  are  several  important  facts  that 
have  prevented  Spain  from  holding  a 
high  rank  among  the  nations  of  Europe. 
One  of  these  is  that  a  large  part  of  the 
Spanish  peninsula  is  too  mountainous 
and  rugged  for  agriculture.     Most  of  it 


is  a  plateau,  or  table-land,  a  half  mile  or 
more  above  the  level   of   the  sea;  and 
this    is    crossed    by    several  R^^^^^g^j^y 
mountain      ranges.         The  Spain  is  not 
Pyrenees,      which      extend  --/;^;^^^ 
along  the  northern   border,  i.    Mountains 
are    lofty    mountains;    but  ^'id plateaus 
a  range    on    the    southern   side,    called 
the  Sierra  Nevada,  is  even  higher.      It 
has  peaks  almost  as  high  as  those  of  the 
Alps.       Only  along  the  coast,  and  in  a 
few  of  the  river  valleys,    is  there  much 
low  land.     Name  and  trace  the  principal 
rivers. 

The  peninsula  lies  so  far  south  that 
its  climate  might  be  expected  to  be  warm 
like  that  of  Italy  ;  but  w^hile 

,  '^   '     -  .  2.     Climate 

there  are  some  small  sections 
low    enough    to   have  a  warm    climate, 
most  of  the  peninsula  is  so  elevated  that 
its  winter  climate  is  cool. 

Lack  of  rain  is  another  serious  draw- 
back. The  Spanish  peninsula  lies  south 
of  the  belt  of  west  winds,  so  that 
vapor  is  not  brought  from  the  ocean  as 
freely  as  it  is  in  the  countries  farther 
north.  Much  of  the  land,  therefore,  is 
arid ;  only  along  the  northern  and  west- 
ern coasts,  including  much  of  Portugal, 
is  there  enough  rainfall  for  agriculture. 

The    people   of    Spain   and    Portugal 
have    not    been    progressive   in   recent 
times,  which  is  the  greatest  3    Backward- 
disadvantage.      At  the  time  nessofthe 
of  Columbus  they  were  lead-  ^®°^  * 
ers  in  exploring  the  world  ;  but  since  then 
they  have  been  very  slow  to  advance. 
They    have   lost    most   of    their   many 
colonies,  chiefly  because   their  methods 
of  government  were    old-fashioned   and 
cruel.      Partly  for  this  reason  these  na- 
tions have  become  of  less  and  less  impor- 
tance.    While  England,  France,  and  Ger- 


THE  LESSER   POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


399 


many  have  gone  steadily  forward,  Spain 
and  Portugal  have  fallen  far  behind. 


Government 


Grazing 


Fig.  547.  —  A  village  on  tlie  plateau  of  Spain. 

Spain  is  a  limited  monarchy,  and  so 
was  Portugal  until  very  recently.  In 
1910,  however,  the  king  of 
Portugal  was  expelled  from 
the  country,  and  a  republic  was  estab- 
lished. 

Grazing  is  the  principal  industry  on 
the  arid  plateau  and  on  the  mountain 
sides.  Cattle, 
sheep,  goats, 
liorses,  and  mules  are  raised 
there.  The  sheep  often 
wander  about  in  large  flocks, 
sometimes  as  many  as  ten 
thousand  together,  under  the 
care  of  a  number  of  shepherds 
and  their  dogs.  In  summer 
they  feed  among  the  moun- 
tains, but  in  winter  they  are 
driven  down  to  the  more  pro- 
tected lowlands  for  shelter. 

There  is  farming  in  the 
Agricultural  ^ainy  section,  and 
products  wherever       the       mountain 

streams  make  irrigation  possible.     For 


centuries  the  Spaniards  have  made  use 
of  irrigation,  and  they  introduced  it 
into  the  New  World.  The 
chief  crops  are  wheat,  corn, 
and  other  grains.  Quanti- 
ties of  grapes  are  raised  in 
Spain  and  Portugal. 

The   arid   southeastern   coast 
is  very  productive.     One  reason 
for  this  is  the  warm  climate,  due 
to  the   Mediterranean  (p.  368) ; 
another  is  the  number  of  moun- 
tain streams,  which  supply  water 
for  irrigation.     Some  of  the  prod- 
ucts   of    this     section,     besides 
wheat    and    corn,     are     cotton, 
grapes,  olives,  figs,  dates,  oranges, 
lemons,  and  rice.     Yet  this  part 
of  Spain  is  in  the  same  latitude 
as  Virginia. 
A  peculiar  product  of  the  southern  part  of 
the  peninsula  is  cork,  which  is  obtained  from 
the  bark  of  a  tree,  called  the  cork  oak.     Much 
cork  is  exported. 


The  Spanish  peninsula  is  remarkably 
rich     in     minerals,  —  lead, 
silver,    copper,    and    quick- 
silver, or  mercury,  being  among  the  most 


Mining 


Fig.  548.- 


-A  Spanish  peasant  bringing  vegetables  to  market  in  bis 
donkey  cart. 

valuable.     Spain   produces  more  quick- 
silver than  any  other  country,  and  the 


400 


EUROPE 


Manufac- 
turing and 
commerce 


United  States  is  the  only  country  that 
produces  more  copper  and  lead.  Coal 
and  iron  ore  are  also  found  in  several 
parts  of  the  peninsula,  but  the  coal  is  of 
no  great  value.  The  iron,  which  is 
found  mainly  on  the  northern  slope  of 
the  Cantabrian  Mountains,  occurs  in 
large  beds,  and  is  very  valuable. 

There  is  little  manufacturing  in  either 
Spain  or  Portugal,  though  there  is  some 
in  the  cities.  Even  most  of 
the  iron  ore  is  sent  to  other 
countries  to  be  smelted.  One 
reason  for  the  small 
amount  of  manufac- 
turing is  that  the  peo- 
ple are  very  backward. 
This  is  well  shown  by 
the  fact  that  two  thirds 
of  the  Spaniards,  and 
three  fourths  of  the 
Portuguese,  cannot 
read. 

Neither  Spain  nor 
Portugal  has  much 
commerce,  though 
they  were  once  among 
the  leading  commer- 
cial nations  of  the 
world.  One  might  in- 
fer that  the  Spanish 
peninsula  would  have 
great  commerce,  since  it  lies  between 
the  two  busiest  seas  in  the  world.  The 
backwardness  of  the  people  is  one  reason 
for  the  lack  of  commerce ;  and  another 
is  the  nature  of  the  country.  The 
mountains  and  plateaus  s6rve  as  barriers 
totravel,  and  tend  to  separate  the  two 
seas  instead  of  connecting  them. 

There  are  not  man-y  railroads,  and  the  rivers 
are  of  little  use  in  transportation.'  Most  of  the 
rivers  have  too  little  water  for  navigation,  and 


as  they  descend  from  the  plateau  their  courses 
are  too  rapid.  Many  of  them  flow  in  deep, 
narrow  valleys,  like  our  Western  canyons,  so 
that  they  are  a  hindrance  to  travel  instead  of 
an  aid.  The  principal  exception  is  the  Guadal- 
quivir (meaning  Great  River),  which  has  a  wide 
valley.  Boats  can  go  up  this  river  as  far  as 
Seville. 

Madrid,  the  capital  and  the  largest  city 
of  Spain,  has  more  than  a  half  million 
inhabitants;  but  unlike  most  principal  cities 
other  large  cities  so  far  stud-  of  Spain 
ied,  it  is  not  an  important  ^-  M*<^"<i 
manufacturing  center.  The  reasons  for 
its  size  are  its  central 
location  and  the  fact 
that  it  is  the  seat  of 
the  government.  All 
the  principal  railway 
lines  crossing  the  pen- 
insula to  connect  the 
coastal  cities  converge 
at  this  point. 


Fig.  541). 


Country  people,  or  i)e;i.saiil 
in  native  costume. 


>i  Spain 


Madrid,  with  its  wide 
streets,  magnificent  royal 
palace,  and  one  of  the 
finest  art  galleries  in  the 
world,  is  a  very  attractive 
city.  The  surrounding 
country,  however,  is  far 
from  attractive;  for  from 
the  streets  of  Madrid  one 
looks  across  the  country 
for  miles  and  miles,  seeing 
not  a  tree,  or  fence,  or  house ;  only  the  weeds 
and  scattered  vegetation  of  an  arid  waste.  One 
of  the  most  frequented  places  in  Madrid  is  an 
enormous  building,  with  seats  for  many  thou- 
sands, in  which  bullfighting  takes  place  (Fig. 
550).  This  brutal  sport  is  enjoyed  by  most  of 
the  Spaniards  as  is  a  baseball  or  football  game 
by  people  in  our  country. 

Another  place  of  note  among  the  high- 
lands of  Spain  is  Giianada,  2.   cities  in 

the    last    stronghold     of     the    southern  Spain 

Moors, -wh.o  invaded  Spain  from  Africa, 


THE  LESSER   POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


401 


centuries  ago.  Granada  is  now  a  small 
and  unimportant  city,  and  its  principal 
attraction  is  the  Moorish  palace,  or 
Alhambra  (Fig.  551),  one  of  the  finest 
examples  of  Moorish  architecture. 


manufacturing  center  as  well.  The  re- 
gion about  Valencia  is  a  beautiful  garden, 
much  like  that  around  Los  Angeles  in 
southern  California.  The  two  regions  are 
much  alike  both  in  climate  and  products. 


Fig.  550.  —  A  bull  fight  watched  by  thousands  of  spectators. 


On  the  lowlands  west  of  Granada  are  Seville 
and  Cadiz,  both  flourishing  cities  in  former 
(lays,  when  vast  stores  of  plunder  were  brought 
from  Spanish  colonies  in  the  New  World. 
('adiz  is  now  a  fortified  naval  harbor;  and 
Seville  is  recovering  some  of  her  former  com- 
mercial importance.  It  has  some  manufactur- 
ing, especially  of  tobacco. 

Malaga,  which  has  one  of  the  warmest  cli- 
mates in  Europe,  is  engaged  in  the  shipment  of 
wine,  raisins,  and  grapes. ,  Of  what  grape  does 
the  name  remind  you  ? 

Barcelona  and  Valencia  are  the  lead- 
ing seaports.     Barcelona,  the 
second  Spanish  city  in  size,  is 
the  most  important  port  and  is  a  textile 

20 


Principal 
seaports 


The  only  remnants  of  her  vast  foreign  pos- 
sessions now  left  to  Spain  are  mainly  in  Africa. 
These  include  a  few  small  settle- 
ments  on  the  coast  of  Morocco ;   g°  ?^®^ 
a  portion  of  the  western  coast  of 
Sahara,  having  little  value ;  and  a  coastal  strip 
on  the  Gulf  of  Guinea,  with  a  few  small  islands 
near   by.     The    Canary   Islands,   west   of    the 
northern  coast  of  Africa,  and  the  Balearic  Isles, 
in  the  Mediterranean,  also  belong  to  Spain. 

Gibraltar,  a  steep  hill,  with  cliffs 
rising  boldly  on  nearly  all  sides,  and 
with  a  town  at  its  base,  has      ^.^    , 

-,      „  Gibraltar 

belonged    to    lingland    tor 

over  two  centuries.     This  hill  of  solid 


402 


EUROPE 


rock  (Fig.  552)  is,  perhaps,  the  strong- 
est fortification  in  the  world,  and  guards 
the  entrance  to  the  Mediterranean. 

Lisbon  and  Oporto  are  the  chief 
cities  of  Portugal.  The  former,  the 
Principal  cities  capital  and  metropolis,  is  a 
of  Portugal  very  beautiful  city.  It  lies 
on  a  broad  bay  where  the  Tagus-  River 
enters  the  sea,  and  has  one  of  the  finest 
of  harbors.  The  lower  part  of  the  Douro 
Valley  is  one  of  the  richest  wine  dis- 
tricts in  Europe ;  and  Oporto  is  an  im- 
portant point  for  its  export. 

Portugal,  like  Spain,  has  lost  much  of  her 
foreign  territory.  The  Azores  Islands,  far  to 
the  west  in  the  Atlantic,  and  the 
Madeira  Islands  to  the  southwest, 
belong  to  this  country.  The 
Cape  Verde  Islands,  off  the  west  coast  of  Africa, 
are  also  dependencies.  In:addition,  Portugal 
has  large  possessions  in  Africa,  and  some 
small  ones  in  Asia. 

1.  What  are  the  surface  features  of  the 
peninsula  ?  2,  What  is  its  climate  ?  3.  How 
has  the  backwardness  of  the 
people  been  a  disadvantage  ? 
4.  What  is  the  form  of  govern- 
ment of  each  country  ?  5.  State  the  main 
facts   about   the   grazing.     6.    Name  the  farm 


Coldnies  of 
Portugal 


Review 
Questions 


Fig.  551.  —  The  Court  of  Lions  in  the  Alhambra. 

products.  7.  What  minerals  are  found  ? 
8.  Why  is  manufacturing  of  so  little  impor- 
tance ?  9.  What  can  you  tell  about  commerce  ? 
10.  Locate  and  state  the  principal  facts  about 
Madrid.     11.   About  cities  in  southern  Spain. 

12.  About   the   principal   seaports   of    Spain. 

13.  Name  and  locate  the  colonies  of   Spain. 


Fig.  552.  —  Tlio  I'ock  of  (iibraltar,  seen  from  the  Si>aiiisli  nuiiiilaiui. 


THE  LESSER  POWERS  OF  .EUROPE 


403 


14.  For  what  is  Gibraltar  important  ?  15.  Lo- 
cate the  principal  cities  of  Portugal,  and  tell 
liow  each  is  important.  16.  What  colonies 
has  Portugal  ? 

1.    About  what  portion  of  the  boundary  line 
between    Spain    and   Portugal   is   formed    by 
rivers  ?     2.    Find  out  what  hap- 
"^^^  pened  when  Portugal  became  a 

1  iepublic.  3.  Look  in  the  report  of  the  Twelfth 
( 'ensus  to  see  what  per  cent  of  our  population 
cannot  read.  4.  Examine  some  quicksilver. 
What  are  some  of  its  uses  ?  5.  Find  out  some- 
thing about  the  Moors,  and  the  Alhambra,  in 
southern  Spain.  6.  Find  pictures  of  Moorish 
architecture.  7.  Read  Washington.  Irving's 
The  Alhambra.  8.  Make  a  sketch  of  the  Span- 
ish peninsula,  including  the  principal  moun- 
tains, rivers,  and  cities.  9.  Make  a  sand  map 
of  the  peninsula. 

6.    Switzerland  (Fig.  517) 

1.    What   countries    surround   Switzerland  ? 

2.    What   mountains  extend  along  the  bound- 

aries  of  Switzerland?     3.   Which 

^  ^  of  the  boundaries  is  least  moun- 
tainous ?  4.  What  large  rivers  rise  among  the 
Alps  ?  In  what  direction  does  each  flow,  and 
into  what  body  of  water  does  it  empty  ? 
.").  How  does  the  area  of  Switzerland  compare 
with  that  of  your  own  State? 

Switzerland  is  the  only  country  of 
Europe,  thus  far  studied,  that  has  no 
Languages  seacoast.  Neither  has  it  a 
and  language  of   its   own.     No- 

government  ^-^^  what  coiuitries  surround 
it.  Although  it  is  very  small,  most  of  the 
inhabitants  of  the  southern  part  speak 
Italian;  those  in  the  western,  French; 
and  those  in  the  northern  and  eastern 
|)arts,  German.  The  most  common  lan- 
guage is  German. 

This  is  one  of  the  four  European  coun- 
tries that  is  not  a  monarchy.  Name 
the  other  three.  The  Swiss  people, 
living  among  the  mountains  where  they 
could  easily  defend  themselves,  or  hide 


from  their  enemies,  declared  themselves 
independent  of  kings  hundreds  of  years 
ago,  and  the  country  has  long  been  a 
republic-  The  republic  consists  of 
twenty-two  small  states,  or  cantons, 
united  somewhat  as  are  our  states. 

The  many  lofty  mountains  seriously 
interfere  with  agriculture  (Fig.  454). 
The  Alps  extend  completely  surface 
across  the  country,  and  the  features 
Jura  Mountains  skirt  the  northwestern 
boundary.  These  mountains  are  so 
rugged  that  few  people  live  among  them, 
except  in  the  valleys.  Between  the 
two  mountain  districts,  however,  is  a 
narrow  plateau  where  the  surface  is 
much  less  rugged.  It  is  here  that  most 
of  the  people  dwell. 

We   have   already   learned   that   the 
climate  of  a  mountainous  country  is  cool, 
and    that    the    temperature  q^^^^^^^ 
is  lower   in   higVi  altitudes,   i.   Tempera- 
At   the   base   of   the   Alps,  *"* 
chestnut    and    walnut    trees    flourish ; 
higher  up,  these  give  place  to  the  beech, 
maple,  and  other  trees  of  the  cool  tem- 
perate zones  ;  and  still  higher  is  a  belt  of 
evergreens.     Above  these  come  dw^arfed 
trees,    shrubs,    and   grass;    and   higher 
still,  at  an  average  elevation  of  about 
nine  thousand   feet,   the    snow    line    is 
reached  (Fig.  553). 

The  lofty  Alps  condense  so  much 
vapor  that  Switzerland  is  one  of  the 
wettest  countries  on  the  continent. 
On  the  higher  mountains  2.  Rainfall 
much  snow  falls ;  and,  slid-  "*^  glaciers 
ing  down  the  mountain  sides  in  the 
form  of  avalanches,  it  gathers  in  the 
valleys  to  produce  streams  of  ice,  or 
glaciers  (Fig.  553).  These  move  slowly 
down  the  valleys  until  they  reach  a 
point,  below  the  snow  line,  where  the 


404 


EUROPE 


ice  melts.  The  Rhone  and  other  rivers 
are  supplied  with  water  by  the  melting 
of  the  Alpine  glaciers, 

Switzerland  is  so  mountainous  that 
only  one  acre  in  nine  is  fit  for  the  plow. 
Yet  agriculture  is  the  lead- 
ing industry  of  the  country. 
Among  the  chief  farm  products  are  grain 
and  potatoes,  raised  mainly  on  the  pla- 
teau.     On   the   lower  lands,  especially 


Agriculture 


snows  melt  from  the  mountain  sides, 
the  goats  and  cattle  are  driven  to  higher 
and  higher  pastures  (Fig.  553).  Such  a 
pasture  is  called  an  alp,  and  this  is  the 
origin  of  the  narue  of  the  range,  the  Alps. 
Where  the  mountain  slopes  are  too 
rugged  for  farming,  there  ^umb  rin 
is  much  forest.  Therefore,  and 
lumber  is  an  important  prod-  ™aJi"fact"nng 
uct  of  the  country. 


Fici.  553.  — Cattle  grazing  in  tlic  mountain  paslui'es  high  up  in  the  Alps  near  the  snow  line. 


near  the  German  border,  there  are  ex- 
tensive vineyards.  There  is  excellent 
pasturage  for  cattle  and  goats  among 
the  mountains,  and  these  animals  are 
raised  there  in  great  numbers  (Fig. 
554).     In   spring  and  summer,  as  the 


Although  there  is  no  good  coal  in 
Switzerland,  the  Swiss  do  a  large  amount 
of  manufacturing.  Among  their  princi- 
pal products  are  wine,  butter,  and  cheese. 
Wood  carving  is  also  an  industry  in 
which  many  of  the  Swiss  find  employ- 


THE  LESSER   POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


405 


Fig.  554.  —  Cattle  on  the  slopes  of  the  Alps. 

ment.  During  the  long  winters,  the 
wood  from  the  mountains  is  shaped  into 
toys,  clocks,  and  other  articles.  Have 
you  ever  seen  a  Swiss  clock  ? 

The  Swiss  have  become  widely  known 
for  their  manufacture  of  textile  goods, 
such  as  lace,  linen,  silk,  and  cotton  goods. 
They  also  make  much  jewelry,  especially 
watches.  In  some  of  this  work,  water 
power  is  used,  for  an  abundance  of  power 
is  supplied  by  the  mountain  streams 
The  Swiss  are  taking  a  leading  place  in 
the  production  of  electricity  by  water 
power,  carrying  it  by  wire  to  distant 
factories. 

Much  of  the  manufacturing,  however, 
is  done  by  hand  in  the  homes  of  the 
workmen,  rather  than  in  large  fac- 
tories. From  these  statements  it  may 
be  seen  that  the  Swiss  people  are  very 
skillful,  progressive,  and  well  educated. 

There  is  so  much,  manufacturing;  that 
the  Swiss  need  to  import  many  raw  ma- 
terials; and  they  must  dis- 

Commerce  .    m     x      j.t     •  r      ^         i 

tribute   their    manuiactured 

products.  This  calls  for  extensive  com- 
merce ;  but  naturally  this  is  not  ocean 
commerce.     Why  ? 


Their  central    posi- 
tion among  European 
countries  is  favorable 
to    inland    commerce, 
and  this  has   become 
highly  developed.     It 
cannot  be  carried    on 
over     interior    water- 
ways, for   the   moun- 
tain   streams   are  too 
swift  and  shallow  for 
navigation.     There  is, 
however,  some  naviga- 
tion on  the  larger  lakes. 
For  their  commerce 
the  Swiss  have  been  obliged  to  depend 
mainly  upon  roads  and  railways.     It  has 
been  no  easy  matter  to  build  such  high- 
ways in  so  mountainous  a  country,  but 


Fig.  555.  —  A  Swiss  peasant  girl  in  native  costume. 


406 


EUROPE 


it  has  been  done.     No  country  in  the 
world    has    better    wagon    roads    than 
Switzerland  ;  and  no  country  has  over- 
come  greater    difficulties 
in  the  building  of  railways. 

Railroads  pierce  the  moun- 
tains in  several  directions, 
connecting  Switzerland  with 
foreign  countries.  One  of  the 
most  important  is  the  St. 
Gothard  Railway,  which  con- 
nects Switzerland  with  Italy 
by  the  St.  Gothard  Tunnel. 
This  is  one  of  the  longest  tun- 
nels in  the  world,  and  is  a 
marvel  of  engineering  skill. 
Before  reaching  the  main  tun- 
nel, in  traveling  north,  several 
smaller  ones  are  entered, 
through  which  the  train  winds 
in  a  spiral  course.  A  passen- 
ger twice  comes  out  of  the 
mountain  almost  directly  over 
the  point  where  he  entered  it. 
There,  far  below  him,  he  can 
see  the  two  places  at  which 
the  train  entered  (Fig.  556). 
Such  winding  tunnels  are  necessary,  because  the 
grade  is  so  steep  that  a  train  could  not  be  drawn 
directly  up  a  straight  track.  The  main  tunnel, 
which  is  nine  and  one  fourth  miles  long,  is  quite 
straight.    The  Simjylon  Tunnel,  even  longer  than 


the  St.  Gothard,  now  pierces  the  Alps  a  short 
distance  farther  west ;  and  a  third  one,  nearly 
five  miles  long,  connecting  with  the  Simplon 
Road,  has  been  completed. 


Fig. 


556.  —  The  St.  Gothard  Railway  ou  the  south  side  of  the  Alps.  Here  are 
three  tracks  one  above  the  other,  for  the  railway  enters  the  mountain 
and  swings  around  in  two  great  circles,  coming  out  each  time  at  a  higher 
level. 


While  the  mountains  have  interfered  with 
the  building  of  roads   and   rail- 
ways, and  with  agriculture,  they  Scenery  and 
are  of  great  value  to  Switzerland 
in  another  way.     They  present   such  wonder- 
ful scenery  that  Switz- 


FiG.  557.- 


■  The  snow-capped  Alps  as  seen  from  Mt.  Pilatus,  with  I^ake  Lucerne 
in  the  foreground. 


erland  is  the  most 
noted  summer  resort 
of  Europe ;  and  the 
entertainment  of  vis- 
itors is  one  of  the 
leading  occupations. 

There  are  so  many 
hotels  and  so  many 
fine  roads,  that  one 
can  easily  go  in  almost 
any  direction.  It  is 
possible  to  reach  even 
the  tops  of  several  of 
the  mountains  by  rail. 
Every  summer  many 
Americans  cross  the 
ocean  to  enjoy  the 
Swiss  scenery. 


THE  LESSER  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


407 


Leading  cities 


Many  of  the  Swiss  cities  and  towns  are 
beautifully  situated  upon  lakes,  and  within 
sight  of  mountain  peaks  always  covered  with 
snow.  Lucerne,  for  example,  is  surrounded 
by  grand  and  varied  scenery.  The  city  is  on 
Lake  Lucerne,  and  lofty  mountains  rise  close  at 
hand  (Fig.  557).  Mounts  Rigi  and  Pilatus  are 
near,  and  from  their  summits  one  obtains  won- 
derful views  of  the  lake,  more  than  four  thousand 
feet  below,  bordered  by  green  meadows  and  nu- 
merous villages.  In  several  directions,  as  far 
as  the  eye  can  reach,  are  the  snow-covered  crests 
of  stupendous,  jagged  mountains. 

'  Zurich,  the  largest  city  in  Switzer- 
land, is  situated  on  Lake  Zurich.  It  is 
an  important  railway  center, 
being  connected  with  Italy 
by  the  St.  Gothard  Railway,  while  other 
railways  bring  it  into  touch  with  France, 
Germany,  and  Austria.  These  railways 
are  especially  valuable,  bringing  foods, 
as  well  as  silk  and  other  raw  materials, 
for  manufacture.  Therefore  Zurich  is 
the  center  of  one  of  the  principal  manu- 
facturing districts.  It  is  noted  for 
the  manufacture  of  silks,  cotton,  choc- 
olate, and  machinery. 

Basel,  the  second  largest  city  in 
Switzerland,  is  the  busiest  railway  cen- 
ter in  the  country.  It  is  on  the  main 
line  of  the  St.  Gothard  Railway,  and 
on  the  Rhine  at  the  point  where  it  en- 
ters Germany  from  Switzerland.  Why 
is  its  position,  near  both  France  and 
Germany,  favorable  to  manufacturing  ? 

Geneva,  situated  on  the  lower  end  of 
Lake  Geneva,  near  where  the  Rhone 
enters  France,  is  the  third  city  of  the 
republic,  and  a  noted  educational  center. 
There  is  much  manufacturing,  among 
the  important  articles  made  being  jew- 
elry and  scientific  instruments. 

Berne,  the  capital,  is  centrally  lo- 
cated ;  but  it  is  a  small  city  because  it 
is  not  favorably  situated  for  commerce. 


1.    What  languages  are  spoken?     2.   What 
can  you  tell  about  the  government?     3.    De- 
scribe  the   surface    of    Switzer- 
land.   4.    The  climate.     5.    State   Q^^gt^^^g 
the  principal  facts  about  agricul- 
ture.    6.   About  lumbering  and  manufacturing. 

7.  What    is    the    condition    of    commerce? 

8.  Tell  about  the  roads  and  railways.  9.  Why 
is  Switzerland  so  attractive  to  tourists  ? 
10.  Locate  and  state  the  main  facts  about 
Zurich.     11.    Basel.     12.    Geneva  and  Berne. 

1.  What  reasons  are  there  for  giving  partic- 
ular attention  to  the  study  of  English  and  other 
foreign  languages  in  the  Swiss 
schools  ?  2.  Why  has  Switzer-  Suggestions 
land,  unlike  many  European  countries,  not  come 
into  possession  of  colonies  ?  3.  Find  the  mean- 
ing of  "  referendum  "  and  "  popular  initiative  " 
in  Swiss  legislation.  4.  Switzerland  has  long 
been  selected  as  a  place  of  refuge  for  persecuted 
people  and  political  refugees  from  other  na- 
tions. Why  ?  5.  Read  that  portion  of  the 
story  of  William  Tell  which  is  supposed  to 
have  occurred  about  Lake  Lucerne.  6.  Write 
a  story  describing  a  visit  to  Switzerland. 

7.   Greece  (Fig.  517) 

1.   What    country   borders    Greece    on   the 
north  ?     2.    What  seas  lie  on  the  eastern  and 
western  sides  ?     3.   Locate  Corfu 
and  the   Ionian    Islands,   which  ^        ^ 

are  a  part  of  Greece.  4.  Make  an  outline  map 
of  Greece. 

Greece  occupies  the  southern  end  of 
a  large  peninsula,  called  the  Balkan 
Peninsula.  Owing  to  many  Surface  and 
short  mountain  ranges,  ex-  climate 
tending  in  different  directions,  the  sur- 
face of  the  country  is  quite  rugged,  and 
large  sections  are  unfit  for  farming. 
Yet  there  are  many  small,  fertile  val- 
leys. The  coast  line  is  very  irregular, 
with  numerous  peninsulas,  islands,  deep 
bays,  and  fine  harbors,  formed  by  the 
sinking  of  the  mountainous  land. 

The  Mediterranean  causes  a  warm, 
pleasant  climate,  as  in  southern  Italy. 
In   Greece,  however,   as   in   Italy,  the 


408 


EUROPE 


Fig.  558.  —  A 
oars 


rainfall,  which  is  moderate  in 
winter,  is  so  light  in  summer 
that  irrigation  is  necessary 
for  agriculture. 

Italy,  Spain,  and  Portugal 
were  once  far  more  important. 
Its  former  in  comparison 
greatness  with  other  coun- 
tries, than  at  present.  The 
sa,me  is  true  of  Greece. 

The  country  in  Europe  that 
has  perhaps  had  the  greatest 
influence  upon  the  rest  of  the 
world  is  this  small  one.    The 
Romans    received    many    of 
their  beliefs  and  customs  from 
Greece,  and  since  many  of  our  customs 
came   from   the   Romans,  we   also  are 
greatly  indebted  to  the  Greeks.     They 
were  a  highly  cultivated  people,  and 
the  beauty  and  artistic  perfection  of 
their  sculpture,  and  of  some  of  their 
buildings,  have  never  been  equaled. 

Rome  finally  conquered  Greece, 
and  became  the  leading  country 
Its  later  of  the  world.    After 

history  the  decline  of   the 

Roman    Empire,    other    people 
from  the  north  invaded  Greece  ;    - 
and  finally  the    Turks    entered 
the  country  and  carried  ruin  to 
this,  as  to  other  parts    of   the    / 
Balkan    Peninsula.     Greece   is     ^ 
now  independent,  and  is  a  limited 
monarchy. 

In  this  little  country  there  are 
few  natural  resources.  There  is  no 
Principal  coal,  and  therefore  little 

industries         manufacturing.      There 
is  some  mining  of  iron  ore,  lead,  and 
zinc;  but  the  principal  occupations  are 
herding  and  farming.      Large  numbers 
of  sheep  and  goats  are  raised  ;  and  the 


Fig. 


Greek  ship,  used  700  years  before  Christ.    Besides  sails,  long 
were  used  for  driving  the  boat  through  the  water. 

chief  farm  products  are  grain,  tobacco, 

olives,  and  fruits.     Among  the  latter  is 

the  small  variety  of  grape  known  as  the 

currant.     Currants,    together   with 

raisin  grapes,  are  cultivated  in  large 

quantities   on   the   steep   hillsides; 

after   being   gathered,  they   are 

pread  out  to  dry,  and  are  sold 

as  dried  fruit. 

The    neighborhood 
of    the    sea   led    the 
ancient      Greeks     to 
adopt  a  seafaring  life, 
and  they  still    carry 
on  an  extensive   for- 
eign    trade.       Many 
are  also   engaged   in 
fishing,    and    in    se- 
curing  bath    sponges 
from    the    shallow    sea 
bottom  among  the  Greek 
islands. 

The  capital  and   the 

most  important  city  is 

the     most 

the  world- 


559.  —  A  Greek  peasant 
in  native  costume. 


Athens,    once 
famous   city  of 


Leading  city 


It  was  a  well-known  city  at  the  time  of 


THE  LESSER   POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


409 


(Jhrist,  and  both  Athens  and  Corinth 
are  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  Athens  is 
still  an  important  city,  with  more  than 
a  hundred  thousand  inhabitants.  It  is 
situated  inland  six  miles  from  its  port, 
PiR^us.  The  principal  streets  of 
Athens  are  quite  modern;   but  ruins  of 


then  we  hear  of  an  earthquake  shock  in  this 

island  region,  or  archipelago,  showing  that  the 

mountains     are     still     growing. 

---,       ..  I'll  /^  xsifl-Uus  Hc&r 

The  largest  island  near   dreece   Qj-gg^e 

is  Crete  (Fig.  450),   which,   like 

the   smaller  islands,    is   inhabited   mainly   by 

Greeks.     It  is  still  controlled  by  the  Turks. 

1.   Describe  the  surface  and  climate  of  Greece. 


Fig.  5G0.  —  The  Acrojwlis  at  Athens. 


the  ancient  city  are  still  numerous. 
The  most  noted  buildings,  and  some  of 
the  finest  temples  of  ancient  Greece, 
stood  upon  the  Acropolis  (Fig.  560),  a 
level-topped,  rocky  hill  with  steep  sides. 
This  stronghold  was  the  natural  center 
for  settlements  on  the  surrounding  plain. 

The  many  islands  in  the  neighborhood  of 
Greece  are  either  tops  of  inountains  rising  out 
of  the  sea,  or  else  volcanic  cones.     Now  and 


3.    State 


2.   Tell  about  its  former  greatness. 

facts    about    its    later    history.  . 

,TTi     .  ii  •      •      1    •        Review 

4.    What   are   the    principal   m-    ^^^^^.^^^ 

dustries?    5.  Tell  about  the  lead- 
ing city.    6.   What  can  you  say  about  the  islands 
near  Greece? 

1.   Kead  some  stories  of  the  ancient  Greeks. 
One  of  the  most  interesting  is  the    Odyssey. 

2.  Learn  some  facts  about  Homer, 
Plato,  and  other  noted  Greeks. 

3.  Read  about  the  defense  of  the  Pass  of 
Thermopylae.  4.  Collect  pictures  of  the  ruins 
in  Athens. 


Suggestions 


410 


EUROPE 


8.  Turkey  and  Balkan  Countries 
(Fig.  517) 

1.  Bound  each  of  these  countries.  2.  Trace 
the  course  of  the  Danube.  3.  What  countries 
lie  south  of  the  Danube.  4.  How 
does  the  number  of  large  cities 
here  compare  with  the  number  in  Germany  ? 
5.  Compare  the  area  of  Turkey  in  Europe  with 
that  of  your  own  State.  6.  Find  the  straits  of 
Bosporus.  The  straits  called  the  Dardanelles. 
7.  What  is  the  name  of  the  sea  between  these 
two  straits  ? 

These  countries  are  situated  on  one 
of    the    largest    peninsulas    of    Europe, 

Boundaries  ^^^^^^  ^^^^  Balkan  Penin- 
and  surface  sula.  It  is  bounded  on  the 
features  ^^g^   ^^   ^^le   Adriatic   and 

Ionian  Seas,  and  on  the  east  by  the 
Black  and  ^gean  Seas.  Since  the 
peninsula  broadens  toward  the  north,  it 
has  a  very  long  land  boundary,  extend- 
ing from  the  mouth  of  the  Danube 
River  to  the  head  of  the  Adriatic 
Sea. 

On  the  whole,  this  is  a  very  moun- 
tainous peninsula,  though  there  are 
many  valleys  and  small  plains  among 
the  mountains.  One  portion,  in  north- 
ern Bulgaria  and  Roumania,  is  a  broad 
plain  crossed  by  the  Danube. 

In  so  mountainous  a  country  there 
are  different  kinds  of  climate.  On  the 
lowlands,  along  the  southern 
and  western  coasts,  the  cli- 
mate is  warm,  as  elsewhere  near  the 
Mediterranean.  But  in  the  northeast, 
near  Russia,  while  the  summers  are 
warm,  the  winters  are  very  cold.  In 
that  season,  icy  winds  sweep  down  from 
the  Russian  plains,  and  the  Danube 
freezes  over.  The  mountain  slopes  also 
have  a  cold  climate. 

There  is  also  much  difference  in  rainfall.  On 
the  slopes  of  the  mountains,  and  in  the  north- 


Climate 


ern  part  of  the  peninsula,  there  is  rainfall  enough 
for  agriculture.  But  in  some  of  the  interior  val- 
leys, and  in  parts  of  the  southern  part  of  the 
peninsula,  there  is  so  little  rainfall  in  summer 
that  irrigation  is  necessary. 


: 

^^^^^fK;; 

ri^ 

^/^^IPIH 

w^m 

RHP^^  J^iJiSv-J^^^H 

■'"^B 

'^^3 

»   ;  <Ws^  '^^1 

aSi-^Ai^w*^ 

Fig.  561.  —  A  Turkish  woman  iu  Constantinople. 

The     eastern    part    of    the    Balkan 
Peninsula  comes  so  close  to  Asia  that  it 
has  been  called  a  "  bridge  "  closeness  to 
between  Europe   and  Asia,  ^^ia;  effects 
At  two  points,  the  Darda-  a^mafsfand 
nelles  and  the  Bosporus  (Fig.  people 
565),  the  two  continents  are  separated 
only   by  narrow  straits.     Animals  and 
plants   have    crossed    these    barriers    so 
easily  that  there  is  a  mixture  of  Euro- 
pean and  Asiatic  species  in  that  part  of 
Europe. 

This  region  has  also  been  a  bridge  for 
the  passage  of  many  peoples.  Romans, 
Slavs,  and  finally  the  Mohammedan 
Turks  from  Asia,  have  brought  the 
Balkan  Peninsula  under  their  rule. 
Wherever  the  Turks  went,  they  brought 
ruin ;  and  for  four  centuries,  while  the 
rest  of  Europe  was  advancing,  they 
held  this  region  in  such  control  that 
almost  all  progress  was  checked.  Dur- 
ing the  nineteenth  century,  however, 
many  of   the   people   have    thrown  off 


THE  LESSER  POWERS   OF  EUROPE 


411 


[the  Turkish  yoke,  so  that  the  peninsula 
[is  now  divided  among  several  nations. 
To-day  Turkey  in  Europe  is  less  than 
one  quarter  as  large  as  it  was  a  hun- 
dred years  ago. 

Aside  from  Turkey,  the  separate  coun- 
tries of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  are  Mon- 
Countriesnow  tenegro,  Servia,  Roumania, 
occupying  the  Bulgaria,  and  Greece.  Each 
Peninsula         q£  ^j^ggg  jg  ^^^y  independent, 

Bulgaria,  in  1908,  being  the  last  to 
throw  off  the  Turkish  yoke. 


Fig.  562.  —  A  Roumanian  peasant  in  native 
costume. 


The  tiny  country  of  Montenegro,  which  is 
smaller  than  the  State  of  Connecticut,  is  of 
slight  importance.  Its  soil  is  so 
poor  that  there  is  little  agricul- 
ture ;  there  is  less  manufacturing,  and  no  rail- 
way. The  principal  occupation  is  cattle  raising. 
Cettinje,  the  capital,  has  a  population  of  less  than 
five  thousand. 


Montenegro 


Servia,  next  to   Montenegro  in  size, 
has  a  very  rugged  surface, 
and  much  of  the  country  is 
forest  covered.     Only  a  small  portion  is 


Servia 


cultivated.  Among  the  leading  farm 
products  are  corn,  wheat,  and  other  grains, 
similar  to  those  of  Hungary,  which  bor- 
ders Servia  on  the  north.  There  is  also 
much  fruit,  especially  grapes  and  plums, 
which,  when  dried,  are  sold  as  raisins 
and  prunes.  Many  cattle,  sheep,  and 
pigs  are  raised. 

The  industries  of  Servia  are  only 
partly  developed.  For  example,  al- 
though coal,  iron,  silver,  gold,  and 
other  metals  are  known  to  exist,  there 
is  very  little  mining;  nor  is  there 
much  manufacturing.  It  will  require 
more  time  to  recover  from  the  cen- 
turies of  Turkish  misrule. 

The  capital  of  the  kingdom  is  Bel- 
grade, a  city  with  a  fine  location  on 
the  navigable  Danube. 

Roumania  and  Bulgaria  are  separated 
by  the  Danube  for  a  longdistance.    Thus, 

together,     they     control    its   Roumania  and 

lower  course.     This  is  a  fact  Bulgaria 

of  much  importance  to  Austria-Hungary. 

Why? 

Broad  plains,  suited  to  agriculture, 
border  the  Danube  in  both  countries, 
though  the  plains  are  far  more  extensive 
in  Roumania  than  in  Bulgaria.  Nat- 
urally, therefore,  there  is  much  farm- 
ing. In  both  countries  wheat  and  other 
grains  are  among  the  chief  crops. 

Southern  Bulgaria  is  protected  from 
the  cold  north  winds  by  the  Balkan 
Mountains.  It  therefore  has  such  a 
warm  climate  that  the  products  differ 
much  from  those  north  of  the  mountains. 
Some  of  these  are  the  mulberry  for  the 
silkworm,  and  roses  for  the  valuable 
perfume,  attar  of  roses. 

The  Turks,  who  are  Mohammedans, 
have  ideas  and  customs  that  are  unlike 
those  of  other  Europeans.     They  have 


412 


EUROPE 


been  unprogressive,  and 
unwilling  to  grant  rights 
to  the  many  Christians 
Turkey  in  who  live  in 
Europe  Turkey. 

Lp?oX:'."d'  Their  ruler, 

of  government      or         Sultail, 

until  recently  has  had 
absolute  power,  which 
he  has  often  used  very 
cruelly  ;  and  the  govern- 
ment has  been  the  worst 
in  Europe.  Recently  it 
has  begun  to  improve. 
The  majority  of  the 
Turks  are  both  ignorant 
and  poor ;  and  they  have 
not  been  encouraged  to 
develop  the  resources  of 
their  land. 

The  extensive  forests  that  once  cov- 
ered  the    mountain   slopes    have    been 
nearly  destroyed;  and  broad 

2.    Industries  e  c  i        i  i ,  • 

areas  oi  larm  land  are  culti- 
vated   by   the    crude    methods  of  early 


Fig.  5()4. 


centuries.  Among  the 
principal  crops  are 
wheat,  corn,  flax,  hemp, 
and  tobacco.  Figs,  and 
grapes  for  raisins,  are 
also  raised.  Cattle  and 
sheep  are  numerous,  and 
tame  buffaloes  and  oxen 
are  in  common  use  as 
farm  animals. 

Turkey  supplies  little  ex- 
cept raw  materials.  Even 
valuable  mineral  deposits 
are  almost  unworked,  and 
there  is  little  manufacturing 
aside  from  hand-made  goods. 
Among  the  latter  are  the 
famous  Turkish  rugs,  and 
some  very  beautiful  articles 
in  leather  and  metal,  show- 
ing that  the  Turks  have  much 
artistic  skill.  With  so  little  industry,  there 
is,  naturally,  almost  no  means  of  transporta- 
tion ;  in  fact  the  roads  are  everywhere  bad, 
and  there  are  almost  no  railways. 

Constantinople,  the  capital  of  the 
Ottoman  Empire,   as    Turkey  is   often 


A  Turkish  lady  in  native 
costume. 


Fig.  565.  —  Constantinople  and  the  Bosporus.    The  laud  on  the  other  side  of  the  strait  is  in  Asia. 


Fia.  563.  —  A  street  scene  in  Constantinople. 


TBE  LESSER  POWERS  OF  EUROPE 


413 


called,  has  been  famous  for  many  cen- 
turies. Situated  on  the  beautiful,  river- 
like  outlet  of  the  Black  Sea, 
"*^  called  the  Bosporus  (Fig. 
565),  it  commands  the  channel  through 
which  tlie  commerce  of  the  Black  Sea 
must  pass.  This  is  a  natural  site  for  a 
city  ;  for  it  is  the  point  where  the  cross- 
ing from  Europe  to  Asia  can  best  be 
made. 

The  site  of  Constantinople  is  so  favorable 
for  a  city  that  it  was  the  seat  of  a  Greek  colony- 
even  before  the  days  of  Christ.  Later  the 
Roman  Emperor  Constantine  named  the  city 
after  himself  {Constantine  and  polis,  meaning 
city),  and  made  it  the  capital  of  the  Eoman 
Empire.  For  centuries  it  was  noted  as  one  of 
the  richest  and  most  prosperous  cities  of 
Europe. 

After  being  captured  by  the  Turks,  however, 
it  lost  much  of  its  beauty,  though  some  of  the 
ancient  splendor  still  remains  (Fig.  565).  There 
are  beautiful  palaces,  mosques,  and  other  costly 
buildings ;  but  side  by  side  with  them  are 
the  dwellings  of  the  common  people,  who  live 
in  squalid  poverty.  The  houses,  street  scenes, 
people,  and  customs  remind  one  of  Asia  rather 
than  of  Europe.  How  does  it  rank  in  size  with 
other  large  European  cities  ?  With  the  large 
cities  of  the  United  States  ?  (See  Appendix 
of  Statistics.) 

1.   Describe  the  boundaries  and  surface   of 
the     Balkan    Peninsula.        2.     The     climate. 
3.    What  have  been  some  of  the 
effects   of   the   nearness  of  this 
peninsula    to    Asia    on    plants, 
animals,  and  people?     4.   What  countries  now 
occupy  this  peninsula  ?     Locate  each.     5.   Tell 
what   you   can    about   Montenegro.     6.   About 
Servia.         7.   Name    and    locate   the   capital. 
8.   What   are   the   agricultural   products   of 
Roumania  and  Bulgaria  ?     9.  What  can  you  say 
about    the   other  industries  ?     10.   Name  and 
locate  the  chief  cities.     11.    What  can  you  tell 
about  the  character  of  the  people  and  govern- 
ment of  Turkey  ?    12.  What  are  the  industries  ? 
13.    Why  is  the  location  of  its  chief  city  so 
favorable  ?     14.    State  the  history  and  present 
importance  of  this  city. 


Review 
Questions 


1.  What  is  the  boundary  between  Turkey  in 
Europe  and  Turkey  in  Asia  ?  2.  What  parts 
of  Africa  and  Asia  belong  to  the 
Ottoman  Empire?  3.  Name  the 
Balkan  countries.  4.  Name  and  locate  the 
principal  cities.  5.  Russia  would  greatly  like 
to  get  possession  of  Constantinople.  Why  ? 
6.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula, 
with  boundaries  of  countries,  the  course  of  the 
Danube,  and  the  position  of  the  capitals. 

1.  What  countries  of  Europe  suffer,  to  some 
extent,  for  want  of  rain  ?  2.  What  is  the 
largest  river  of  Europe  ?     Is  it 


General 
Review 


the    most   important  ?       Why ' 

3.  What  rivers  rise  in  the  Alps  ?   Quggtrons 

4.  Through  what  countries  does 

each  flow  ?  5.  What  large  cities  are  located 
upon  each?  6.  Make  a  sketch  map  of  Europe, 
showing  the  location  of  the  chief  rivers  and 
cities.  7.  Name  and  locate  the  mountain 
ranges  of  Europe.  Include  these  in  your  sketch. 
8.  On  your  sketch  map,  draw  the  boundaries 
of  the  countries.  9.  What  three  countries  are 
republics?  10.  What  two  have  a  despotic 
form  of  government  ?  11.  Which  countries 
border  on  the  Atlantic  Ocean?  12.  On  the 
Mediterranean  Sea  ?  13.  Which  have  a  very 
good  position  for  commerce?  Why? 
14.  W^hich  have  a  very  poor  position  for  com- 
merce ?  Why  ?  15.  Name  the  leading  agri- 
cultural countries  of  Europe.  16.  Name  the 
leading  manufacturing  countries.  17.  Bound 
each  of  the  Great  Powers  of  Europe.  18.  Name 
and  locate  the  capital  of  each  of  these  Great 
Powers.  Put  them  on  your  sketch  map. 
19.  Name  the  capital  of  each  of  the  Lesser 
Powers. 

1.    Compare  the  climate  of  western  Europe 
with  that  of  the  west  coast  of  North  America. 
2.    Make  the  same  comparison  for 
the    eastern    parts    of    the   two  ^°^^^^^^^ 
continents.     3.    Which  continent   America 
has    the    most    irregular    coast 
line?      4.   Name     and    locate     the    principal 
mountain   ranges   in   each   continent.     Which 
continent    has   the    advantage    as    to   the    di- 
rection   of    the    ranges?      Why?      5.    Name 
and   locate   the   principal  rivers  in   each  con- 
tinent.    Which  are  the  largest  in  each  case? 
6.    How  do   our   larger   Western    States   com- 
pare   in    area    with    France    and    Germany  ? 
In   population?     7.   What    is   the    prevailing 


414 


EUROPE 


kind  of  government  in  Europe  ?  In  North 
America  ?  8.  Which  European  country  has 
the  best  location  for  world  commerce  ?  Why  ? 
9.  Wliich  is  the  best  situated  for  continental 
commerce  ?  Why  ?  10.  Which  country  of 
North  America  has  the  most  favorable  posi- 
tion for  trade  ?  How  ?  11.  Compare  in  pop- 
ulation the  five  largest  European  cities  with 
the  five  largest  in  North  America  (See  Ap- 
pendix). 12.  Name  and  locate  the  five  largest 
seaports  of  Europe  (Fig.  450).  13.  How  do 
they  compare  in  population  with  New  York, 
Philadelphia,  Boston,  Baltimore,  and  San 
Francisco  ?  14.  Name  and  locate  the  five 
largest  interior  cities,  and  compare  their  popu- 
lation with  that  of  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cleveland, 
Pittsburg,  and  Detroit.  15.  What  cities  of 
Europe  and  North  America  are  near  the  46th 
parallel  of  latitude  ?  The  50th  ?  The  60th  ? 
16.  Name  some  agricultural  products  common 
to  both  Europe  and  the  United  States.    17.  Name 


others  that  are  found  in  the  United  States,  but 
not  in  Eurojje.  Why  this  difference  ? 
18.  Name  the  chief  wheat-producing  countries  f 
of  Europe  and  North  America.  19.  In  what 
countries  of  Europe  is  raw  silk  produced  ? 
Why  do  we  not  raise  silkworms  ?  20.  Make 
a  list  of  the  European  countries  which  have 
extensive  coal  deposits.  21.  Which  countries 
have  little  or  none  ?  What  is  the  effect  on 
the  industries  in  each  case?  22.  Which  coun- 
tries have  little  or  no  mining?  23.  Which 
countries  have  important  manufacturing  indus- 
tries ?  Which  have  very  little  manufacturing  ? 
Give  reasons  for  this  difference.  24.  With 
which  group  would  the  United  States  be  classed 
with  regard  to  mining  and  manufacturing  ? 
25.  Which  of  the  European  nations  have  you 
seen  represented  on  our  streets  ?  26.  Wliich 
one  of  the  European  countries  would  you  prefer 
to  visit  ?     Why  ? 


PART    VII. 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND 
ISLAND   GROUPS 


SECTION  I.  ASIA 


1.   Through  what   zones  does  Asia   extend 
(Fig.  566)  ?     2.   Where  are  the  highest  moun- 
tains   and    plateaus?     3.    What 
Map  study  .  •  i  j.i,   • 

large  rivers  have  their  sources  m 

that  region  ?  In  what  direction  does  each  flow  ? 
4.  In  what  sections  are  there  extensive  plains 
(Fig.  568)  ?  5.  What  large  inland  seas  and  lakes 
do  you  find  which  have  no  outlet  ?  6.  What 
three  large  peninsulas  are  on  the  southern  side? 
7.  What  two  are  on  the  eastern  side  ?  8.  Wliat 
islands  lie  east  of  Asia?  9.  Name  the  large 
gulfs  and  seas  along  the  coast.  10.  How  does 
Asia  compare  in  size  with  Europe?  11.  Find 
Asia  on  the  globe.  12.  How  could  you  reach 
it,  if  you  wished  to  go  there  ?  13.  What  strait 
separates  Asia  from  America?  14.  What  is 
the  name  of  the  isthmus  connecting  Asia  and 
Africa  ? 

1.    Gj:neral  Facts  about  Asia 

The  main  part  of  Eurasia,  which  we 
call  Asia,  is  larger  than  any  other  con- 
Area  and  tinent.  Indeed,  it  is  greater 
population  than  North  and  South 
America  together,  or  Europe  and  Africa 
together. 

It  has  more  inhabitants,  also,  than 
any  other  continent.  More  than  one 
half  of  all  the  persons  on  the  earth  live 
in  Asia ;  and  in  the  one  country  of  China 
there  are  more  people  than  in  all  the 
countries  of  Europe  combined.  ' 

It  might  be  inferred  that  Asia  would 
be    one    of    the    best    known    of    the 


continents ;  for  it  has  the  oldest  civiliza- 
tion, and  is  very  near  to  Europe.  Be- 
sides, a  flourishing  trade  was  why  little  is 
carried  on  between  Europe  known  of  Asia 
and  the  Indies,  long  before  the  New 
World  was  discovered.  The  fact  is, 
however,  that  Asia,  next  to  Africa,  is 
the  least  known  among  the  continents. 
Let  us  find  some  of  the  reasons  for  this. 
In  the  first  place,  although  Europe 
and  Asia  are  close  together,  their  lead- 
ins;   countries  are  separated  ,    „ 

o  r  1 .     Because  of 

by  arid  country  and  desert,  and  and  desert 
which  is  more  difficult  to  *°  *°  ^  ^*^* 
cross  than  either  mountains  or  the  sea. 

The  two  great  seas  in  southwestern 
Asia,  the  Caspian  and  Aral  seas,  have 
no  outlets  and  are  salt,  although  large 
rivers  pour  volumes  of  fresh  water  into 
them.  What  are  the  names  of  these 
rivers  ?  How  does  the  area  of  these 
lakes  compare  with  that  of  Lake  Supe- 
rior, the  largest  of  our  Great  Lakes 
(See  Appendix)  ?  While  these  salt  seas 
are  of  great  size,  the  fact  that  they  have 
no  outlets  tells  very  clearly  that  the  cli- 
mate here  is  dry,  for  the  water  evapor- 
ates faster  than  the  rivers  can  pour  it  in. 

Most  of  the  vast  region  between  the 
Irtish  River  and  Africa  is  either  desert 
or  arid  land  (Fig.  569).     Estimate  the 


4U 


ASIA 


417 


Fig.  5(j9.  —  A  caravan  on  the  desert  of  Persia. 


distance  across  this  arid  country  from 
east  to  west.  When  you  realize  that  it 
is  two  or  three  thousand  miles,  you  can 
see  what  a  barrier  this  section  must 
always  have  been  to  commerce  and  to 
acquaintance  between  the  people  of  the 
two  continents. 

In  the   second  place,  we  can  readily 
„    „  ,    see    why     Siberia  —  which 

2.     Because  of  -^ 

the  extreme       makes   up    morc    than    ope 

cold  in  the  north    e        xi       £  j.i.  t_    i  j.*  ± 

lourth  01  the  whole  contment 
—  should  have  been  little  visited,  for  most 
of  it  is  a  very  cold  country.     Note  how 


much  of  it  lies  in  the  frigid  zone.  In 
this  section,  called  the  tundras,  the 
ground  is  frozen  to  a  great  depth  all  the 
year  round. 

The  main  slope  of  this  vast  plain  is 
toward  the  north.  Trace  its  three  great 
rivers.  What  are  their  names  ?  Like 
the  Mackenzie  River  in  North  America, 
they  have  been  of  little  help  in  exploring 
the  country.     Why  ? 

For  several  reasons,  the  vast  central 
portion  of  Asia  also  has  been  difficult  to 
explore.     On  Figure  567  observe   how 


Fig.  570. 

2£ 


■The  Snowy  Range  in  the  Himalaya  Mountains,  the  loftiest  mountains  in  the  world. 


418 


ASIA,   AFRICA,    AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


many  mountain  chains  are  found  there. 
Among  them  are  the  Himalayas,  just 
3.  Because  of  ^^^t^  of  India,  the  loftiest 
the  plateaus,       mountain  range  in  the  world 

mountains,  and  .  r^T/\\  -mt,        t-i  , 

jdeserts  in  the  (Fig.  570).  Mt.  iLverest, 
central  part  ^^^  highest  peak,  rises  over 
twenty-nine  thousand  feet,  or  five  and 
one  half  miles  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
Find  this  mountain  on  Figure  566.  How 
does  it  compare  in  height  with  Mont 
Blanc  in  the  Alps  ?  (See  Appendix.) 
There  are  vast  stretches  of  level  land 


Fig.  571.  —  Fujiama,  a  perfect  volcanic  cone  in  Japan. 

among  these  mountains,  but  they  are 
plateaus,  rather  than  low  plains.  One 
of  them,  the  plateau  of  Tibet,  is  from 
two  to  three  miles  above  the  level  of  the 
sea,  —  higher  than  the  peaks  of  most 
lofty  mountains.  You  know  (p.  25) 
that  the  summits  of  mountains  are  cold ; 
so,  also,  are  high  plateaus.  Thus  most 
of  the  highland  of  Central  Asia  has  a 
cool  or  a  cold  climate. 

Much  rain  and  snow  falls  on  the  edges 
of  this  vast  highland.     Note  the  rivers 


that  find  their  sources  there.  The  three 
on  the  north  side,  crossing  Siberia,  have 
already  been  mentioned.  What  are 
their  names  ?  What  three  are  found  on 
the  east  side,  emptying  into  the  Pacific  ? 
Name  several  on  the  south  side.  From 
this  you  see  that  most  of  the  great  rivers 
of  x4sia  rise  in  this  highland  region,  just 
as  most  of  those  of  western  Europe  rise 
in  the  Alps.  ,-„ 

Since  the  winds  lose  their  vapor  on 

the  margin  of  this  great  highland,  its 

interior    is    largely    either 

desert  or  arid  land.     Find 

the  Desert  of  Gobi. 

A  region  so  mountain- 
ous, and  so  cold  and  dry 
as  Central  Asia,  is  difficult 
to  explore ;  and  it  is  not 
strange  that  we  know  little 
about  it  even  to-day. 

From  what  has  been  said 
about  the  western,  north- 
ern,   and    cen- 
tral   parts    of 
the    continent, 
it  is  evident  that  there  can 
be  but  few  inhabitants  in 
those   sections.     The  vast 
hordes  of  people  living  in 
Asia  must,  therefore,  dwell 
in  the  eastern  and  southern  parts.     Mo.st 
of  them  live  in  China,  Japan,  and  India 
(Fig.  572). 

How  well  do  we  know  those  parts  of 
the  continent  ?  There  it  is  the  character 
of  the  people,  rather  than  of  the  country, 
that  has  prevented  their  being  better 
known.  The  Chinese,  for  instance,  of 
whom  there  are  such  great  numbers, 
are  very  different  from  Europeans  and 
Americans,  and,  until  quite  recently, 
they  would   have  nothing   to   do    with 


4.    Because  of 
the  character 
of  the  people 


ASIA 


419 


foreigners.  They  have  not  been  willing 
to  admit  white  people  into  their  country 
even  as  visitors.  How,  then,  could  we 
find  out  much  about  them  and  their 
country  ? 

Until  about  fifty  years  ago,  the  Japa- 
nese felt  and  acted  in  the  same  way  to- 
ward us.  India  is  better  known,  because 
it  has  long  been  under  the  control  of  the 
British. 

In  recent  years  the  situation  has 
greatly  changed,  and  we  are  now  rapidly 
becoming  acquainted  with  the  Asiatic 
people  and  their  continent. 

2.   The  Turkish,  or  Ottoman, 
Empire 

Although  Constantinople,  the  capital 
of  the    Turkish    Empire,  is  in    Europe, 


Turkey  controls  ten  times  as  much  land 
in  Asia  as  in  Europe. 

The  part  of  Asia  which  Turkey  con- 
trols is  of  peculiar  interest  to  us.  It  is 
here  that  many  of  the  places  why  of  special 
mentioned  in  the  Bible  are  interest 
located  (Fig.  576)  ;  and  here  Jesus  was 
born,  as  well  as  the  prophet  Moham- 
med. It  was  from  this  center,  also, 
that  much  of  the  ancient  civilization 
spread  along  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. 

A  large  part  of  Turkey    in   Asia  is 
table-land,   crossed   by   short  mountain 
ranges.      There  are   also   a  surface  and 
number  of  extinct  volcanoes,  climate 
such  as  Mount  Ararat. 

There  is  little  rainfall   except  along 
the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  and  Black 


Fig.  572.  —  Map  showing  Density  of  Population  of  Asia. 


■^;^ 


The  M.N.Co,BuFrALO. 


TIGER 


ELEPHANT 


J 


b'ui.  573.  —  Suuiu  (il  llie  wild  animals  of  Asia. 
420 


^  'J: 


FIG.  576. 


ASIA 


421 


seas.  The  country  is,  therefore,  mainly 
arid  or  desert ;  the  streams  are  usually 
short  and  shallow,  and  there  are  numer- 
oys  salt  lakes.  Point  out  the  two  prin- 
cipal rivers  (Fig.  576). 

Some  of  the  mountain  slopes  are  cov- 
ered with  forest ;  but  most  of  the  coun- 


Industries, 
products,  and 
chief  cities 


try     is    open, 


and     suited 


mainly  to  herding,  though 
there  is  some  agriculture. 
In  the  valleys  wheat,  grapes,  olives,  figs, 
oranges,  and  cotton  are  raised,  usually 
by  the  aid  of  irrigation.  Both  the  herd- 
ing and  farming  are  carried  on  in  much 
the  same  way  as  in  the  Bible  times. 
The  valuable  minerals  are  scarcely 
worked  at  all ;  and  there  is  almost  no 
manufacturing  except  that  done  by  hand 
(Fig.  575).  Some  of  this  work,  however, 
especially  tapestry  and  rugs  is  very  beau- 
tiful. 

Smyrna,  the  leading  seaport,  has  a  fine 
harbor  and  has  been  growing  very  rapidly 
now  that  railroads  extend  inland  from 
this  point.  Locate  it.  Find  Trebizond, 
an  important  port  on  the  Black  Sea. 


^W/ 

F 

^K 

1 

-■■J 

1 

^     -    ■  ■ 

^ 

' 

PI 

■ 

\         Ji 

FiQ.  575.  —  Native  spinning  wheels  in  Palestine,  using  the  same  methods  as  in  the 

days  of  Christ. 


Fig.  574.  —  A  Moliammedau  priest  in  eastern  Asia. 

There   are   two   parts   of   Turkey  in 
Asia  that  merit  special  study  ^ 

c-    ^     .     I  •  Two  especially 

on  account  oi  their  history :  important 

namely,  (1)  the  Hohj  Land,  parts  of 

and  (2)  the  valley  of  the  Eu-     "     ^ 

phrates  and  Tigris  rivers,  or  Mesopotamia. 

The  Holy  Land  has  a  nearly  straight 

coast  with  no  good  harbors,  and  back  of 

it  is  a  narrow  coastal  plain.  ,    _    _  . 

^  1.    The  Holy 

Beyond  Land 

this      are    (D  its  surface 
and  climate 

two   low 

mountain  ranges,  and 
between  them  is  the 
remarkable  depression 
at  the  bottom  of  which 
is  the  Dead  Sea. 
While  the  village  of 
Hebron  (Fig.  576),  on 
the  western  mountain 
range,  is  about  three 
thousand  feet  above 
sea  level,  the  surface 
of  the  Dead  Sea,  a  few 
miles  to  the  east,  is 
almost   thirteen   hun- 


422 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


Fig.  577.  —  Tiberias  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee  in  the  Holy  Laud. 


dred  feet  below  sea  level.  This  is,  in 
fact,  the  deepest  depression  on  the  lands 
of  the  earth. 

The  river  Jordan  flows  along  this  depression 
coming  out  of  a  fresh-water  lake,  called  the  Sea 
of  Galilee  (Fig.  577),  and  emptying  into  the 
Dead  Sea.  But  this  is  such  a  desert  region  that 
the  water  evaporates  too  fast  for  the  Dead  Sea 
to  have  an  outlet.  The  sea  is  so  salt  that  no  liv- 
ing things  can  exist  there,  and  the  salt  makes  the 
water  so  dense  that  a  person  cannot  even  sink  in 
it.  The  Jordan  Valley  and  the 
Dead  Sea  lie  no  farther  south 
than  southern  Alabama;  yet, 
partly  because  the  region  is  so 
low  and  inclosed,  its  climate 
is  almost  tropical. 

Before  its  possession 
by  the  Jews,  this  region 
,o^  T      ,    .    was     divided 

(Z)   Important 

events  that  intO        Small 

happened  here  ,    •  r 

countries,  of- 
ten under  the  rule  of  their 
more  advanced  and  pow- 
erful neighbors  in  north- 
western Africa,  the 
Egyptians.  Then  the 
Jews  entered  this  "  prom- 
ised land"  and  created  a 
kingdom  which  rose  to  its 


highest  power  under 
King  Solomon.  It 
was  here  that  many  of 
the  events  in  the  Old 
Testament  took  place, 
including  the  advance 
in  religion  from  the 
worship  of  many  gods 
to  the  belief  in  one  all- 
powerful  God.  Per- 
sians, Egyptians,  and 
Romans  later  ruled 
over  Palestine ;  and  it 
was  during  the  control 
of  the  Romans  that 
Jesus  was  born  at  Bethlehem  (Fig.  578). 
What  events  in  the  life  of  Jesus  can  you 
mention  that  occurred  at  some  of  the 
places  marked  on  the  map  (Fig.  576)  ? 

At  that  time,  as  we  learn  from  the 
Bible,  the  region  was  highly  (3)  Former 
developed.     Wheat    was  J™',--:/ 
raised  upon  the  uplands,  and  Palestine 
olives,  figs,  and  grapes  in   the  valleys, 
while  herds  of  sheep  were  pastured  on 


Fig.  578.  —  Pilgrims  entering  Bethlehem  on  Christmas  day. 
Jesus  was  born. 


It  was  here  that 


ASIA 


423 


Fig.  579.  —  A  view  of  Jeru.salem  as  It  appears  to-day. 


the  plateaus  and  mountains.  Recall 
events  from  the  Bible  that  indicate  these 
occupations. 

Palestine  lay  on  the  great  caravan 
route  which,  leading  from  Egypt  to  the 
distant  East,  ran  northward,  as  far  as 
Damascus  (Fig.  566),  in  order  to  avoid 
the  Syrian  desert.  Throngs  of  people, 
therefore,  passed  this  way.  Jerusalem 
(Fig.  579),  the  capital,  was  a  large  city, 
situated  upon  a  lofty  elevation  that 
made  it  an  important  stronghold. 

Palestine  is  now  visited  by  many  Christians, 

and  also  by  Mohammedan  pilgrims  who  believe 

that    Mohammed    ascended     to 

^*\fTT/  ;  heaven  from  Jerusalem.  The 
method  of  travel  i        -  i    . 

usual  mode  of  travel  is  by  mule 

or  camel,  as  in  olden  times.  A  short  railway 
now  climbs  the  mountains  from  Joppa,  on  the 
seacoast,  to  Jerusalem,  and  another  has  been 
begun  following  the  old  caravan  route  past 
Nazareth,  and  the  Sea  of  Galilee,  to  Damas- 
cus.    Trace  these  two  lines. 

Mesopotamia,  which  includes  the  ier- 
tile  valleys  of  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates 
rivers,  has  suffered  the  same  fate  as  the 
rest  of  Turkey  in  Asia.     It  was  formerly 


crossed  by  a  network  of  irrigation  canals, 
and  was  called  in  the  Bible  "  a  garden 
of   the   Lord."     But  it  has 
been  overrun  by  the  Arabs  tamia 
and  Turks,  until  it  is  now  (i)  ^<«  andetit 
almost    a    waste.     Babylon 
and  Nineveh,  once  great  cities,  and  the 
seats  of  a  wonderful  civilization,  are  now 
marked  only  by  mounds  of  ruins.     The 
site  of  the  Tower  of  Babel  is  believed  to 
have  been  at  Babylon,  and  the  ruins  of 
the  palace  of  Nebuchadnezzar  are  still  to 
be  seen  there. 

There  is  now  little  commerce  in  this  land, 
though  steamboats  can  go  up  the  Tigris  as  far 
as  Bagdad.     This  city,  situated 
on  the  caravan  route  to  the  East,  1^,1%^^ 
was  of  much  importance  in  an- 
cient times.     There  is  still  some  trade  between 
Europe  and  India  along  this  route.     The  build- 
ing  of    a   railroad   to    Bagdad   will   probably 
greatly  increase  its  importance. 

3.   Arabia,  Persia,  and   Afghanistan 

The    Arabian   Peninsula    is    an    arid 
plateau,  several  thousand  feet  in  eleva- 


424 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


Arabia 


tion.  What  waters  border  it  ?  The 
climate  is  hot  along  the  coast,  but  cooler 

on  the  plateau  and  among 

the  mountains. 
There  are  few  people  in  Arabia,  and 
these  are  largely  nomadic.  Coffee  is 
raised  in  the  southwest,  near  Mocha; 
the  date  palm  flourishes  in  many  places  ; 
and  fruits  and  vegetables  are  produced 
in  many  of  the  valleys.  Agriculture  is 
possible  in  most  parts,  only  by 
means  of  irrigation.  Cattle,  sheep, 
goats,  donkeys,  horses,  and  cam- 
els are  raised  in  large  numbers. 

Mecca,  a  city  about  fifty  miles     h 
from  the  west  coast,  is  sacred  to 
all  Mohammedans  (Fig.  574).     It 
was  here  that  Mohammed   was 
born,  and  every  Mohammedan 
wishes  to  make  a  pilgrimage  to 
it  at  least  once  during  his  life- 
time.   Most  of  these  pilgrims 
come  by  sea,  and  every  year  both 
the  city,  and   the   roads 
leading  to  it,  are  crowded 
with  them.    Now,  how- 
ever,  a   railroad   to 
Mecca  is   being  built. 

Most  of  the  Arabian 
peninsula  is  indepen- 
dent of  Turkey, 
though  it  has  no  well- 
organized  government 
of   its   own.      Turkey 

controls  the  west  coast  and  the  Persian  Gulf 
coast  as  far  as  Oman,  a  small  independent  state 
whose  capital  is  the  seaport  of  Maskat.  The 
British  have  control  of  Aden,  which  is  one  of 
their  most  important  coaling  stations. 

Persia,   like   Arabia,    is    an    elevated 
table-land,  with  large  tracts 
of  desert  that '  are  of  little 
or  no  use  to  man. 

The  best  agricultural  district  is  near 
the  Caspian  Sea,  where  there  is  rainfall 
enough  for  crops.  Elsewhere  the  cli- 
mate is  so  arid  that  irrigation  is  necessary 


Fig.  580.  —  A  Persian  girl  iu  native  costume. 


for  farming.  The  chief  farm  products 
are  tobacco,  wheat,  barley,  cotton,  and 
opium.  Much  silk  also  is  produced,  and 
roses  are  cultivated  for  the  manufacture 
of  the  perfume,  attar  of  roses. 

Nearly  two  million  Persians  belong  to 
nomadic  tribes  (Figs.  569  and  581)  that 
roam  about  the  desert,  dwelling  in  tents, 
and  herding  goats,  sheep,  and  other 
animals. 

There  are  some  valuable  minerals,  includ- 
ing    the     precious     stone,     turquoise. 
Precious  pearls  and  pearl  shells  are 
found  in  the  waters  of  the  Persian 
Gulf. 
Almost  the  only  manufacturing 
is  that  done  by  hand  (Fig.  582) ; 
and   the    Persians,   like   the 
Turks,  do  some  very  beauti- 
ful hand  weaving,  notably 
of  shawls  and  rugs.    Their 
•arving    and    inlaid    metal 
work    and  woodwork   also 
are  very  artistic. 


The  government 
of  Persia  has  long 
resembled  that  of 
Turkey,  and  has 
therefore  been  bad. 
The  ruler,  the 
Shah,  has  been  an 
absolute    monarch. 


Persia 


controlling  the  lives  and  property  of  his 
subjects,  who  are  mostly  ]\Iohammedans. 
Recently,  however,  there  has  been  a  pop- 
ular uprising  and  a  demand  for  better 
government.  The  Shah  has  promised 
a  reform  and  has  agreed  to  allow  the 
people  a  voice  in  making  their  laws. 
Teheran  is  the  capital  and  the  largest 
city. 

Afghanistan,  "  one  of  the  waste  places  of  the 
world,"  is  a  region  of  sand,  bare    . 
rocks,   and    snow-capped    moun- 
tains.    Only  in  the  valleys  is  the  soil  made  to 


ASTA 


425 


yield  a  harvest.  Like  other 
Asiatic  countries  so  far  studied, 
Afghanistan  is  badly  governed. 
The  ruler,  the  merciless  Amir, 
keeps  his  authority  by  the  ter- 
ror he  inspires  among  his  sub- 
jects. Nestled  among  the  lofty 
mountains  is  Kabul,  the  seat 
of  government. 

4.   Russia  in  Asia 

This  vast  country,  ex- 
tending from  the  Ural 
Mountains  to  the  Pacific 
Its  best-  Ocean,  is  a  part 

settled  part       of  the  Russian 
Empire.     The  best  settled 
section  is  in  the  south,  in 
Turkestan  and  the  depen- 
dencies of  Bokhara  and  Khiva.     Find 
these  places  on  the  map.  Even  this  part  is 
thinly  inhabited,  for  the  region  is  arid  and 
desert,  like  the  countries  farther  south. 


Fig.  582.  —  Persian  women  making  a  rug  by  hand.  These  people  are  so 
backward  that  they  have  not  learned  to  use  modern  machinery ;  but 
their  hand  work  is  very  beautiful. 


Fig.  581.  — Persian  nomads  and  their  home. 

The  occupations,  also,  are  similar  to 
those  of   southwestern  Asia.     Herding 
is   the  principal    industry   on    the   arid 
steppes  and  deserts,  sheep,  horses,  cattle, 
and    camels    being     raised. 
In  the  river  valleys  and  on 
the    oases,    corn,    fruits,   to- 
bacco, cotton,  hemp,  and  the 
silkworm  are   the    principal 
products. 

There  is  very  little  manu- 
facturing beyond  the  making 
of  rugs,  shawls,  and  cloth, 
by  hand.  Many  hand-made 
rngs  from  Bokhara  and 
Khiva  are  sold  in  the  United 
States. 

The  northern  portion,  a  land  of 
frozen  tundras,  is  the  coldest  reg- 
ion on  any  of  the 

continents.         The  ^^\}^^^^~ 
.  TIT        settled  part 

tew  people  who  live 

there  resemble  the  Eskimos  (Fig. 
585).  They  keep  herds  of  rein- 
deer, which  supply  them  with 
milk,  meat,  and  hides,  besides 
serving  as  draft  animals  (Fig.  584). 


426 


ASIA,  AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


I 


Fig.  583.  —  Russian  carriages  in  a  Siberian  town. 


The  middle  part  of  Siberia  is  a  vast 
plain  which,  though  little  settled  as  yet, 
Its  most  is  the  most  promisiiig  section 

promising  part  for  the  future.  It  has  much 
good  soil,  and  is  suited  to  the  production 
of  grains.  There  is  much  forest  here, 
and  in  the  mountains  valuable  minerals 
are  found,  including  gold,  and  graphite, 
or  "  black  lead,"  from  which  pencils  are 
made. 

One  reason  why  this  region  has  not 
been  better  settled  is  the   fact  that   it 


Leading  cities 


'^*^,#^''^ 


From  Satzel's 

FiQ.  584.  —  A  camp  in  the  tundra  of  northern  Asia.     The 


'  History  of  Mankind." 

reindeer  are  used 
for  drawing  the  sleighs  and  also  as  a  source  of  milk  and  meat. 


has  been  difficult  to  reach.  The  rivers, 
which  flow  northward,  have  not  been  of 
much  use,  and  until  lately  there  have 
been  no  railroads.  The  Russian  govern- 
ment has  built  a  railroad  all  the  way 
across  Siberia,  so  that  it  is  now  possible 
to  travel  by  rail  from  St.  Petersburg  to 
Port  Arthur  on  the  Chinese  coast. 
About  how  far  is  that  ? 

There  are  several  important  cities  in 
Asiatic  Russia.  The  largest  in  the  south- 
west is  Tashkend  ;  and  the 
city  of  Bokha- 
ra is  next  in  size.  Tiflis, 
between  the  Black  and  Cas- 
pian seas,  is  really  in  Asia, 
though  the  Russian  gov- 
ernment classes  this  region 
with  its  European  prov- 
inces. It  is  about  the  size 
of  Tashkend.  In  Siberia 
there  are  no  large  cities, 
though  several  along  the 
railway,  including  Ir- 
kutsk and  Vladivostok, 
are  now  growing  rapidly. 

Eussia  has  long  used  Siberia 
as  a  prison,  and  thousands  of 
prisoners  have  been  sent  there  ; 


ASIA 


427 


Fig.  585.  —  A  Yakout.  woman  from 
the  cold  tundra  region  of  Siberia. 


many   of   them   not  because    they   have   com- 
mitted crime,  but  because  they   have  said  or 

done  something  that  the  Russian 
Use  of  Siberia   ^^^^^^.^  ^^^^  ^^^^  j-^g_    ^  ^ 

as  a  pnson  ,  ,  ,  .    ,      r 

have   been    merely   suspected    oi 

saying  or  doing  something.     Many  have  been 

seized  by  of- 
ficers and 
thrown  into 
prison  with- 
out a  moment's 
warning;  then, 
without  trial, 
they  have  been 
transported  to 
Siberia  to  work 
in  the  mines. 
Men  and  wom- 
en of  the  high- 
est character 
have  thus  been 
torn  from  their 
families  and 
hurried  away  so  secretly  that  not  even  their 
friends  knew  what  had  become  of  them. 

Such  treatment  shows  the  meaning  of  a  des- 
potic form  of  government.      It  also  shows  us 
very   clearly  how  fortunate  we  are  in  living 
under  such  a  government 
as  our  own. 


5.    The  Chinese 
Empire 

Some  of  the  most  im- 
portant arts  that  man 

Former  ^^^^      ^^^r 

progress  of  learned 
the  Chinese      havecome 

from  the  Chinese.  For 
instance,  they  made 
porcelain  dishes  long 
before  the  Europeans 
knew  how,  and  on  that 
account  such  dishes 
are  still  called  china- 
ware,  even  thougli 
manufactured  in  the 
United  States. 


The 
Great  Wall 


They  invented  gunpowder,  and  our 
firecrackers  for  the  Fourth  of  July  for- 
merly came  from  China.  You  have 
doubtless  seen  the  Chinese  letters  on  the 
outside  of  packages.  They  also  discov- 
ered how  to  make  silk  and  paper,  and 
they  invented  the  art  of  printing. 

The  Chinese  were  a  highly  developed  people 
and  a  powerful  nation  long  be- 
fore the  time  of  Christ.  This 
is  shown  by  the  Great  Wall  that 
they  built  along  their  northern  frontier  in  the 
year  212  b.c. 

This  wall,  which  was  built  to  keep  out  invad- 
ers, is  twelve  hundred  miles  long  in  a  straight 
line,  and  more  than  fifteen  hundred  miles  long 
with  all  of  its  windings.  It  leads  up  and  down 
hill  (Fig.  586),  and  even  over  a  mountain  peak. 
The  wall  is  twenty-five  feet  wide  and  thirty 
feet  high,  and  every  few  hundred  feet  there 
are  strong  watchtowers  rising  still  higher.  Al- 
though this  wonderful  structure,  which  required 
armies  of  men  to  build,  is  now  more  than  two 
thousand  years  old,  many  parts  of  it  are  still 
perfect. 


yfe^^'S^»*ss, .  jwSR 

^ 

i 

/') 

% 

B^^^^^^B- 

-.1 
i 

I^^H 

■^Mji^F^^i' 

'4 
1 

^m 

^i3KPEi 

■ 

■■■■■ 

umii 

^^MB^^ei^H^^H^^^^^taBfl 

■i 

Fig.  586.  —  A  view  of  a  part  of  the  great  Chinese  wall. 


428 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


This  strange-looking,  yellow  race  was 
Their  back-  oiice  among  the  foremost  na- 
wardness now,  tions  of  the  earth;  but  now 
with  reasons     ^^  ^^  ^^^^  much  behind  the 

Great  Powers  of  Europe  and  the  New 
World. 

This  is  partly  explained  by  the  fact 
that  the  Chinese  believe  that  whatever 
their  ancestors  did,  they  must  do.  This 
is  called  ancestor  worship.  Since  their 
fathers  had  no  railways,  telegraphs,  or 
telephones,  they  have  wanted  none  them- 
selves.    Also,  because  of  their  dislike  of 


A  second  cause  for  the  backwardness 
of  the  Chinese  has  been  their  poor  gov- 
ernment. It  has  been  an  absolute 
monarchy,  weak  and  corrupt,  like  that 
of  Turkey. 

In  spite   of    these    facts,  it   is  quite 
possible    that   China  will   yet  rank  as 
one  of  the  Great  Powers  of  possible 
the   earth.      Her    enormous  strength  of 
population,  which  is  larger  5^,^^^^*°*^® 
than  that  of  all  Europe,  and  i.   Area  and 
five  times  that  of  the  United  population 
States,  gives  one  great  advantage.     Her 


Fiu.  587.  —  A  Chinese  family  engaged  in  ancestor  worshij). 


new  things,  they  have  neither  traveled 
much  abroad,  nor  allowed  foreigners  to 
visit  them.  Indeed,  they  have  looked 
down  upon  foreigners,  or,  as  they  call 
them,  "  foreign  devils,"  who  have  so 
many  strange  customs. 


area,  which  is  greater  than  that  of  the 
United  States,  gives  her  a  second  ad- 
vantage. 

The  enormous  population  of  China  is  not 
spread  evenly  throughout  the  whole  country 
(Fig.    572).     There   are   some   sections   where 


ASIA 


429 


very  few  people  live,  either  because  the  climate 
is  too  cold  or  too  arid,  or  because  the  country  is 
too  mountainous.  Population  is  sparse,  for 
instance,  in  Tibet,  Turkestan,  and  Mongolia, 
which  together  make  up  half  of  the  empire. 
There  are  some  sections,  as  in  the  Desert  of 
Gobi,  where  even  grazing  cannot  be  carried 
on. 

On  the  other  hand,  vast  hordes  of  Chinese 
live  on  the  river  flood  plains  and  deltas  of  the 
south  and  east.  This  is,  indeed,  the  most 
densely  settled  large  area  on  the  globe.  These 
flood  plains  and  deltas  are  very  broad  and 
fertile,  especially  in  the  lower  portions  of  the 
Hoang-ho  and  Yangtse-kiang  rivers. 

While  the  flood  plains  and  deltas  make  excel- 
lent farm  land,  they  are  in  constant  danger  of 
floods,  and  are  therefore  not  very  safe  places 
to  live  in.  The  Hoang-ho,  for  instance,  may 
rise  as  much  as  forty  feet  in  summer,  and 
sometimes  it  overflows  all  the  low  country  on 
either  side.  There  have  been  many  destruc- 
tive floods,  a  single  one  of  which  destroyed  a 
million  lives.  Because  of  the  repeated  de- 
struction of  life  and  property  due  to  such  floods, 
the  Hoang-ho  has  been  called  "  China's  Sorrow." 


A  third  advantage  which 
China  enjoys  is  her  great 
2.  Variety  Variety  of  cli- 
of  cUmate  jjjj^|.g     Qbserve 

through  what  zones  the  Em- 
pire extends.  How  much 
farther  south  does  it  reach 
than  our  most  southern 
state,  Florida  ?  How  much 
farther  north,  than  our  most 
northern  states  ?  Naturally, 
then,  the  variety  of  climate 
is  even  greater  than  our 
own,  and   hence   the   agri- 


flood  plains  and  deltas ;  some  sections 
are  plateaus ;  and  there  are  also  lofty 
mountain  ranges. 

In  so  large  a  country,  with  so  many 
differences  in  climate,  soil,  and  surface 
features,  there  are  certain  to  be  many 
resources.  Let  us  see  what  the  prin- 
cipal ones  are. 

In  northern  and  western  China,  the 
climate  is  arid,  and  there  are  some  ex- 
tensive deserts.  Here  the  principal 
products  are  meat,  wool,  and  hides. 
South  and  east  of  this  there  is  rainfall 
enough  for  agriculture.  Here  the  prod- 
ucts of  the  temperate  zone,  .    ^ 

^  '4.     Resources 

such    as     wheat,     can     be  (i)  Agncui- 
raised.     What  other  grains  ««™^'^'-''^«c<« 
and    agricultural    products    have    you 
found  in  the  northern  half  of  the  United 
States  ?     All  these  can  be  raised  in  this 
part  of  China. 


Fig.  588.  —  Oue  of  the  Chinese  rivers  on  which  commerce  is  carried  by  the 
use  of  sail  and  row  boats. 


cultural  products  may  be  even  more 
varied.  As  in  our  country,  some  parts 
are  desert,  some  arid,  and  some  have 
abundant  rainfall. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  soil,  too. 
3.  The  surface  There  are  extensive  plains, 
features  some  of   them  broad  river 


Central  China,  just  south  of  this  sec- 
tion, has  a  warm,  temperate  climate. 
Here  cotton,  rice,  millet,  oranges,  and 
silk  are  produced.  Rice  is  one  of  the 
chief  articles  of  food  for  the  Chinese, 
and  China  produces  more  raw  silk  than 
any  other  country  in  the  world. 


430 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


} 


(3)  Minerals 


Fig.  589.  —  Chinese  farm  scenes.    These  terraces  have  been  built  by  the 
Chinese,  so  that  they  can  cultivate  eveu  the  steep  hill  slopes. 


The  extreme  southern  part  of  the 
Empire  extends  into  the  tropical  zone. 
Here  we  find  tropical  fruits,  such 
as  grow  in  Central  America  and  the 
West   Indies.     Name  several  of  them. 

Thus  China  produces  all  the  crops 
that  the  United  States  does,  and  more. 
Name  some  of  their  products  that  we  do 
not  raise. 


The  farming  methods  are  very 
crude,  but  the  Chinese  are  so  skillful 
and  industrious,  that  they  till  every 
bit  of  land  possible  (Fig.  589).  For 
example,  instead  of  leading  water  for 
irrigation  only  to  land  of  gentle  slope, 
as  in  the  United  States,  they  often 
take  it  to  the  very  hilltops.  It  is  first 
raised  from  the  river  by  means  of 
\vheels,  turned  either  by  men  or  by 
buffaloes,  and  then  pumped  upward 
from  one  terrace  to  the  next,  until 
the  whole  hillside  is  watered.  Such 
methods  could  not  be  used  unless 
labor  were  very  cheap.  A  Chinese 
laborer  receives  only  about  ten  cents 
a  day  as  wages. 

There     is    valuable     fishing 
along  the  coast.     The  Chinese 


make  much  use  of  fish  as 
an  article  of  food,  catching 
them    from    the 

,,  (2)  Fishing 

rivers  as  well  as 

from    the    sea.     They    even 

train  birds  to  catch  fish  for 

them. 

The  Chinese  have  never 
been  noted  as  miners,  and 
therefore  little  is 
known  about  the 
mineral  wealth  of  the  coun- 
try. Still  it  is  certain  that 
there  are  vast  deposits  of 
coal  of  the  very  best  qual- 
ity, some  of  it  hard  coal,  like 
that  of  eastern  Pennsylvania. 
There  are  also  extensive  deposits  of 
iron,  gold,  silver,  and  other  valuable 
minerals. 

The   Chinese   are  an  artistic  people, 
and   they  make   very   beautiful   china- 
ware  and  silk  fabrics ;  but  5.   Manufac- 
they  still   do   most   of   the  *""°s 
work  by  hand,  as  has  been  the  custom 
for  thousands  of  years. 


I 


Fig.  590. 


A  Chinese  lady  being  carried  by  two  men 
men  way  of  traveling  in  China. 


wiy  ooiu- 


ASIA 


431 


They  carry  on  other  kinds  of  manufacturing, 
also,  mainly  by  hand.  There  is,  for  instance, 
much  use  made  of  the  bamboo,  whose  wood  is 
used  in  building  houses  (Fig.  591),  as  well  as 
in  making  nearly  all  articles  of  furniture.  The 
l)amboo  is  also  woven  into  mats,  baskets,  and 
hats ;  and  from  its  pulp  paper  is 
made ;  the  seeds  also  are  ground 
up  for  food,  while  the  tender  roots 
and  stalks  are  eaten. 

There  are  so  many  industrious, 
intelligent  people  in  China,  and 
there  are  such  vast  resources,  that 
when  China  once  adopts  modern 
methods  of  manufacturing  she  will 
doubtless  take  a  leading  place 
among  the  nations  of  the  world. 
It  may  happen,  even,  that  China 
will  be  able  to  make  and  sell  goods 
more  cheaply  than  can  be  done  in 
Europe  or  America. 

The  natural  means  of  trans- 
portation  in    China  also  are 


of  China  is  by  boat,  especially  on  the 
Yangtse-kiang  and  Hoang-ho  rivers. 
Trace  these  rivers. 

The  Chinese  have  built  a  number  of 
canals  (Fig.  591),  and  these  have  been 


Fig.  5i»2.  —  A  Chinese  passenger  wheelbarrow,  on  which  people  are  carried 
long  distances. 


excellent.  There  are  many  good  har- 
bors, especially  at  the  mouths  of  the 
6.  Means  of  rivcrs  ;  and  these  rivers  are 
transportation  open  to  navigation  far  into 
the  interior  (Fig.  688).  Even  now,  the 
easiest  way  of  getting  into  the  interior 


Fig.  5!»1.  —  A  Chinese  village,  with   bam- 
boo houses,  on  the  banks  of  a  canal. 

used  for  centuries.  Find  the 
Grand  Canal  on  the  map,  and 
tell  what  cities  it  connects. 
It  was  built  twelve  hundred 
years  ago.  Railways  and 
electric  cars,  being  new  inven- 
tions, have  been  much  dis- 
liked by  the  people.  For  that 
reason  there  are,  even  now, 
few  of  these  in  this  vast 
Empire. 


The  Chinese  methods  of  trans- 
portation have  been,  and  are  still, 
very  crude.  It  has  been  the  cus- 
tom for  men  to  take  the  place  of  horses  to  a 
large  extent,  carrying  goods  on  their  backs,  and 
drawing  both  people  and  freight  in  vehicles  of 
various  kinds  (Fig.  590). 

One  of  the  principal  vehicles  is  the  wheel- 
barrow (Fig.  592),  which  can  be  used  even 
where  the  roads  are  very  narrow.     There  are 


432 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


Fig.  593.  —  A  Chinese  pagoda,  or  temple, 
where  the  people  worship. 

more  than  two  thousand  passenger  wheelbarrows 
in  Shanghai  alone.  It  is  said  that  passengers 
sometimes  travel  from  Shanghai  to  Peking,  a 
distance  of  six  hundred  miles, 
in  wheelbarrows.  Labor  is  so 
cheap  that  it  costs  about  twenty 
cents  a  day,  or  at  the  rate  of 
about  half  a  cent  a  mile,  for 
each  passenger,  two  traveling 
in  a  single  wheelbarrow.  This 
is  about  one  fourth  as  expensive 
as  the  passenger  rate  on  some 
of  our  railways.  The  passen- 
gers in  the  wheelbarrow,  how- 
ever, do  not  go  as  far  in  a 
whole  day  as  we  go  on  our 
trains  in  two  hours  ! 

Of  late,  the  Chinese  have 
been  rapidly  changing  their 
7.   Recent         customs.  They 

advances  ^^q    ^q^    Send- 

ing hundreds  of  their  able 
young  men  to  Europe  and 
to  America  to  learn  about 


our  arts  and  industries.  They  are  in- 
viting foreigners  into  their  country,  are 
building  railroads,  and  improving  their 
laws.  They  have  even  begun  to  make 
important  changes  in  their  form  of  gov- 
ernment, so  that  the  people  may  have  a 
greater  share  in  it.  Thus  the  Chinese 
are  awakening  at  last,  and  it  seems  likely 
that  they  will  make  wonderful  progress 
in  the  future. 

You  have  already  learned  that  a  large 
portion  of   the    Chinese  live  along  the 

coast  and  the  lower  courses 

»   , ,         .  rm  Chief  cities 

01  the  rivers.      Ihere  are  so 

many  people  here  that  scores  of  thou- 
sands can  find  no  room  on  the  land,  but 
live  in  houseboats  on  the  water.  Many 
others  dig  caves  in  the  hillsides,  and  live 
in  them. 

In  this  section  there  are  many  large 
cities.     One  of  the  largest  is  i.  canton  and 
Canton,  which,  situated  on  Hongkong 
a  densely  populated  delta,  is  a  port  of 


Fig.  594.  —  A  caravan  of  camels,  outside  the  walls  of  Peking. 


ASIA 


433 


outlet  for  southern  China.  Canton  is 
noted  especially  for  its  silk. 

Hongkong,  an  island  which  com- 
mands the  approach  to  Canton,  belongs 
to  the  British.  Many  of  the  products 
of  China  are  sent  from  this  port  to  Eu- 
rope and  America. 

Hankau  and  Wuchang,  on  the 
Yangtse-kiang  River,  are  important  river 
„    ^. .  ports  for  tea.     Here,  as  in 

2.  Gibes  on         ^  i^ 

the  Yangtse-  the  case  of  most  Chmese 
kiang  River  citics,  the  number  of  inhab- 
itants is  uncertain.  For  example,  by 
some  estimates,  Hankau  has  a  popula- 
tion of  more  than  a  million ;  by  others, 
only  a  half  million. 

Shanghai  also  is  a  large  city.  It  is 
a  treaty  port ;  that  is,  one  where  for- 
eigners are  allowed  by  treaty 
to  carry  on  trade.  This  is 
not  permitted  in  all  Chinese 
cities. 

Peking,  the  capital   of 
China,  has  been  the  capital  of 

3.  Peking         a     kingdom     for 

and  Tientsin  ^J^j-gg         thoUSaud 

years,  and  the  capital  of  the 
(Jhinese  Empire  for  over 
eight  centuries.  This  city, 
like  others  in  China,  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  high  wall  (Fig. 
594)  with  gates  that  are  closed 
at  night.  Many  European  cit- 
ies in  olden  times  were  so  pro- 
tected. One  portion  of  the  city 
is  reserved  for  the  gardens  and 
palaces  of  the  emperor.  This 
part  is  known  as  the  "  For- 
l)idden  City,"  because  the 
Chinese  government  formerly 
refused  to  allow  foreigners  to 
enter  it. 

Tientsin,  the  port  nearest 


Peking,  is  an  important  seaport.  It  is 
situated  at  the  northern  end  of  the 
Grand  Canal. 

6.    The  Japanese  Empire 

Japan  is  only  a  little  more  than  one 
tenth  as  large  as  China,  and  has  only 
a  little  more  than  one  tenth  Area  and 
as  many  inhabitants.     It  is  population 
not  much  larger  than  the  British  Isles  in 
area  and  population. 

On  the  map  (Fig.  568)  find  the  two 
largest  islands,  Nippon  and  Yezo. 

Find  Formosa,  the  most  southern 
island  of  the  Empire.  The  Kurile  Is- 
lands and  the  southern  half  of  Sakhalin 
Island  also  are  included  in  the  Empire. 
Locate     these    islands.      Estimate    the 


2f 


Fig.  595.  —  A  Japanese  coolie  carrying  water. 


434 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


greatest  length  of  the  Empire  from 
north  to  south. 

Japan  is,  as  you  see,  an  island  em- 
pire like  the  British  Isles.  No  part  of 
the  country  is  far  from  the  sea  and 
therefore  the  Japanese,  like  the  British, 
have  a  favorable  position  for  commerce. 

The  Japanese,  hke  their  neighbors, 
the  Chinese,  belong  to  the  yellow  race. 
Advances  Like  them,  also,  they  have 
since  1853        g,    very 

ancient  civilization. 
For  a  long  time  the 
Japanese,  like  the 
Chinese,  wanted 
nothing  to  do  with 
foreigners.  In  1853, 
however,  an  Ameri- 
can naval  officer, 
Commodore  Perry, 
entered  the  harbor  of 
Yokohama  with  sev- 
eral war  ships,  and 
persuaded  the  Japan- 
ese to  allow  us  to 
trade  with  them. 

Since  that  time 
the  Japanese  have 
made  wonderful  ad- 
vances. They  have 
built  railways  and 
have  established  lines  of  steamships  to 
many  parts  of  the  world.  They  have 
introduced  the  telephone  and  the  tele- 
graph, have  established  many  newspa- 
pers, and  many  schools  of  all  grades. 
At  the  same  time  they  have  made  such 
progress  in  manufacturing  that  they  are 
now  on6  of  the  leading  manufacturing 
nations  of  the  world. 

Only  a  few  years  ago  Japan  engaged 
in  a  war  with  Russia  to  prevent  that 
Great  Power  from  seizing  Korea.     The 


Fig.  596.  —  Mutsuhito,  Emperor,  or  Mikado,  of  Japan 


Japanese  won  the  victory  and  took  con- 
trol of  Korea.  A  few  years  before  that 
they  had  a  war  with  China,  in  which 
they  easily  won. 

Japan  is  now  far  in  advance  of  all 
other  countries  in  Asia.  She  ranks  as 
one  of  the  Great  Powers  of  the  world, 
the  only  one  in  Asia,  and  is  sometimes 
called  the  England  of  the  Orient. 

Probably  no  nation  has  ever  advanced 
more     rapidly    than 

has      Ja-   Reasons  for 
pan  dur-   this  wonderful 

ing  the  *^^^"" 
last  fifty  years. 
Some  of  the  reasons 
for  this  astonishing 
growth  are  as  fol- 
lows :  Perhaps  the 
most  important  of  all 
reasons  has  been  the 
eagerness  of  the  Ja- 

p  a  n  e  S  e    1 .    Eagerness 

to  learn,  toieam 
Soon  after  Commo- 
dore Perry's  visit, 
they  invited  foreign- 
ers to  come  as  teach- 
ers, and  sent  thou- 
sands of  their  young 
men  abroad,  to  study 
in  the  United  States  and  in  Europe. 

A  second  reason  for  the  progress  of 
the  Japanese  is  their  good  government. 
Before  1853  the  real  power  2.  a  good 
was  in  the  hands  of  the  government 
noblemen,  who  had  large  numbers  of 
peasants  to  work  for  them  and  to  fight 
in  their  wars.  This  was  somewhat  like 
the  condition  in  Europe  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  which  was  called  the  feudal  si/stem. 
After  Commodore  Perry's  visit  a  new- 
government  was    established    in    which 


ASIA 


435 


the  people  had  a  voice.  There  is  an 
emperor,  called  the  Mikado  (Fig.  596), 
and  a  legislature  with  two  houses,  one 
elected  by  the  people.  The  government 
is,  therefoje,  a  limited  monarchy. 

The  valuable  resources  of  the  country 
are  a  third  reason  for  the  advance  of 
3  The  natural  *^^V^^-  Theclimatc  is  cvery- 
resources  of  whcrc  moist  cuough  for  agri- 
e  coun  y  culturc,  and  the  temperature 
is  also  favorable.  In  what  zone  does  most 
of  Japan  lie  ?  In  what  zone  is  the  rest  of 
the  Empire  ?  Although  a  large  part  of 
the  surface  is  mountainous  (Fig.  571), 
there  is  yet  much  excellent  soil.  The  peo- 
ple have  learned  to  cultivate  it  very  skill- 
fully, too,  allowing  no  land  to  lie  idle  that 
can  possibly  be  used  for  crops.  About 
one  sixth  of  the  surface  of  the  empire  is 
cultivated. 

The  long  distance  through  which  the 
islands  extend  from  north  to  south, 
makes  it  possible  to  raise  many  different 
kinds  of  crops.  Measure  to  see  how  far 
it  is  from  Yezo,  on  the  north,  to  Formosa, 
on  the  south.  What  is  the  latitude  of  the 
northern  and  of  the  southern  boundaries  ? 
The  crops  in  the  north  are  the  products 


of  the  cool  temperate  zone;  those  in 
the  south,  and  especially  in  Formosa, 
are  such  as  are  common  to  the  tropical 
zone.  Japan,  like  China,  produces  much 
tea,  silk  (Fig.  598),  and  rice  (Fig.  597) ; 
and  as  among  other  Mongolians,  rice  is 
one  of  the  chief  articles  of  food.  Among 
other  farm  products  are  wheat,  vege- 
tables, fruits,  and  sugar  cane. 

There  are  also  valuable  forest  trees,  including 
the  camphor,  the  laurel,  and  the  lacquer  trees, 
which  grow  in  the  forests  that  clothe  the 
mountain  sides. 

Another  resource  of  great  value  is  the  fish 
in  the  waters  surrounding  the  Empire.  Fully 
two  and  a  half  million  Japanese  are  engaged  in 
fishing,  and  fish  form  one  of  the  important  foods 
of  this  island  people. 

This  small  country  has  important 
mineral  resources,  including  gold,  copper, 
iron,  coal,  and  petroleum.  There  is  also 
excellent  water  power  for  use  in  manu- 
facturing. 

A   fourth   reason    for    the   wonderful 
progress  of  Japan  is  that  labor  is  very 
cheap    there,   as   in    China;  4.   cheap  and 
and  that  the  Japanese  are  skuifui  labor 
very  skillful  workmen.     In  the  United 
States  one  often  sees  especially  beautiful 


Fig.  597.  —  Planting  rice  in  the  flooded  fields  in  Japan. 


436 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


Fig.  598.  —  Japanese  women  gathering  the  cocoons  .spun  by  the  silkworm. 


fans,  parasols,  napkins,  dolls,  and  screens 
that  were  made  in  Japan.  Whatever 
the  Japanese  make,  they  try  to  make 
beautiful. 

A  fifth  reason  for  the  advance  of  the 
Japanese  is  the  growth  of  manufacturing. 
g    ^^^  They  have  learned  methods 

growth  of  of  manufacturing  from  Eu- 

mantifacturing  _  j  a  • 

ropeans  and  Americans. 
Therefore,  with  their  skill  and  industry, 
their  cheap  labor,  and  their  abundance  of 
raw  materials,  fuels,  and  water  power,  this 
industry  has  grown  greatly.  In  silk 
manufacturing,  especially,  they  have 
taken  high  rank.  They  are  also  very 
skillful  in  making  pottery ;  and  they 
manufacture  much  cotton  and  wooleu 
cloth,  as  well  as  iron  goods,  including 
machinery  and  ships. 

A  final  reason  for  the  rapid  advance 
of  Japan  is  its  favorable  situation  for 
6.  Advantages  occau  commercc.  In  this 
for  commerce  respect  it  rcscmbles  the  Brit- 
ish Isles.  The  coast  is  very  long,  and 
there  are  many  good  harbors. 

The    islands   are  so  narrow,  and   so 


mountainous,  that  there  can  be  no  large 
navigable  rivers.  But  these  are  not 
greatly  needed,  for  almost  all  parts  of 
the  Empire  are  near  the  sea  and  can 
therefore  be  reached  by  ocean  vessels. 
Short  railroad  lines  also  extend  into  the 
interior  and  connect  the  seaports. 

Japan  suffers  some  serious  drawbacks,  how- 
ever.    For  example,  many  of  the  islands  are 
small,  and  all  of  them  are  moun- 
tainous.     They  are  the  crests  of    ojjvantaee 
a   great   mountain   range    rising 
from  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  and  some  of  the 
peaks  are  volcanoes  (Fig.  571).     The  mountains 
are  still  rising,  too,  and  as  they  rise,  the  rocks 
now  and  then   break  apart  and  change  their 
positions,    causing    earthquakes.       Sometimes 
these  shocks  are  so  powerful  that  houses  are 
thrown  down,  causing  great  destruction  of  life 
and  property.     Japan  has  been  visited  by  many 
terrible  earthquakes  (Fig.  599). 

The  great  number  of  earthquakes  has  caused 
the  Japanese  to  build  low  houses  of  light  ma- 
terials, such  as  bamboo,  which  withstand  the 
shaking.  Even  if  they  are  thrown  down,  they 
are  not  so  dangerous  to  life  as  those  made  of 
stone  or  other  heavy  materials. 

Tokyo,  a  city  about  as  large  as 
Chicago,  is  the  capital  of  Japan.     Be- 


ASIA 


437 


sides  being  the  home 
of  the  Mikado,  and 

there- 


Principal  cities 


f   O 


r  e 


liaving  many  gov- 
ernment buildings, 
it  is  a  busy  manu- 
facturing center. 
Yokohama,  at  the 
(entrance  of  Tokyo 
I5ay,  is  the  leading 
seaport  of  Japan. 

The  second  city 
in  size  is  Osaka, 
noted  for  its  cotton 
manufactures,  and 
liaving  a  population 

of  about  a  million.  Other  important 
cities  are  Kyoto,  the  former  capital, 
and  the  center  of  the  tea  district,  and 
Nagoya,  a  center  for  porcelain  manu- 
facturing. 


Fig.  599. 


Korea 


KiG. 


(KX).  —  A  .lapancse  laborer  di'awiiig  a  two-wheeled  vehicle  called  a 
jinrikisha.    A  common  way  of  going  about  the  cities. 


This  building  was  torn  in  pieces  by  the  shaking  of  the  earth  during  one  of 
the  destructive  Japanese  earthquakes. 

Japan  gained  control  of  Korea  in  1905,  as  a 
result  of  the  war  with  Russia.  This  moun- 
tainous peninsula  has  a  temperate 
climate,  suited  to  the  production 
of  such  crops  as  grains  in  the  north,  and  rice, 
tobacco,  and  cotton  in  the  south. 

In  many  respects  the  Koreans 
resemble  the  ("hinese;  in  fact, 
Korea  was  for  a  long  time  a  de- 
pendency of  China.  While  there 
are  great  natural  resources,  includ- 
ing both  coal  and  iron,  little  use 
has  been  made  of  them.  Like  the 
Chinese,  the  Koreans  formerly  for- 
bade foreigners  to  enter  their  coun- 
try. This  is  indicated  by  the 
name,  "  Hermit  Kingdom,"  long 
applied  to  Korea.  But  since  the 
Japanese  have  obtained  control  of 
Korea,  there  has  been  much  prog- 
ress. The  capital  and  the  largest 
city  is  Seoul. 


7.    Indo-China  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula 

This   peninsula   is   crossed 

from    north     to    surface  and 

south  by  several  principal 
mountain  chains,  ^^^^^ions 
with  long  narrow  valleys  be- 


438 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


tween.  The  flood  plains  and  deltas  of 
the  rivers  in  these  valleys  are  very  fer- 
tile and  are  densely  populated.  Name 
the  largest  two  of  these  rivers. 

In  addition  to  Burma,  vv^hich  is  a  part 
of  the  Indian  Empire,  there  are  three 
divisions  of  the  peninsula :  (1)  Siam, 
(2)  French  Indo-China,  and  (3)  the 
British  Colonies  of  Straits  Settlements 
and  Malay  States.  They  are  all  tropical 
countries. 


Siam 


Fig.  601.  —  A  family  of  ludian  Brahmans  of  high  caste 

Most  of  the  inhabitants  of  Siam  live 
along  the  rivers  and  the  irrigation  canals. 
They  are  engaged  chiefly  in 
the  cultivation  of  rice  ;  but 
millet  also,  which  is  raised  in  the  drier 
places,  is  much  used  for  food.  Among  the 
mineral  products  are  rubies,  sapphires, 
gold,  and  tin.  The  forests  yield  valuable 
tropical  woods. 

Bangkok  is  the  capital  and  the  largest 
city.  Here  are  the  magnificent  palaces 
of  the  king,  and  many  Buddhist  temples, 
decorated  with  gold  and  silver,  and  even 


with  jewels.  Next  to  the  king,  the  white 
elephant  is  held  in  highest  reverence, 
and  Siam  is  often  called  "  the  Land  of 
the  White  Elephant." 

French  Indo-China  resembles  Siam 
in  both  climate  and  people.  Its  forest- 
covered  hills  yield  valuable  French 
teak  and  iron  wood,  and  in  indo-China 
its  valleys  are  extensive  fields  of  rice 
and  millet.  Silk,  cotton,  tea,  and  spices 
are  other  products,  and  there  are  also  ex- 
tensive coal  beds.  Some 
coal  is  exported. 

The  Straits  Settlements 
and  Malay  States  are  the 

two    names  straits  Settle- 
given     to     the  ments  and 
British    posses-   Malay  states 

sions  on  the  southern  end 
of  the  Malay  Peninsula  and 
some  small  islands  near  by. 
In  that  hot,  damp  country, 
so  near  the  equator,  such 
tropical  products  as  rice,  co- 
coanuts,  rubber,  and  spices 
are  obtained.  There  are 
extensive  deposits  of  tin  in 
this  region,  which  supplies 
more  than  half  the  tin  used 
in  the  world.  The  only 
city  of  importance  is  Singapore. 

8.    The  Indian  Empire 

India,  the  central  one  of  the  three 
peninsulas  on  the  southern  side  of  Asia, 
is  about  half  as  large  as  the  Area  and 
United  States,  but  it  con-  population 
tains  more  than  three  times  as  many 
people.  There  are,  in  fact,  more  people 
in  India  than  in  the  whole  of  North 
and  South  America.  In  some  parts  there 
are  as  many  as  five  hundred  persons 
to  the  square  mile. 


ASIA 


439 


The  Indian  Empire  includes  not  only 
the  entire  peninsula  of  India,  but  the  desert 
Divisions  of  Country  of  Baluchistan  on 
the  empire  the  west,  and  fertile  Burma 
on  the  east.  The  two  little  countries  of 
Nepal  and  Bhutan,  among  the  Himalaya 
Mountains  on  the  north,  are  to  some  ex- 
tent under  the  pro- 
tection of  the  Indian 
Empire. 

Most  of  the  Indian 
peninsula    is    a   pla- 


Surface 
features 


teau,  one 


t  h  o  u  - 

sand  to  two  thousand 

feet    high.      But   on 

the  northern   border 

of    the    empire    are 

lofty  mountains,  the 

highest     being     the 

Himalayas.    In  these 

mountains  are  many 

peaks  that  rise  over 

four  miles  above  sea 

level,  and  even   the 

mountain  passes  are 

higher     than     Mont 

Blanc    in   the   Alps. 

Between  these  lofty 

mountains    and    the 

Indian    plateau  is  a 

broad     lowland 

through  which  three 

great  rivers  flow, — 

the  Ganges,  the  Indus,  and  the  Brahma- 
putra.    Trace  each  of  these  rivers. 
The  coast  of  India  is  very    regular, 

and  there  are,  therefore,  few  good  har- 
bors. 

Having  a  tropical  climate,  India  is  a 
very  hot  country ;  and  in 
some  parts  the  climate  is  also 

very  damp.     This  is  true,  for  instance, 


Fig.  602.  —  An  Indian  woman  of  low  caste. 


in  the  southern  part,  and  also  in  the 
north,  on  the  slopes  of  the  Himalaya 
Mountains.  Here,  just  west  of  Burma, 
is  the  region  which  has  the  heaviest  rain- 
fall in  the  world.  Much  of  the  empire, 
however,  suffers  for  want  of  rain.  In 
northwestern  India  and  in  Baluchistan, 
for  instance,  there 
are  extensive  deserts; 
and  much  of  the  in- 
terior of  the  penin- 
sula is  arid.  Thus, 
in  many  parts  of  In- 
dia irrigation  is 
necessary. 

The  natives  of  In- 
dia are  classed  as  a 

branch   The  people 
of     the  and 

white   govef°°^ent 

race,  though  most  of 
them  are  much 
darker  than  Euro- 
]jeans.  Before  the 
British  took  control 
of  India  the  penin- 
sula was  divided  into 
many  states  ruled  by 
native  princes.  Most 
of  the  states,  too, 
have  languages  of 
their  own. 

The  native  states 
still  exist,  and  the 
native  princes  still  hold  their  places ;  but 
they  are  all  under  the  general  control  of 
the  British.  The  present  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  established  in  1858,  and 
India  was  declared  a  part  of  the  British 
empire  in  1877.  Since  that  time  the 
king  of  England  has  also  been  called  the 
Emperor  of  India.  An  officer,  called 
the  viceroy,  is  sent  to  India  from  Eng- 


440 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


Fig.  603.  — The  great  statue  of  Buddha. 


the 


own 


Religion 


land  to   take   general   charge;    but 
natives    have    a    share    in    their 
government,    and    many    of    the    gov 
ernment   officers   are   native    Hindus. 

There  are  a  number  of 
religions  in  India,  includ- 
ing the  Christian, 
the  Mohammedan 
and  the  Buddhist ;  but  the 
religion  of  about  three 
fourths  of  the  people  is 
Brahmanism.  One  of  the 
teachings  of  their  religion 
is  the  belief  in  caste,—  that 
is,  that  a  person  born  in 
one  station  in  life  must 
stay  there  and  cannot  hope 
to  rise  into  a  higher  sta- 
tion. That  is  very  different 
from  our  belief  that  all  men 
are  born  free  and  equal. 

The   people   of   India   have 
many    religious     superstitions. 


For  example,  the  Ganges  is  considered  a  sacred 
river,  and  bathing  in  its  w^aters  is  supposed  to 
wash  avpay  disease.  Since  the  waters  are  also 
used  for  drinking,  this  custom  is  no  doubt  re- 
sponsible for  much  spread  of  disease.  The 
devout  Hindu  makes  at  least  one  pilgrimage 
to  the  holy  river  as  a  means  of  gaining  divine 
favor  and  forgiveness. 

India,   together   with    the    peninsula 
and    islands  east  of    it,   is  the  part  of 
the    world    that    Columbus    was    seek- 
ing when  he  discovered  America.     He 
undertook  his  voyage  in  order  to  find 
a    short    and    easy    route    for    bring- 
ing   to    Europe    the    silks,  why  these 
dyewoods,  spices,  perfumes,  possessions 
ivory,   and   precious    stones  "®  valuable 
that   had   long   been   reaching    Europe 
from  the  Indies.     These  same  valuable 
products    are    still   brought    from    this 
region  ;  but  other  products,  as  well,  now 
come  from  here. 

There  are  extensive  forests  on  the 
mountain  slopes,  from  which  much  lum- 
ber is  obtained.     One  valuable  tree  is 


Fig.  fiOi.,-:r.Na,tlYes  preparing  rattan  in  the  tropical  part  of  southern  India. 


ASIA 


441 


the'  teak,  whose  strong,  durable  wood  is 
useful  in  building  ships.  In  the  hotter 
,  portions  are  plants  valuable 
valuable  forest  for  Hiedicines ;  also  spices, 
products  such  as   pepper  and   cinna- 

mon. The  bamboo  is  used  in  hundreds 
of  ways  in  making  implements  and  in 
building  houses;  and  the  palms  supply 
juices  for  drink,  cocoanuts  (Fig.  609)  for 
food  and  for  oil,  and  fiber  for  ropes  and 
mats. 

Eastern  and  southern  India,  where  the  winds 
blow  from  the  ocean,  have  abundant  rain.     Be- 
cause of  the  dampness  and  the  tropical  heat, 
there  are  extensive  forests  here, 
forming  a  dense  tangle,  or  jungle. 
In  this  jungle  the  tiger  lives ; 
also  the  elephant,  and  other  large 
and  fierce  animals   (Fig.  573). 
There   are    great    numbers    of 
poisonous    serpents,    too,    and 
thousands  of  people  die  every 
year  from  their  bites.    The  Eng- 
lish government  has  done  much 
to   make   life    safer   and   more 
agreeable  in  this  section. 

From  the  very  earliest 
times  the  people  of  India 
„    „  ,    have  been  en- 

2.     Because  of 

agricultural         g^ged  iu  farm- 
pro  ucts  ^^^^    ^^^    ^^    present    fully 

three  fifths  of  them  follow  that  occupa- 
tion. Millet  and  rice  are  the  staple  foods 
of  the  natives  ;  but  after  the  vast  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  are  fed,  there  is  little 
left  for  export. 

Wheat,  on  the  other  hand,  is  raised 
for  export,  and  India  is  an  important 
granary  for  Great  Britain.  Much 
cotton  also  is  produced,  and  a  part 
of  this  likewise  goes  to  Great  Britain. 
Other  agricultural  products  are  sugar 
cane,  tobacco,  opium,  indigo,  of  value 
as  a  dye,  and  jute  which  supplies  a 
coarse,     strong     fiber.       Much     tea    is 


raised  on  the  hills  of  the  very  rainy 
region  at  the  base  of  the  Himalayas, 
south  of  J^hutan  (Fig.  606). 

Tea  requires  a  hot  climate,  plenty  of  rain, 
and  slope  enough  to  prevent  the  water  from 
standing  around  the  roots  of  the  plant.  The 
tea  plant,  which  is  from  two  to  four  feet  high, 
has  bright  green  leaves  similar  to  those  of  a 
rosebush.  The  leaves  are  picked  several  times 
a  year,  in  many  cases  by  boys  and  girls.  After 
being  picked,  the  leaves  are  dried  in  order  to 
remove  all  moisture  before  packing. 

India   is  not  a   great   mining  country,  yet 
there  are  some  valuable  mineral   3.    Because  of 
deposits.     Among  these  are  salt,   mineral  products 
petroleum,  iron,  and   coal.     The   latter   is   of 


Fig.  605.  — The  tiger,  one  the  wild  animals  of  southern  Asia. 

special  value  because  of  its  usefulness  in  manu- 
facturing. Naturally  coal  is  not  much  needed 
as  a  fuel  in  the  homes.     Why  ? 

The  native  inhabitants  of  India,  like 
the  Chinese,  have  long  been  highly  civ- 
ilized and  have  long  been  Benefits  of 
noted  for  their  beautiful  EngUshnile 
hand  work,  in  wood,  metal,  and  cloth. 
They  have  many  fine  buildings  that  are 
centuries  old.  Even  before  the  time  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  and  of  the  Republic 
of  Athens,  the  people  of  India  were 
highly  civilized.  But,  like  the  Chinese, 
for  a  long  time  they  did  not  cultivate 
the  arts  and  sciences  as  Europe  has  done. 


442 


ASIA,  AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


♦ 


Fig.  cog.  —  Natives  picking  tea  in  a  tea  plantation  in  India. 


In  many  ways,  therefore,  it  has  been  to 
their  advantage  to  come  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  British. 

For  instance,  the  British  have  caused 
many  excellent  roads  and  railways  to  be 
built  in  India.  They  have  also  estab- 
lished a  number  of  manufacturing  in- 
dustries,  especially  cotton.  Another 
important  work  has  been  the  improve- 
ment of  the  system  of  irrigation  ;  for 
much  of  western  and  central  India  is  so 
arid  that  irrigation  is  necessary.  Before 
the  British  took  possession,  famines  and 
plagues  were  common.  But  the  people 
are  better  fed  now,  and  with  the  build- 


ing of  roads  and  railways,  food  can  be 
carried  to  places  where  the  crops  are  an 
entire  failure. 

In  spite  of  these  benefits,  one  wonders 
how   so   large  a  country,   with  so  vast 

a    population,    can    be    kept   Reasons  why 

under  control  by  the  English,  the  British  can 
India  is  about  twenty  times  ^o^t^^i^dia 
as  large  as  Great  Britain,  and  has  about 
eight  times  as  many  inhabitants. 

Many  of  the  people  of  India  are,  in 
truth,  dissatisfied  with  the  English  rule, 
and  wish  for  independence ;  but  they 
have  not  been  able  to  obtain  it,  for  India 
is  very  weak.     The  main  cause  for  its 


ASIA 


443 


weakness  is  the  caste  sys- 
tem, already  mentioned. 
Men  belonging  to  one  caste 
will  have  almost  nothing 
to  do  with  those  of  a  lower 
caste  ;  they  will  not  even 
eat  at  the  same  table  with 
them.  There  are  also  dif- 
ferent races,  with  vary- 
ing customs,  among  the 
Indian  people.  These  dif- 
ferences among  them  have 
made  it  impossible  for  the  natives  to 
expel  the  English,  as  they  certainly  could 
if  they  were  united. 

So  many  Hindus  are  engaged  in  farm- 
ing that  only  about  five  per  cent  of  the 
Large  cities  population  dwell  in  large 
1.  Their  towns.    Yet,  there  are  eighty- 

number  three  cities,  each  with  a  popu- 

lation of  more  than  fifty  thousand,  while 
one,  Calcutta,  has  more  than  a  million  in- 
habitants, and  two  others,  Bombay  and 
Madras,  more  than  a  half  million  each. 

Calcutta,  a  seaport  on  the  Ganges 
delta,  is  the  natural  outlet  of  the  fertile 
Ganges  Valley.     Since  the  city  is  situ- 


FiG.  608.  —  Temples  on  the  banks  of  the  Ganges  at  Benares. 


Fig.  607.  —  Native  buffalo  used  for  drawing  wagons  in  India. 


ated  near  coal  fields,  there  is  some  man- 
ufacturing ;  but  Calcutta  is  -    „.^ 

o  '  2.    Cities  on 

chiefly  important  as  a  com-  the  Ganges 
mercial  center  and   as   the 
residence  of  the  "  viceroy,"  or  English 
governor. 

Farther  up  the  Ganges  are  two  smaller  cities, 
LucKNow  and  Benares.  The  latter,  the  "holy 
city  of  the  Hindus,"  is  on  that  part  of  the 
Ganges  which  is  thought  to  be  most  holy.  At 
this  point  temples  (Fig.  608)  line  the  banks  of 
the  river  for  miles,  and  a  steady  stream  of  pil- 
grims pours  into  and  out  of  the  city. 

The  Indus  has  no  such  large  cities  as  those 
on  the  Ganges,  partly  because  the  country  is 
desert,  and  partly  because  the  river  is  too 
shallow  for  navigation. 

Bombay,  next  in  size  to 
Calcutta,   and   the  nearest 

port      to      Eng-    3.    Bombay 

land,  is  a  great  '^'"^  ^^^dT&s 
business  center.  It  is, 
moreover,  the  only  Indian 
city  with  a  good  natural 
harbor.  Madras,  the 
third  largest  city,  is  situ- 
ated at  a  point  where  there 
is  only  an  open  coast  pro- 
tected by  a  breakwater. 

Rangoon,    the    seaport    of 
Burma,  is  impor-  ^     ^^^^^^^ 
tant    for    its     ex-   andMandalay 


444 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


port  of  rice ;  but  Mandalay,  farther  up  the 
Irawadi  River,  is  the  largest  city. 

Ceylon,  with  its  fertile  soil,  abundant  rain- 
fall, and  warm  climate,  is  like  a  beautiful  tropi- 
cal  garden.     It  was  believed  by 

^  the  Arabs  to  be  the  Garden  of 

Eden.  Among  the  products  are  cocoanuts, 
rice,  fruit,  coffee,  and  tea.  The  island  is  the 
third  most  important  tea-producing  section  in 
the  world.  Other  products  are  sapphires, 
rubies,  pearls,  and  mother  of  pearl. 

1.  Give  some  idea  of  the  area  and  population 
of  Asia.  2.  Why  might  we  expect  that  Asia 
would  be  well  known?     3.   What  kind  of  land 


The  Turkish, 
or  Ottoman 
Empire 
1 .     Questions 

5.   What  im- 


FiG.  (509.  —  An  elephant  drawing  a  load  of  cocoanuts  in  Ceylon 


is  found  in  the  southwest  ?  How  has  this  kept 
us  from  knowing  more  about  the  continent? 
4.  What  conditions  in  the  north 
have  made  it  hard  to  find  out 
much  about  Asia  ?  6.  Why  has 
the  central  part  become  little 
known  to  us  ?  6.  How  has  the  character  of 
the  people  prevented  us  from  knowing  more 
about  them  ? 


General  facts 
about  Asia 
1 .     Questions 


Have  you  ever  seen  any  Asiatic  people  ? 
From  what  countries  did  they 
come  ?  2.  Examine  pictures  of 
buildings  in  Asia  (in  this  book,  or  elsewhere) 
and    note    how    they    differ    from    our    own. 


2.    Suggestions 


3.  Write  a  paper  telling  in  what  respects  an 
Asiatic   city   differs   from    one    of    our    own. 

4.  By  what  water  routes  could  you  go  from  New 
York  to  Tientsin  ?  Would  it  be  nearer  to  go 
by  rail  as   far   as  San   Francisco  or   Seattle  ? 

5.  By  what  three  all- water  routes  could  you 
go  from  New  York  to  Bombay  ?  Which  is  the 
shortest?  0.  One  can  go  by  rail  from  Lisbon 
in  Portugal  to  Port  Arthur  on  the  Pacific. 
How  far  is  that  ? 

1.    Why  is  this  empire  of  special  interest  to 
us  ?      2.   Describe    its    surface    and    climate. 

3.  Give    some    facts    about   its 
industries,    products,   and    chief 

cities.  4.  Tell 
about  the  surface 
and  climate  of 
the  Holy  Land, 
portant  events  happened  there  ? 
6.  What  do  you  know  about 
the  former  products  and  com- 
merce of  Palestine?  7.  What 
are  the  present  methods  of 
travel?  8.  State  some  facts 
about  the  ancient  history  of 
Mesopotamia.  9.  What  im- 
portance has  it  at  present  ? 

1.  What  stories  in  the  Bible 
have  you  read,  that  tell  about 
places  mentioned 
in  this  geogra- 
phy ?  2.  Point  out  on  the 
map  (Fig.  576)  some  of  the 
places  often  mentioned  in  the 
New  Testament,  and  describe 
some  of  the  events  that  occurred 
there.     3.   W^hat  is  meant  by  the  date  1909? 

4.  What  is  the  meaning  of  b.c.  and  a.d.  after 
a  date  (for   example,  800  b.c.  or  1900  a.d.)? 

5.  Find   out   some  facts  about  the  Crusades. 

6.  Make  a  sand  or  clay  map  of  the  Holy  Land. 

1.    Describe   the   surface   features   and   cli- 
mate  of   Arabia.     2.    How   is   Mecca    of    im- 
portance?     3.    Tell    about    the 
population  and  products  of  Ara-  ^J^'*'  ^®"'*' 
bia.    4.  Its  government.    5.  De- 
scribe the  surface  features  and 
climate  of  I'ersia.     6.  Name  its 
agricultural  products.     7.   Tell  about  its  min- 
ing   and    manufacturing.     8.    Its    government 


2.     Suggestions 


and 
Afghanistan 
1 .     Questions 


ASIA 


445 


and  chief  city.     9.    State  facts  about  Afghan- 
istan. 

1.   Find     out     how     pearls     are    obtained. 

2.   What   is   mother   of   pearl  ?     3.   Find    out 

more  about  the  life  and  teaching 

2.    Suggestions    ^^   Mohammed.     4.   Examine   a 

Turkish  or  Persian  rug. 

1.    State  some  facts   about  the   best-settled 

part    of    Siberia.     2.    About    its    least-settled 

part.     3.   About  its  most  promis- 

Sibena  ^^^  ^^^^^      ^    Name   and   locate 

1.  Questions       ^j^^  ^j^-^j    ^-^.j^g       ^^    .j^jj   ^^^^^ 

the  use  of  Siberia  as  a  prison. 

1.   Of  what  advantage  will  the  Siberian  rail- 
way be  to  Russia  ?     2.    How  does  that  railway 
compare   in    length   with    those 

2.  Suggestions    ^^^^^^^^^^    the     United     States? 

3.  What  object  do  you  see  in  having  the  east- 
ern terminus,  Port  Arthur,  so  far  south  ? 

1.   Tell  about  the  former  progress  of  the  Chi- 
nese.   2.  Describe  the  Great  Wall.    3.  Why  are 
the  Chinese  so  backward  now  ? 
Chinese  ^    What  about  the  area  and  popu- 

lation  of  China?  5.  Where  do 
most  of  the  people  live  ?  6.  Tell 
about  the  destructive  floods.  7.  What  kinds  of 
climate  are  there  ?  8.  Describe  the  surface 
features.  9.  What  are  the  chief  agricultural 
products?  10.  How  is  farming  carried  on? 
11.  Tell  about  lumber  and  fish.  12.  What 
about  mining?  13.  What  is  the  condition  of 
manufacturing  ?  14.  Tell  what  you  can  about 
means  of  transportation.  15.  Describe  the 
recent  advances  of  the  Chinese.  16.  Name 
and  locate  the  principal  cities. 

1.  How  can  you  distinguish  a  Chinaman 
from  other  men  ?  2.  How  might  railways  in 
China  help  greatly  to  prevent  the 
awful  famines  that  they  some- 
times have  there  ?  3.  Why  should  the  Great 
Wall    have    less   value   now    than    formerly? 

4.  W^hat  reasons  can  you  see  for  or  against  the 
free  admission  of  Chinese  to  the  United  States? 

5.  Find  out  about  some  of  the  events  connected 
with  the  Boxer  trouble  in  China  in  1900. 

1.  Compare  Japan  with  China  in  area  and 
population.  2.  Name  and  locate 
the  parts  of  the  empire.  3.  Com- 
pare Japan  with  the  British 
Isles.  4.  What  advances  have  been  made  by 
Japan  since  1853  ?     5.    Give   several   reasons 


2.    Suggestions 


Japan 

1 .     Questions 


2.    Suggestions 


for  such  advances.  6.  Describe  the  govern- 
ment of  Japan.  7.  Name  the  chief  agricul- 
tural products.  8.  Name  some  of  the  forest 
products.  9.  What  can  you  tell  about  the 
fisheries  ?  10.  Name  the  principal  minerals. 
11.  What  about  manufacturing?  12.  Advan- 
tages for  commerce?  13.  Tell  about  the  vol- 
canoes and  earthquakes.  14.  Name  and  locate 
the  principal  cities. 

1.  Make  a  collection  of  Japanese  articles, 
such  as  paper  napkins,  fans,  etc.  2.  Examine 
them  to  see  in  what  respects 
they    are    artistic   or   beautiful. 

3.  Collect  pictures  of  Japanese  houses  and 
people.  4.  Find  out  something  about  the  war 
between  Russia  and  Japan. 

1.    Describe   the    surface    features    of    this 
region.       2.    Name     the     prin- 
cipal   divisions.      3.    State     the  Indo-China 

principal  facts  about  Siam.  ^  .  ® ,  *  *^ 
.       A 1       ,      T-,         1X1       ^1  •  Peninsula 

4.  About     Irench-lndo    China.    ,      _      ^ 

1 .     Questions 

5.  The   Straits  Settlements  and 
Malay  States. 

1.   About   how    near    is    Singapore    to    the 
equator  ?     2.    Bound  Siam.     3.    Through  what 
waters  would  one  pass  in  going 
from    Bangkok   to    Constantino-  "gg^s 

pie  ?     4.   From  Bangkok  to  Tientsin  ? 

1.  State  some  facts  about  the  area  and  popu- 
lation of  this  region.  2.  Name  the  chief  di- 
visions of  the  Indian  Empire. 
3.  Describe  the  surface  features. 


The  Indian 

Empire 

1      Questions 


4.  The  climate.  5.  What  can 
you  say  about  the  people  and 
government  ?  6.  Mention  some  ways  in  which 
this  region  is  valuable  to  the  British.  7.  What 
are  the  chief  forest  products  ?  8.  The  agri- 
cultural products  ?     9.    The  mineral  products  ? 

10.  Mention  some  benefits  that  the  native  in- 
habitants   have    received    from    British   rule. 

11.  Give  a  special  reason  why  the  British  are 
able  to  control  India.  12.  Name  and  locate 
the  principal  rivers  and  cities.  13.  What  can 
you  tell  about  Ceylon? 

1.  Find  out  about  foreign  missions  to  India, 
or  to  other  parts  of  Asia.  2.  How  far  was 
Columbus  from  India  when  he 
discovered  America  ?  3.  What 
route  should  he  have  taken  if  he  had  continued 
his  voyage  to  India  ?  4.  On  a  globe  find  which 
is  the  shortest  water  route  from  Bombay  to 
London.     5.   Read  Kipling's   "  Jungle  Book." 


2.    Suggestions 


446 


ASIA,   AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


General 
Review 


1.  Name  the  principal  countries  of  Asia,  and 
locate  each.  2.  What  routes  might  you  take 
in  going  to  Peking?  3.  What 
great  cities  of  Europe  and  North 
America  are  in  nearly  the  same 
latitude  as  Peking  ?  4.  Name  the  principal 
rivers   in   Asia,   and    describe    their    courses. 

5.  Name  and  locate  the  chief   cities  of  Asia. 

6.  Draw  an  outline  map  of  Asia,  putting  in  the 
boundaries  of  the  principal  countries.  7.  Put 
in,  also,  the  principal  mountains,  rivers,  and 
cities.  8.  Make  a  sand  map  of  the  continent, 
showing  its  shape  and  its  main  slopes. 

1.  How  do  North  America  and  Asia  differ  in 
form  ?  In  regularity  of  coast  line  ?  In  di- 
rection of  mountain  ranges  ?  In 
Comparisons  extent  of  the  deserts  ?  2.  Does 
Wrilr*^  the  Canadian  Pacific  Railway  lie 
to  the  north  or  the  south  of  the 
Siberian  railway  ?     Which  is  the  longer  ?     3.  Is 


San  Francisco  north  or  south  of  Peking? 
4.  Name  the  three  peninsulas  of  southern  Asia; 
of  southern  Europe.  Which  of  the  six  is  nearest 
the  latitude  of  Florida  ?  5.  Name  the  large 
rivers  of  Asia  and  of  Canada  that  flow  into  the 
Arctic  Ocean.  On  a  globe  estimate  the  shortest 
distance  between  the  mouths  of  the  Mackenzie 
and  Lena  rivers.  6.  How  do  the  great  rivers 
of  Chinacompare  in  length  with  the  Mississippi? 
With  the  Volga  ?  7.  How  do  the  interior  lakes 
and  seas  of  Asia  compare  in  value  for  commerce 
with  our  Great  Lakes  ?  Why?  8.  With  what 
salt  lake  in  North  America  may  the  Aral  Sea 
be  compared  ?  9.  In  what  portions  of  North 
America  and  Asia  is  rice  cultivated  ?  10.  An- 
swer the  same  question  for  cotton.  11.  What 
important  crops  in  Asia  are  not  extensively 
raised  in  the  United  States  ?  12.  What  is  the 
chief  kind  of  government  in  each  of  the  two 
continents  ? 


SECTION  II.    AFRICA 


1,  What  continent  does  Africa  most  resemble 

in   shape  ?     2.    In   what   parts   are   the   chief 

mountain    ranges     (Fig.     611)  ? 

ap  s  u  y  3.  Name  and  trace  the  largest  three 
rivers.  4.  About  how  much  of  Africa  lies  m  the 
torrid  zone?  Is  this  an  advantage  or  a  disad- 
vantage ?  Why  ?  5.  How  does  its  coast  line 
compare  with  that  of  Europe  in  regularity  ? 
6.  What  influence  must  that  have  upon  the 
harbors  ?  7.  What  large  island  lies  east  of 
southern  Africa  ?  8.  What  three  groups  of 
small  islands  lie  west  of  northern  Africa  ? 
9.  Find  the  desert  country,  both  north  and  south 
of  the  equator. 

1.   General  Facts  about  Africa 

Africa  has  the  shape  of  a  triangle, 
broad  in  the  north,  resembling  both 
Surface  North  America   and   South 

features  America  in  this  respect.     It 

has  also  a  very  regular  coast,  with  few 
capes,  peninsulas,  bays,  and  harbors. 
Name  the  cape  that  extends  farthest 
north;  farthest  south  ;  farthest  east ;  far- 


thest west.  What  waters  border  the 
continent  on  the  north;  on  the  east;  on 
the  west? 

The  continent  is  mainly  a  plateau,  but 
there  is  a  mountain  rim  around  part  of 
it.  The  loftiest  mountains  are  in  the 
central  part  of  the  eastern  side.  Locate 
three  mountain  peaks  in  this  section 
(Fig.  612).  One  of  these,  Mt.  Ruwen- 
zori,  is  the  highest  peak  on  the  continent. 
Locate  also  the  Atlas  Mountains;  some 
of  the  peaks  in  this  range  are  14,000 
feet  high. 

A  large  part  of  Africa  is  a  desert.  The 
most  extensive  desert  is  in  the  north, 
stretching  from  the  Atlantic 
Ocean  to  the  Red  Sea,  and 
northward  to  the  shores  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean. What  is  the  name  of  this  vast 
desert  region?  What  names  applied 
to  parts  of  it  do  you  find  on  the  map 
(Fig.  612)  ?     The  dry  country  extends 


/ 


1 


AFRICA 


447 


■■■j 

■■ 

^J^^^^^^H 

^^^^^H 

m'  irfl/- 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^H 

^^1 

^^H 

1        ( 

^^1 

^^^^^^^^^^B 

i^^l 

1    /' 

^^^B; 

.B 

I^H 

\        \ 

II^^H 

■  _( 

^^^B 

^1 

ly^,;'     ^     ^^    .   1 

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K 

'IH 

f".  ' 

^pv 

^ 

^^H  -'" 

M 

^^^^^K  I 

^^^^h"' 

t^^m 

^^B  ^ 

^^H 

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^^H| 

g^  l-^^i^^^V:.:        .^ 

Hjf^H 

^^H 

««^:^^^^^B 

^^^1 

^^^^^■l^^^^^^^^^^r^ 

^^^^^^^^^^BBfe^y?,'-"^^;       .<_ 

■'"'ji^^H^^BB^^^^^^^^BBfeffsg£3s 

■^H 

Fig.  611.  —  Relief  map  of  Africa. 


' 


even  south  of  Lake  Chad,  as  you  may  in- 
fer from  the  fact  that  this  lake  has  no 
outlet.  What  other  lakes  that  you  have 
studied  does  it  resemble  in  this  respect  ? 
There  is  a  desert  also,  though  much 
smaller,  south  of  the  equator. 

Between  these  two  deserts  is  a  broad 
tract  of  tropical  country  in  which  there 


are  heavy  rainfall  and  extensive  forests. 
The  large  number  of  rivers  that  have 
their  sources  here  show  that  there  is 
abundant  rainfall.  Parts  of  this 
tropical  country  are  very  unhealth- 
ful.  This  is  especially  true  along  the 
lower  lands  near  the  coast ;  but  on  the 
plateaus  the  climate  is  not  so  hot.     On 


448 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


Fig.  613.  —  Nomads  encamped  iu  the  desert  of  Algeria,  south,  of  Biskra. 


The  people 


the  northern  and  on  the  southern  side 
of  the  rainy  belt,  and  between  it  and  the 
deserts,  the  country  has  two  seasons, 
one  dry,  the  other  rainy.  Here  the 
forest  disappears  and  there  is  grass  land, 
called  the  savannas. 

Africa  is  the  home  of  the  negro,  and  far 
the  largest  part  of  the  continent  is  still 
occupied  by  the  black  race. 
Some  of  the  negroes  are 
fierce  and  warlike ;  others  are  peaceful. 
The  savages  live  by  hunting,  or  upon  the 
fruits  of  the  forest ;  but  the  negroes  living 
upon  the  savannas  carry  on  herding  and 
simple  forms  of  agriculture. 

Arabs,  who  belong  to  the  white  race, 
have  lived  in  northern  Africa  since  very 
early  times.  Some  of  them  are  herders 
living  the  life  of  the  nomad  (Fig.  613) ; 
others,  on  the  oases,  and  among  the 
mountains,  carry  on  agriculture.  There 
are  now  many  Europeans  living  in  Africa, 
especially  in  the  southern  part.    . 

Africa  has  been  called  the  dark  conti- 
nent. Probably  one  reason  for  this  is 
the  fact  that  it  is  the  home  of  the  black 


man.     Another  reason  is  that  until  re- 
cently we  have  kno^vn  so  little  about  it. 
It  is  one  of  the  oldest  con-  ^^  c&WeA 
tinents  that  history  tells  us  the  dark 
about,  and  it   lies   so  near  continent 
Europe  that  the  two  almost  join  at  the 
Strait  of  Gibraltar;  yet  it  is  the  least 
known  of  all  the  continents. 


ATLANTIC 

OCEAN 

0° 

AFRICA 

Density  of  Population 

'■l:-.:-;^.]   Under  2  inhab.  per  *q,  milt 

WSA  256  fo  512   it       ((       (( 
^Ml  Ov€ri>\2     *« 

Citieu  with  over  100.000 
inhahitanU  are  thown 


..•.«'^ 


f   lijntu'sburz  *? 


20 


10° 


Fiu.  614. 


AFRICA 


449 


There  are  several  reasons  why  so  little 
is  known  about  Africa.  In  the  first 
Why  Africa  is  place,  the  northern  part  of 
so  little  known  the  continent  is  a  vast 
desert,  fully  a  thousand  miles  wide  from 
north  to  south. 

This  vast  region,  most  of  which  is  called  the 

Sahara   Desert,  is  very  difficult  to   cross.     It 

has   no  roads   or   railways,  and 

1 .    The  great       ^j^g  Qj^^y  -yyg^y  ^Q  travel  over  it  is 

nSrapart  ^^  camels  (Fig.  624).  There  are 
so  few  oases  that  the  watering 
places  are  usually  many  miles  apart,  so  that 
both  camels  and  men  may  perish  from  thirst. 
Frightful  sand  storms  sometimes  arise,  continu- 
ing for  hours  and  even  days ;  and  during  these 
the  sand  is  drifted  about  by  the  winds,  filling  the 
air  and  sometimes  even  burying  the  caravans. 
If  these  perils  are  escaped,  there  is  still  the  dan- 
ger of  attack  from  the  fierce  nomads  who  live 
in  the  desert,  and  who  may  rob  the  caravans, 
often  showing  no  mercy  to  travelers. 


It  is  not  strange,  therefore,  that  Europeans 
have  failed  to  become  well  acquainted  with 
Africa  by  entering  it  from  the  north. 

One  would  suppose  that  the  large 
rivers  would  afford  means  for  reaching; 
the  interior.    Trace  the  Nile,  „    ^^ 

'    2.    The  rapids 

Niger,  Congo,  and  Zambezi,  and  fails  in 

1  ,  •  1  £  ,1  the  rivers 

and  notice,  how  tar  they 
extend  into  the  continent.  If  these 
could  be  navigated  far  up  toward  their 
sources,  as  our  Hudson  and  Mississippi 
rivers  can  be,  they  would  make  excellent 
highways  to  the  interior;  but  this  can- 
not be  done,  for  all  of  them  have  rapids 
and  falls  in  their  lower  courses. 

The  reason  for  these  falls  is  that  the  interior 
of  Africa,  like  that  of  both  Mexico  (p.  263) 
and  Spain  (p.  398),  is  mainly  a  plateau,  whose 
elevation  is  from  a  quarter  to  a  half  mile  above 
the  level  of  the  sea.     In  descending  from  this 


Fig.  615.  —  Natives  of  Algeria  drawing  water  from  a  well  on  the  edge  of  an  oasis  in  the  Sahara  desert. 
2g 


450 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


"~^3^5^T^ 


plateau,   the   rivers   tumble   in    cataracts   and 
falls. 

One  of  the  largest  cataracts  is  Victoria  Falls 
(Fig.  629),  in  the  lower  Zambezi  Eiver.  The 
Nile  also  has  several  rapids  ;  and  there  is  a 
great  cataract  in  the  Congo.  Hence  the  rivers 
have  been  of  little  assistance  in  the  exploration 
of  the  continent. 

A  third  reason  why  we  know  so  little 
about  Africa  is  its  unhealthful  climate. 
3  Notice  where  the  Tropics  of 

unhealthful        Canccr  and  Capricorn   cross 
c  mae  the  Continent.  From  this  you 

see  that  most  of  Africa  is  in  the  tropi- 
cal zone.  Indeed,  the  equator  crosses 
it  not  far  from  the 
center,  and  only  the 
northern  and  the 
southern  parts  are  in 
the  temperate  zones. 

In  this  tropical  re- 
gion, the  low  coast 
lands  have  too  hot 
and  damp  a  climate 
for  white  men ;  and 
malaria,  as  well  as 
other  diseases  that 
thrive  in  a  hot,  damp 
climate  are  common. 
Generally,  therefore, 
Europeans  can  live 
with  comfort  only 
upon  the  high  land  of  the  interior.  This 
fact  has  helped  to  keep  foreigners  out  of 
Africa  ;  for  it  is  dangerous  even  to  cross 
the  narrow  strip  of  low  coast  land. 

A  part  of  Central  Africa,  where  the 

rainfall  is  very  heavy,  is  covered  by  a 

dense  forest  like  that  in  the 

jungle,  tiie^Sid   Amazou    Valley    (p.    318). 

animals,  and       ^his   forcst    cxtcuds    north 

the  savages 

and  south  for  a  full  thou- 
sand miles,  and  is  very  difficult  to  travel 
through. 


Besides  this,  there  are  many  wild  animals  in 
the  forest  and  on  the  open  plains  to  the  north  and 
south  of  it.  Among  these  are  the  lion,  the  ele- 
phant, the  rhinoceros,  the  hippopotamus,  and  the 
giraffe  as  well  as  many  serpents  (Fig.  617). 
Some  of  these  animals,  as  the  lion,  are  fierce 
and  dangerous. 

Another  difficulty  comes  from  the  great  num- 
bers of  savage  black  men,  many  of  whom  are 
dangerous  to  meet.  For  centuries  the  negroes 
have  been  seized  and  carried  away  as  slaves  to 
various  parts  of  the  world.  Even  to-day,  the 
Arabs  seize  many  of  thera  for  that  purpose. 
Such  treatment  has  not  helped  to  make  them 
friendly  to  white  men. 


Strange 


as   it 


If 


EQUATOR, 


[Wl  Desert 
CH  Light  Rainfall 
^^  Moderate 
W8  Heavy  " 

■I    reri/  Heavy  " 


V 


Fig.  616.  —  To  illustrate  the  desert  regions  in  the 
trade  wind  and  horse  latitude  belts  of  Africa. 
Also  to  show  the  heavy  rainfall  in  the  belt  of 
calms.  Find  the  similar  belts  on  Figures  407  and 
430. 


may  seem,  the  best- 
known  part  of  Africa 
is  the  very  south- 
e'-n    tip,  ^j^ytj^^ 

the     part   southern  part 
farthest  is  best  known 

from  Europe.  You 
will  notice  that  this 
region  lies  in  the 
temperate  zone, 
which  is  one  reason 
why  Europeans  have 
gone  there.  Another 
reason  is  that,  in 
former  days,  ships 
going  from  Europe 
to  India  had  to  sail 
around  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope.  In  this  way  men  learned 
about  that  section ;  and  long  before 
other  parts  of  the  continent  were  occu- 
pied by  Europeans,  the  Dutch  had  colo- 
nies in  South  Africa.  This  is  now  the 
best  developed  part  of  the  continent. 

Only  during  the  last  half  century  has 
there  been  much  exploration  and  settle- 
ment in  other  parts  of  Africa.  p^j.^g  ^^  Africa 
In  that  time,  however,  some  recently  seized 
of  the  countries  of  Europe  by  Europeans 
have   been   very   active,  and   have  laid 


•v 

^m'f 

'     //.    -^ 

r^'    1 

% 

\      ^ 

1^^ 

f-. 

'^■^^•^    - 

ELEPHANT 


LION 


The  M.N  Co^Buffalo. 


Fig.  617.  —  Some  of  the  wild  animals  of  Africa. 
451 


452 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


claim  to  a  large  part  of  the  continent 
just  as  they  laid  claim  to  North  America 
several  centuries  ago. 

You  can  see  by  the  map  that  Africa 
is  divided  into  many  more  countries  than 
our  continent  has  been.  What  parts  are 
owned  by  Great  Britain  (Fig.  476)  ?  By 
Germany  (Fig.  487)?  By  France?  What 
other  countries  have  colonies  there  (Fig. 
610)  ?  Make  a  sketch  of  Africa,  show- 
ing the  sections  owned  by  the  three  Great 
Powers  of  Europe  just  mentioned. 

Now  that  so  much  of  Africa  is  under 
the  control  of  Europeans,  people  are  go- 
improvements  ^^g  thereto  explore  and  set- 
made  by  tie,  just  as  people  have  come 
Europeans        ^^  ^^^  ^^^  Country.     Thus 

the  continent  is  rapidly  becoming  known. 

In  the  past,  in  most  parts  of  Africa, 
there  have  been  very  few  wagon  roads. 
Goods  had  to  be  carried  either  on  the  rivers 
or  along  paths  or  trails.  The  natives 
themselves  usually  carried  these  goods  on 
their  backs.  Now,  however,  roads,  rail- 
ways, and  telegraph  lines  are  being  built. 

You  will  see  three  large  lakes  on  the 
eastern  side,  south  of  the  equator. 
What  are  their  names  ?  Each  of  these 
is  important  for  navigation,  for  upon 
them  steamboats  can  go  long  distances. 
The  rivers  also  are  much  used  for  navi- 
gation. Above  and  below  the  waterfalls 
of  the  Congo,  the  Nile,  and  other  rivers, 
boats  can  run  long  distances.  With  the 
aid  of  railroads  built  around  the  falls  and 
rapids,  these  rivers  are  now  becoming  of 
great  value  for  transportation. 

The  boldest  plan  of  all  is  to  build  a 
railway  from  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  to 
Cairo  in  Egypt  to  be  called  the  Cape-to- 
Cairo  route.  Doubtless,  in  time,  one  will 
be  able  to  travel  by  rail  all  the  way  from 
Cape  Town  to  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 


2.   Northern  Africa 

The  northern  part  of  Africa  has  long 
been  occupied  by  the  white  race.  In- 
deed, in  early  days,  when  character  of 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  the  people 
were  flourishing,  there  were  large  and 
important  cities  along  the  coast  of  north- 
ern Africa. 

Later,  Arabs  from  Asia  spread  west- 
ward over  that  section,  and  their  de- 
scendants still  occupy  the  region.  Like 
the  Turks  (p.  410),  they  are  Moham- 
medans, and  they  still  make  pilgrimages 
to  the  holy  city,  Mecca,  in  Arabia. 
Their  manners  and  customs  are  very 
different  from  those  of  Europeans.  In- 
deed, they  still  live  much  as  the  people 
of  western  Asia  did  in  the  first  century. 
They  know  little  about  the  rest  of  the 
world,  and  carry  on  hardly  any  trade 
with  other  people.  Their  manufactur- 
ing is  done  by  hand,  and  the  chief  prod- 
ucts of  the  country  are  those  needed  for 
the  simplest  food,  clothing,  and  shelter. 

The  best-known  country  in  this  section 
is  Egyi^t,  which  is  crossed  by  the  Nile 
River.     This  is  the  country 
over  which  the  Pharaohs,  the  oldest  country 
kings  of  Egypt,  used  to  rule,  i-   its  ancient 
Ruins  of  their  buildings,  and    '^  °^^ 
their  immense  pyramids  (Figs.  618,  619), 
built  thousands  of  years  ago,  may  still  be 
seen.     Here,  the  Bible  tells   us,  Moses 
once   lived ;   and   Joseph,   also.     What 
stories  do  you  remember  about  them  ? 

Egypt  is  a  desert  country,  like  Arabia 
to  the  east  and  the  Sahara  to  the  west. 
Yet  Joseph's  brothers,  you  ^  jjowtheNUe 
may  remember,  went  down  River  supports 

.     ,       .  1      ,  ,  r  r»    1      the  inhabitants 

mto  that  country  Irom  Pal- 
estine, to  get  food.     It  is  still  a  great 
agricultural  region. 


AFRICA 


453 


The  fact  that  Egypt  is  so 
productive  is  due  to  the  Nile 
River.  This  great  river  rises 
far  to  the  south  in  the  tropical 
part  of  Central  Africa;  and 
each  year,  in  the  rainy  season, 
the  floods  are  so  great  that  the 
Nile  overflows  its  banks.  The 
water,  carrying  a  large  quan- 
tity of  sediment,  has  built  a 
fertile  flood  plain  on  either  side 
of  the  river,  and  a  broad  delta 
at  its  mouth  (Fig.  622).  The 
annual  floods  spread  over  these 
broad  plains.  Each  overflow 
leaves  a  thin  layer  of  rich  mud, 
and  at  the  same  time  provides 
the  water  necessary  for  crops. 
Thus  each  year  the  river  both 
waters  and  fertilizes  a  vast  tract  of  land.  In 
this  way,  for  thousands  of  years,  millions  of 
people  have  been  supported  in  the  midst  of  the 
desert. 

Egypt  lies  just  north  of  the  Tropic  of 
Cancer,  and  therefore  it  has  a  warm 
3.  The  agricui-  temperate  climate.  It  is  so 
turai  products  warm  there  that  crops  like 
those  of  our  Southern  States  can  be  pro- 
duced. Among  the  principal  products 
are  grain,  cotton,  and  sugar  cane. 

The  Nile  valley  is  the  seat  of  a  great 
grain   industry,  producing  wheat,  corn. 


Fig.  619.  —  One  of  the  pyramids. 


Fig.  618.  —  The  Sphinx  in  the  Egyptian  desert. 


millet,  and  barley.  Much  rice  and 
sugar  cane  also  are  raised,  and  much 
cotton,  which  is  of  especial  value  be- 
cause of  its  long  fiber.  There  are  many 
vineyards,  and  orange,  lemon,  and  fig 
groves ;  and  both  along  the  Nile  and  on 
the  oases  of  the  desert  there  are  groves 
of  date  palms.  Grazing  is  important  in 
the  Nile  Valley  and  on  the  neighboring 
plateau.  The  animals  raised  include 
the  buffalo  and  the  camel,  in  addition  to 
sheep,  goats,  cattle,  horses,  and  donkeys. 

The  eastern  part  of  Egypt  includes  the  Isth- 
mus of  Suez,  which  con- 
nects Africa 
with  Asia. 
Because     of 

this  narrow  neck  of  land, 
ships  sailing  from  Europe 
to  Asia  were  long  com- 
pelled to  go  all  the  way 
around  Africa.  In  1869  a 
canal  eighty-seven  miles 
long,  and  wide  and  deep 
enough  for  large  ocean 
ships,  was  opened  across 
the  Isthmus.  On  a  globe, 
estimate  how  many  miles 
are  saved  by  the  Suez 
Canal  (Fig.  620)  in  making 


4.    The  Suez 
Canal 


454 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


a  journey  from 
London  to  Cal- 
cutta. Name 
the  cities  at  the 
two  ends  of  the 
canal. 

The  gov- 
ernment of 
5.  Gov-  Egypt 

eminent    t  «    t)  p  - 

culiar.  There 
is  a  Tuler 
called  the 
Khedive,  the 
country  be- 
ing a  monarchy.  But  Turkey  claims 
control  of  Egypt,  and  the  Khedive  is 
obliged  to  pay  an  annual  tribute,  in 
money,  to  Turkey.  In  addition,  the 
English  have  a  share  in  the  government, 
for  they  have  control  of  the  finances  of 
the  nation.  Furthermore,  the  British 
have  taken  possession'  of  a  large  area  of 
country  south  of  Egypt.  What  are 
the  names  of  these  English  posses- 
sions ?  The  Nile  flows  through  much 
of  this  territory,  and  the  best  en- 
trance to  it  is  up  the  Nile  Valley. 
This  is  an  added  reason  why  the 
British  should  wish  to  keep 
con  trol  of  Egypt,  at  the  mouth 
of  the  Nile. 


As  a  result   of  British   direc- 
tion,   there    has    recently    been 
much  progress  in  Egypt  and  the 
Sudan.      Extensive      irrigation 
works  have  been  undertaken,  by 
which  the  area  for  raising  cotton 
and  sugar  cane  has  been  greatly 
increased.     By  means  of  resei-- 
voirs   and  canals   it  is  further 
planned   to  reclaim  thousands 
of  square  miles  of  the   desert. 
Several  railway  lines  also  have 
been   built   (Fig.  622),  includ- 
ing a  part  of  the  proposed  line 


Fig.  620.  —  Ships  passing  through  the  Suez  Canal 


Fig.  621.  —  An  Arab  woman   in   the 
streets  of  Cairo- 


from  Cairo  to 
Cape  Town. 
Outside  of  the 
Nile  Valley, 
ho  wever,  travel 
still  depends 
largely  upon 
the  use  of  cam- 
els (Fig.  619). 

At       the 
head  of    the 

delta,    6.   Lead- 

j  u  s  t  ^«  "t^«s 
above  the 
point  where 
the  Nile  branches  (Fig.  622),  is  Cairo, 
the  capital  and  the  largest  city  of  Egypt 
and,  in  fact,  of  all  Africa.  This  inter- 
esting place  is  visited  each  year  by  a 
stream  of  tourists,  some  attracted  by  its 
pleasant  winter  climate,  others  by  the 
strange  life  of  the  country,  or  by  the 
remarkable  ruins  of  its  ancient  civiliza- 
tion (Figs.  618,  619). 

Cairo  itself  contains  the  palace  of  the 
Khedive,  several  interesting  mosques, 
and  a  museum  in  which  there   are 
many  Egyptian  relics  and  works  of 
art.     The  natives  also  attract  atten- 
tion, for   in   the   streets  may  be 
seen  many  people,  with  different 
languages    and    peculiar    cus- 
toms   (Fig.    621).     The   dif- 
ferences among  the  people 
are  indicated  by   the   fol- 
lowing fact:  There  are 
three  Sabbaths  each 
week:  Friday, 
the   Sabbath   of 
the    Mohamme- 
dans; Saturday, 
observed  by  the 
Jews;  and  Sun- 
day, by  the  Christians. 

Alexandria,  connected 
with  Cairo  by  rail,  is  the 
seaport  of  Egypt  and  the 


AFRICA 


455 


second  city  in  size.  More  than  half  the 
trade  is  with  Great  Britain. 

Far  up  the  Nile,  in  Sudan,  is  Khartum, 
now  reached  by  the  railway. 

West  of  Egypt  are  four  countries, 
often  called  the  Barhary  States.  What 
The  Barbary  are  their  names  ?  Morocco, 
states  i)^Q  westernmost,  is  an  inde- 

pendent country,  ruled  by  an  absolute 
monarch  called  the  Sultan.  Tripoli,  the 
easternmost,  belongs  to  Turkey;  but 
the  two  countries  between,  Algeria  and 
Tunis,  are  French  colonies.  In  Tunis, 
however,  there  is  still  a  native  monarch, 
called  the  Bey. 

The  Atlas  Mountains  skirt  the  Medi- 
terranean coast  from  the  Atlantic  Ocean 
to  Tunis,  where  they  project 
into  the  Mediterranean,  form- 
ing the  most  northerly  point 
These  mountains  cause  vapor 
to  be  condensed  when  winds  blow  from 
the  ocean  or  from  the  Mediterranean. 
For  this  reason  many  of  the  valleys 
among  the  mountains  are  well  watered. 


1.    Their 
surface  and 
climate 

in  Africa. 


Fig.  622.  —  The  lower  Nile.  The  shaded  area  between  the 
two  deserts  is  farming  land,  which  is  reached  by  water 
from  the  river.  The  numerous  crossed  lines  are  rail- 
ways. Find  the  Pyramids.  Why  is  the  location  at 
the  head  of  a  fertile  delta,  and  at  the  outlet  of  a  nar- 
row river  valley  bounded  by  desert,  a  favorable  one 
for  a  large  city? 

Each  of  the  Barbary   States  extends 
far   southward  into  the  Sahara  Desert, 


G23.  —  Algerian  natives  plowing  with  a  camel  on  an  oasis  in  the  desert. 


456 


ASIA,   AFBICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


2 
ucts 


and  throughout  most  of  this  great  area 
few  people  are  able  to  live.  Only  on 
the  oases,  of  which  there  are  about  four 
hundred,  is  there  water  for  irrigation 
and  for  drinking  (Fig.  615). 

Forests  cover  some  of  the  mountain 
slopes,  and  one  of  the  valuable  trees  is 

Their  prod-  the  cork  oak.  Large  num- 
bers of  camels,  sheep,  goats, 
and  cattle  are  raised  among  the  moun- 
tains and  upon  the  plateaus. 

Agriculture  is  carried  on  here  and 
there,  often  by  means  of  irrigation,  with 
water  supplied  by  the  mountain  snows 
and  rains,  as  in  southern  California. 
Among  the  crops  are  dates,  grains,  figs, 
grapes,  and  olives.  Wine  from  the 
grapes  of  Algeria  is  shipped  in  large 
quantities  to  France ;  and  much  olive 
oil,  and  the  best  dates  in  the  world, 
come  from  Tunis. 


The  mountains  contain  many  valuable  min- 
eral products,  including  precious  metals  in 
Morocco  and  Algeria,  and  marble  and  alabaster 
in  the  latter  country.  Little  use  is  made  of 
these  minerals,  however. 

A  part  of  the  trade   of  the  Barbary 
States  is  in  products  from  tropical  cen- 
tral Africa,  including  ostrich  3.  caravan 
feathers,    skins,    and    ivory.  ^^^^ 
These    are    brought  by  caravans  across 
the  Sahara  Desert  (Fig.  624). 

One  of  the  important  routes  is  from  Tafilet 
in  Morocco,  southward  to  Timbuktu,  and  the 
trip  requires  fully  three  months.  Estimate  the 
distance.  There  may  be  from  a  thousand  to 
fifteen  hundred  camels  in  a  single  caravan,  and 
a  full  year  may  be  needed  to  get  it  ready. 
Each  camel  is  carefully  selected  by  the  chief  of 
the  caravan,  and  extra  camels  are  taken  to  re- 
place those  that  give  out  on  the  journey.  Usu- 
ally about  a  third  of  the  animals  perish  in  the 
round  trip ;  and  before  the  return  journey  is 
begun,  it  is  necessary  to  give  those  that  live  a 
rest  of  several  weeks. 


Fig.  624.  —  A  caravan  of  camels  crossing  the  Sahara  Desert,  bearing  a  load  of  the  products  of  the  tropical  region 

of  Central  Africa. 


AFRICA 


457 


There  is  one  driver  for  every 
dozen  camels.  Upon  starting,  the 
loads  are  carefully  packed  on  the 
camels'  backs,  each  animal  bearing 
about  three  hundred  pounds.  A 
day's  march  lasts  sixteen  hours, 
the  damels  traveling  some  thirty 
abreast,  at  the  rate  of  about  two 
miles  an  hour.  Ordinary  camels 
cannot  travel  more  than  three  days 
without  drinking;  but  the  better 
grades  are  able  to  go  six  or  seven 
days  without  water,  and  with  al- 
most no  food. 

The  people  of  the  Barbary 

States  are  not  very  progres- 

4.  Character  of  sive,  and  many 
the  inhabitants    ^f  i]^Q^  are  fierce 

and  warlike ;  and,  being  Mo- 
hammedans, they  have  a  deep 
hatred  for  Christians.  There 
has,  however,  been  some 
progress  in  Algiers  and  Tunis, 
under  the  influence  of  the 
French,  especially  in  the  cities 
and  along  the  Mediterranean. 

These  people  are  seen  at  their 
worst  in  Morocco.  Here  many  of  the  inhabit- 
ants are  still  barbarians,  and  some  of  the  tribes 
among  the  mountains  even  refuse  to  recognize 
the  rule  of  the  Sultan.  On  the  whole  the  peo- 
ple are  cruel  and  treacherous,  and  if  a  vessel  is 
wrecked  upon  their  coast,  it  is  sure  to  be  plun- 
dered by  them.  Even  within  the  last  few 
years,  Europeans  have  been  seized  and  held  for 
ransom. 

Conditions  of  life  in  Morocco  are  illustrated 
by  the  following  :  The  writer  once  visited  a 
school  in  Tangier  in  which  there  were  a  dozen 
boys  from  nine  to  ten  years  of  age.  The  room 
where  they  studied  received  its  only  light  from 
the  open  door,  and  there  were  no  seats,  desks, 
or  furniture  of  any  kind.  The  children  sat  on 
the  floor,  around  a  long-bearded  old  man,  Avho 
also  sat  on  the  floor ;  and  the  only  object  that 
each  had  before  him  was  a  page  from  the 
Koran,  or  Mohammedan  Bible.  What  does 
such  a  condition  of  education  suggest  in  regard 
to  progress? 


Fig.  625.  —  An  Arab  school  in  northern  Africa. 

The  capitals  are  the  principal  cities 
among  the  Barbary  States.  Fez,  one  of 
the  capitals  of  Morocco,  is  5.  principal 
in  the  interior  ;  but  the  Sul-  "^^^^ 
tan  does  not  live  there  all  the  year. 
Name  the  other  capital.  Tangier,  on 
the  coast,  is  better  known.  In  Algeria, 
the  seaport,  Algiers,  is  the  capital  and 
the  largest  city.  Under  the  French  it 
has  become  an  important  trading  center. 
The  same  is  true  of  Tunis,  the  capital 
of  the  country  by  that  name.  Locate 
the  capital  of  Tripoli. 

3.    Southern  Africa 

The  Dutch  were  the  first  to  colonize 
the  southern  part  of  Africa.  They  took 
possession  of  the  country  occupied  by  the 


458 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


negroes,  and  introduced  the  industries  of 
farming  and  ranching.  Now  the  British 
Control  of  control  all  this  region,  and 
the  region  the  Dutch  settlers,  called 
Boers,  are  subjects  of  the  British  Empire. 
Formerly  there  were  several  separate 
colonies,  the  most  important  being  Cape 
of  Good  Hope,  Orange  Free  State,  Natal, 
and  Transvaal ;  but  these  are  now  united 


west  of  the  British  Territory  ?  Angola 
is  a,  Portuguese  colony.  What  nation 
controls  the  other  ?  What  country  owns 
the  section  east  of  Rhodesia  ? 

Although  there  are  many  British  and  Dutch 
settlers  in  South  Africa,  there  are  still  more 
negroes,  particularly  in  the  tropical  regions. 
Some  of  them,  like  the  Zulus  (Fig.  626),  have 
fiercely  opposed  the  advance  of  the  whites,  and 
still  maintain  partial  inde- 
pendence. They  have 
made  some  progress 
tovifard  civilization. 


it 


^ 


Fig.  626.  —  A  Zulu  woman  making  a  carpet 


under  a  single  colonial  government,  or 
confederation,  as  the  different  parts  of 
Canada  are. 

The  British  have  also  laid  claim 
to  a  large  tract  of  tropical  country 
north  of  the  Dutch  colonies,  called 
Rhodesia. 

At  present,  therefore,  the  British  con- 
trol a  broad  strip  of  territory  from  the 
southern  tip  of  Africa  northward  to  the 
southern  end  of  Lake  Tanganyika. 
What    are    the    names   of    the   colonies 


Along  the  eastern 
coast,  and  in  some  of 
the  inte- 

1     Agriculture 

nor  val- 
leys, agriculture  is  an 
important  industry. 
Sugar  cane,  bananas, 
pineapples,  tea,  coffee, 
and  rice  are  raised  near 
the  coast,  where  the 
climate  is  warm  and 
damp.  But  wheat,  to- 
bacco, vegetables,  and 
grapes  are  grown  in 
the  cooler  south. 

Much  of  South  Af- 
rica is  an  arid  plateau, 
where  agriculture  is 
possible  only  by  means  of  irrigation. 
Upon  this  plateau,  therefore,  grazing  is 
the  chief  industry.  Immense  numbers 
of  cattle,  sheep,  and  goats  are  raised,  and 
also  many  ostriches  (Fig.  627).  From 
this  it  follows  that  the  production  of 
wool,  hides,  meat,  and  ostrich  feathers  is 
of  importance.  Why  are  the  first  three 
of  special  value  to  Great  Britain  ? 

The  discovery  of  very  rich  deposits 
of  gold  in  South  Africa  has  brought 
great  changes,  as  it  did  in  the  arid  sec- 


AFRICA 


459 


Mining 


tion  of  the  western  United 
States.  The  gold  is  found 
scattered  through 
a  large  bed  of  rock 
in  the  Transvaal,  near  the  city 
of  Johannesburg.  This  is 
now  the  leading  gold-produc- 
ing region  in  the  world ;  in- 
deed, more  gold  is  mined  here 
than  in  the  whole  of  North 
America. 

There  are  other  valuable 
minerals,  such  as  copper,  iron, 
and  coal;  but  as  yet  they 
have  been  little  developed. 
At  KiMBERLEY,  in  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  there  are  wonderr 
ful  diamond  mines,  that  now 
supply  most  of  the  diamonds- 
used  in  the  world. 


The  diamonds  occur  as  rounded 
crystals  in  a  partly  decayed  vol- 
canic rock,  and  are  obtained   by 
digging  out  the  soft  rock  and  mrefuUy  remov- 
ing  the   crystals   (Fig.    628).     After  this,  the 
crystals  must  be  cut  into  the  proper  shape  and 
poUshed.     There  are  various  grades,  some  clear 


Fig.  628.  —  Workmen  picking  out  diamonds  at  Kimberley. 


Fig.  627.  —  Ostriclies  on  an  ostrich  farm  in  South  Africa. 


and  beautiful,  others  impure  and  dull.  So  pro- 
ductive is  this  deposit  of  precious  stones  that  it 
has  already  yielded  three  hundred  milHon 
dollars'  worth  of  diamonds. 


The  two  chief  rivers  of 
South  Africa  are  of  little  use 
as  trade  routes. 
The  Orange 
River  is  not 
navigable  be- 
cause of  lack  of  water.  The 
other  large  river,  the  Zam- 
bezi, is  navigable  in  its  lower 
portion,  by  small  boats  ;  but 
the  climate  near  the  coast 
is  warm,  damp,  and  un- 
healthful.  Rapids  check 
further  navigation,  and  at 
one  point  there  is  a  cataract, 
the    Victoria    Falls,    which 


The  lack  of 
conveniences 
for  transpor- 
tation 


460 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


rivals  even  Niagara  in  grandeur.  This 
cataract  has  a  width  of  more  than  a 
mile,  and  a  height  of  four  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  (Fig.  629).     It  is  therefore  both 


Principal  cities 


Fig.  629.  —  The  Victoria  Falls  in  the  Zambezi  River  of  South  Africa. 


wider  and  higher  than  Niagara ;  but  the 
volume  of  water  is  smaller. 

As  you  can  see  on  the  map  (Fig.  610) 
there  are  now  a  number  of  railways  in 
the  southern  part  of  Africa  ;  and  one 
extends  even  into  Rhodesia. 

The  largest  city  of  Cape  of  Good  Hope, 
and  the  chief  seaport,  is  Cape  Town. 
It  is  connected  with  the  in- 
terior by  a  railway,  which 
forms  the  southern  end  of  the  proposed 
railway  from  Cape  Town  to  Cairo. 

A  second  important  harbor  is  that  of 
Delagoa  Bay,  upon  which  is  situated 
LouRENCO  Marquez,  the  capital  of  Portu- 
guese East  Africa.  Being  connected  by 
rail  with  the  interior,  this. port  has  been 
much  used  for  the  shipment  of  Trans- 
vaal products.  Durban,  the  seaport  of 
Natal,  is  a  small  city,  also  connected  with 
the  Transvaal  by  rail.  The  two  prin- 
cipal interior  cities  are  Kimberley   and 


Johannesburg.  For  what  are  they 
noted  (p..  459)  ?  There  is  no  important 
town  in  German  South  Africa,  which  for 
the  most  part  is  an   arid  plateau.     To 

what  nation  does  Walfisch 

Bay  belong  ? 

4.   Central  Africa 

This  vast  area  is  in 
large  part  unknown. 
Much  of  it  is  tropical 
forest;  but  on  the  northern 
and  southern  sides  are 
open  savannas  (p.  448). 

Because  of  the  heavy 
rainfall  of  the  forest  belt, 
the  rivers  are  y^i^eofthe 

large.       The   rivers  for 
Nile     and   t'-ansportation 

Zambezi,  already  de- 
scribed, and  the  Niger  and 
Congo,  all  receive  water  from  the  equa- 
torial rains.  The  Niger  is  navigable  in 
sections ;  butf  there  are  rapids  in  some 
parts,  and  because  of  the  dry  climate 
the  river  grows  shallow  toward  the 
north.  Its  large  tributary,  the  Benue, 
is  navigable. 

It  is  the  immense  Congo  that  offers 
the  best  natural  highway  to  central 
Africa.  There  is  a  series  of  falls  in  the 
river  a  short  distance  from  the  coast ; 
but  above  these  there  are  thousands  of 
miles  of  navigable  waters  in  the  main 
river  (Fig.  633)  and  its  tributaries.  A 
railway,  two  hundred  and  fifty  miles  in 
length,  connects  the  lower  Congo  with 
Leopoldville,  above  the  falls.  Thence, 
at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  steamers  may 
go  a  thousand  miles  up  the  river,  and 
also  into  many  of  the  tributaries. 

Very  few  Europeans  have  settled  in 
central  Africa,  and  as  yet  there  are  no 


AFRICA 


461 


large  towns.  The  native 
blacks,  who  are  still  in  a  state 
The  native  of  savagery,  live 
inhabitants  for  the  most  part 
in  villages,  in  huts  made  of 
brush,  or  some  similar  mate- 
rial (Figs.  63a,  631).  Some 
of  the  tribes  are  cannibals. 

European  nations  have 
been  active  in  claiming  the 
Divisions  of  greater  part^  of 
this  region  central  Africa ; 
but  they  have  little  real  con- 
trol over  the  natives.  The 
following  are  some  of  the 
more  important  parts  of  cen- 
tral Africa.  Locate  each  one  on  the  map. 
The  Sudan  includes  the  vast  area  that 
lies  between  the  Sahara  and  the  tropical 
forest.  A  large  part  of  it 
is  savanna  country.  More 
than  half  of  the  Sudan  is  claimed  by 
the  French,  and  most  of  the  remainder, 
including  Nigeria  and  the  Egyptian 
Sudan,  is  held  by  the  British.  What 
other  British  possessions  do  you  find  on 
the  map?     There   is  some  gold  in  the 


1.    The  Sudan 


Fig.  630.  —  Negroes  and  a  native  hut  in  Central  Africa. 


west;  but  the  principal  products  are 
ivory  (Fig.  632),  ostrich  feathers,  ebony, 
rubber,  and  gums. 

East  of  the  Sudan  is  Abyssinia,  which 
is,  for  the  most  part,  a  rocky  plateau, 
crossed  by  mountains.  The  ^  ^^^^^^^^ 
inhabitants,  who  are  mainly  and  surrounding 
of  the  white  race,  adopted  *®"'**"^ 
Christianity  more  than  fifteen  hundred 
years  ago ;  but  they  are  not  now  a  very 
progressive     people.      The     exports     of 


Fig.  631.  —  A  negro  village  in  Africa. 


462 


ASIA,   AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


Fig.  632.  —  Negroes  of  Africa  carrying  the  huge 
ivory  tusks  of  the  elephant. 

Abyssinia   include   coffee,  hides,    skins, 
ivory,  and  gold. 

Abyssinia  is  surrounded  by  colonies  of 
other  nations.  Italy  holds  Eritrea  and 
Italian  Somaliland.  What  two  other 
nations  hold  a  part  of  the  coast  on  the 
border  of  Abyssinia  ? 

The  map  shows  several  small  countries  ou 
the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The  divisions  colored 
3.    Small  pink  belong  to  the 

countries  on  British;  those 
the  west  coast  marked  green  to 
the  Germans.  What  are  some  of 
their  names  ?  Find  a  section  be- 
longing to  Spain.  What  parts  are 
controlled  by  France  ? 

One  of  these  small  countries 
is  Liberia,  which  is  of  especial  in- 
terest to  Americans.  It  is  a  negro 
republic,  established  in  1822  by 
Americans  as  a  home  for  freed 
slaves ;  and  its  capital,  Monkovia, 
is  named  after  President  Monroe. 
The  republic   was  modeled   after 


Sierra  Leone,  next  to  it  on  the  west,  which  the 
British  founded  still  earlier  as  a  home  for 
liberated  slaves. 

Belgian  Congo,  crossed  by  the  Congo 
and  its  tributaries,  is  now  under  the 
control  of    Belgium.     It   is  ^    „  ,  . 

5'  4.    Belgium 

in  large  part  a  forest-covei;ed  Congo  and  neigh- 
plateau,  but  there  are  exten-  Coring  territory 

sive  areas  of  grass  land.  Hordes  of  sav- 
ages inhabit  the  forests  and  the  savannas  ; 
the  buffalo,  elephant,  and  leopard  live 
on  the  plains;  and  the  roar  of  the  lion 
is  frequently  heard.  Large  quantities 
of  rubber,  ivory,  palm  oil,  gum,  and 
cocoa,  as  well  as  tropical  woods,  are 
obtained  from  this  region.  Some  gold 
also  is  exported. 

How  many  different  nations  have  possessions 
along  the  borders  of  the  Belgian  Congo  ?  Kame 
the  possessions  that  belong  to  each  country. 
Observe  to  what  extent  the  British  claim  Africa. 
What  break  is  there  in  the  British  territory  be- 
tween the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  and  the  Medi- 
terranean ?  What  varieties  of  climate  do  these 
British  colonies  include  ? 

Several  railways   have   already   been 
built  from  the  coast   of   Africa  toward 
the  interior.     Find  some  of  j^^  ^^^^  ^^ 
those  on  the  map  (Fig.  610).    more  railways 

We  have  seen,  also,  that  some  ^^^^ 
of  the  great  rivers  are  useful  for  the  trans- 
portation of  goods  (Fig.  633).     So  also 


i  i*j.  (i;J3.  —  A  steamboat  ou  the  Cougo. 


AFRICA 


463 


are  the  three  large  lakes  —  Nyassa,  Tan- 
ganyika, and  Victoria  Nyanza.  Already 
there  are  steamers  upon  these  lakes.  A 
railway  connects  Victoria  Nyanza  with 
the  sea,  and  others  are  planned.  But 
many  more  railways  are  needed ;  for 
otherwise  caravans  of  native  porters  must 
bear  the  products  on  their  backs,  travel- 
ing along  narrow  paths  through  the 
forest. 

5.   Islands  near  Africa 

The  island  of  Madagascar,  controlled 
by  the  French,  is  larger  than  any  of  our 
states  except  Texas.  It  lies  a  little 
Islands  on  more  than  two  hundred 
the  east  side  miles  from  the  mainland, 
and  produces  cattle,  hides,  valuable  trop- 
ical woods,  rubber,  and  coffee. 

The  principal  small  islands  on  the  eastern  side 
of  Africa  are  Zanzibar  (British)  near  the  coast, 
and  Reunion  (French) ,  and  Mauritius  (British) 
east  of  Madagascar.  Find  each  of  these  (Fig. 
610) .  There  are  many  others,  as  you  can  see. 
These  islands  are  of  value  as  naval  stations. 

Of  the  many  small  islands  near  the  western, 
coast  the  northernmost  are  the  Madeira  Islands. 
These,  together  with  the  Cajye 
th^^  ^t^'d  Verde  Islands  farther  southwest, 
belong  to  Portugal.  The  Canary 
Islands,  which  belong  to  Spain,  lie  between  these 
two  groups. 

Ascension  Island  and  St.  Helena,  south  of  the 
equator,  belong  to  Great  Britain.  St.  Helena  is 
noted  especially  as  having  been  the  prison  home 
of  Napoleon  Bonaparte. 

1.  Describe  the  surface  features  of  Africa. 
2.  What  kinds  of  climate  are  there  ?  3.  What 
can  you  tell  about  the  people  ? 
4.  Why  is  Africa  called  the  dark 
continent  ?  5.  How  has  the 
Sahara  Desert  prevented  the  exploration  and 
settlement  of  Africa  ?  6.  How  have  the  rapids 
and  falls  in  the  rivers  interfered  with  its  ex- 
ploration ?  7.  State  how  the  climate  has  had 
similar  effect.  8.  How  have  the  forests,  ani- 
malSj  and  people  likewise  kept  Europeans  away  ? 


Review 
Questions 


9.  How  does  it  happen  that  South  Africa  is  the 
best-known  part  ?  10.  What  parts  of  Africa 
have  been  recently  seized  by  Europeans  ?  By 
what  nations  ?  11.  What  improvements  have 
been  made  by  Europeans  ?  12.  Tell  something 
of  the  character  of  the  people  in  northern 
Africa  ?  13.  What  do  you  know  about  the 
ancient  history  of  Egypt  ?  14.  Explain  how 
the  Nile  River  helps  to  support  the  inhabitants. 

15.  Name  the  agricultural  products  of  Egypt. 

16.  Locateand  describe  the  Suez  Canal.  17.  Tell 
about  the  peculiar  government  of  Egypt. 
18.  What  have  the  British  done  to  improve  the 
country  ?  19.  Locate  and  state  the  chief  facts 
about  the  leading  cities.  20.  Name,  locate,  and 
tell  about  the  government  of  the  Barbary  States. 

21.  What   about   their  surface   and   climate  ? 

22.  Their  products  ?  23.  What  can  you  tell 
about  the  caravan  trade?  24.  What  is  the 
character  of  the  people  ?  25.  Name  and  locate 
the  principal  cities.  •  26.  What  nations  control 
the  southern  part  of  Africa  ?  27.  Name  the  parts 
controlled  by  the  British.  28.  What  do  you 
know  about  the  agriculture  there  ?  29.  The 
mining  ?  30.  The  lack  of  conveniences  for  trans- 
portation ?  31.  Locate  and  state  the  chief  facts 
about  the  leading  cities.  32.  How  valuable  are 
the  rivers  of  central  Africa  for  transportation  ? 

33.  Tell      about      the      native      inhabitants. 

34.  Locate  the  Sudan  and  name  its  divisions. 
What  products  are  there  ?  35.  State  the 
principal  facts  about  Abyssinia  and  surrounding 
territory.  36.  Name  and  locate  the  small 
countries  on  the  west  coast.  37.  State  the 
principal  facts  about  the  Belgian  Congo  and 
neighboring  territory.  38.  Explain  the  need 
of  railways  there.  39.  What  can  you  tell 
about  Madagascar  ?  40.  Locate  several 
island  groups  near  Africa.  To  what  nation 
does  each  group  belong  ? 

1.   What  rivers  of  North  America  resemble 
those  of  Africa  in  having  rapids  and  falls  that 
interfere  with  commerce  ?     How 
have  these  obstacles  been  over-  General 

.         •      o     o     n  Review,  with 

come  m  America  ?     2.    Compare,  ^^^„„,-' ^„„ 
.  ,^   ,       comparisons 
as  to  length,  the  Congo  with  the 

Missouri   (see  Appendix) ;   with  the  Amazon. 

3,  Make  a  drawing  of  the  Nile  and  one  of  the 
Mississippi,  showing  the  principal  tributaries 
and    cities.      How     do    the     two     compare  ? 

4.  Compare  the  area  of  Lake  Victoria  Nyanza 
with  that  of  Lake  Superior.     5.  Make  a  sketch 


464 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


map  of  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  compare  the  posi- 
tion of  Africa  with  that  of  South  America. 
What  part  of  the  New  World  is  in  the  same  lati- 
tude as  the  Sahara  Desert  ?  6.  Cape  Horn  is  how 
much  farther  south  than  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ? 
7.  Compare  southern  Africa  with  southern  South 
America  in  products  and  importance.  Why  the 
difference?  8.  What  products  of  Africa  are 
cultivated  also  in  the  United  States  ?  9.  What 
products  of  Africa  are  not  raised  in  our  coun- 
try ?  10.  Give  reasons  why  the  United  States 
is  a  better  country  for  white  men  to  live  in  than 
northern  Africa.     Than  central  Africa. 

1.   Read  the  story  of  Joseph  in  the  Bible  be- 
ginning in  Genesis,  chapter  37.     2.    Read  the 
story   of   Moses.      3.   Find    out 
Suggestions       ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  Pyramids. 

4.  Why  are  the  British  especially  benefited  by 
the  Suez  Canal  ?  5.  What  obstacles  are  there 
in  the  way  of  building  railways  across  the  Sa- 
hara ?     6.    Find  out  some  facts  about  our  short 


war  with  Tripoli  in  1804.  7.  Learn  something 
about  the  missionary  work  in  Africa.  8.  Why 
has  the  Nile  no  large  tributaries  in  its  lower 
course,  and  the  Niger  none  in  its  upper  course  ? 
9.  Find  some  object  made  of  ivory,  and  show 
it  to  the  class.  10.  Find  out  about  the  peculiar 
animal  life  upon  the  island  of  Madagascar. 
11.  Why  was  the  southern  point  of  Africa 
called  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  ?  12.  Who  were 
Bartholomew  Diaz  and  Vasco  da  Gama,  and 
what  part  did  they  take  in  the  discovery  of  the 
water  route  to  India?  13.  Find  some  facts 
about  the  great  African  explorers  of  the  last 
century,  —  such  as  Livingstone,  Mungo  Park, 
and  Stanley.  14.  Read  one  of  the  books  of 
these  explorers  ;  you  will  find  Du  Chaillu's  books 
on  Africa  very  interesting  reading.  15.  Find  out 
about  the  war  between  the  British  and  the 
Boers,  by  which  Great  Britain  gained  control  of 
the  Dutch  territory.  16.  Draw  an  outline  map 
of  Africa  and  put  in  the  principal  countries, 
colonies,  rivers,  and  cities. 


SECTION    III. 


AUSTRALIA,    THE    EAST    INDIES,    AND    OTHER 
ISLANDS   OF   THE   PACIFIC 


1.  Find  Australia  on  a  globe,  and  show  how 
you  would  reach  it  by  ship  from  New  York. 
Through  what  waters  would  you 
Map  study  pass  (Fig.  107)  ?  2.  How  would 
you  reach  it  from  San  Francisco  ?  3.  In  what 
part  are  most  of  the  mountains  ?  4.  The  riv- 
ers ?  5.  The  cities  ?  6.  In  what  zones  is 
Australia  ?  What  does  this  tell  you  about  its 
temperature  ?  7.  What  parts  of  South  America 
and  of  Africa  are  in  the  same  latitude  as  southern 
Australia?  8.  What  are  the  principal  islands 
of  the  East  Indies  ?  9.^-  In  what  direction  are 
the  Philippine  Islands  from  Australia  ?  Esti- 
mate the  distance.  10.  Find  the  Hawaiian 
Islands ;  New  Zealand.  11.  How  does  Tas- 
mania compare  in  area  with  Pennsylvania? 
(See  Appendix.)  With  your  own  state  ? 
12.  Make  the  same  comparison  for  New  Zea- 
land. 13.  For  Borneo  and  New  Guinea. 
14.  What  nations  claim  parts  of  Borneo  ?  New 
Guinea  ? 

1.   Australia 

Australia  lies  apart  from  the  rest  of 
the   world.     Tt   is  the  smallest    of   the 


continents,  the  only  continent  wholly 
surrounded  by  water,  and  the  only  con- 
tinent wholly  in   the   south-  Location 

ern  hemisphere.      With  its  »"<!  a^ea 
area  of  nearly  three  million  square  miles, 
it  approaches  in  size  the  United  States 
and  Europe.    . 

The  names  of  the  three  eastern  divi- 
sions of  the  continent  —  Victoria,  New 
South  Wales,  and  Queens-  ownership  of 
land  —  suggest  the  country  this  continent 
to  which  Australia  belongs.  What  one 
is  it  ?  The  British  control  only  a  part 
of  the  other  continents,  but  Australia, 
the  smallest  of  all  the  continents,  they 
have  entirely  to  themselves. 

As  in  Canada,  the  several  states,  in- 
cluding the  island  of  Tasmania  on  the 
south,  have  combined  to  form  a  Union. 
Together   they   form  a    British    depeu- 


I 


I 


4G5 


466 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AtlSTttALtA,   AxD  ISLAND   GROUPS 


Fig.  637.  —  a  view  in  The  forest  of  castcin   Aiistialiii.     Notice  the  huije  tree 


ferns  tlial  grow  here. 

dency,  as  Canada  does.     This  is  called 
the  Commonwealth  of  Australia. 

When  the  Enghsh  began  to  settle  A  us- 
^,   .      ,  tralia,  more  than  a  century 

Native  plants,  ,  i         <•  i  , 

animals,  and     ago,  they  tound  very  strange 
people  of  plants,  animals,  and  people 

there.  Indeed,  these  were 
quite  different  from  those  found  else- 
where. 

Among  the  desert  grasses,  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  is  the  porcupine  grass, 
which  is  so  hard,  wiry,  and  spiny  as  to 
make  passage  through  it  difficult. 

The  "  scrub  "  trees  of  the  arid  interior  have 
developed  a  foliage  able  to  resist  evaporation. 
For  example,  the  gum  trees  (Eucalyptus)  hold 
their  narrow  leaf  blades  vertically,  with  only 
the  edges  toward  the  sun's  rays ;  the  leaves  of 
wattles  (Acacia),  and  other  plants,  have  shrunk 
to  thorns ;  and  some  trees  secrete  odorous  oils 
that  check  evaporation.  Plants  with  leaves 
that  taste  of  salt  also  thrive  here.  These  "  salt 
bushes"  are  so  valuable  as  forage  for  sheep  and 
cattle  that  they  have  been  introduced  into  the 
arid  section  of  southwestern  United  States. 


»  world. 
639. 


On  the  rainy  slopes,  near 
the  coast,  some  of  the  gum 
trees  are  giants.  They  rival 
the  "Big  Trees"  of  California, 
which  also  thrive  where  damp 
winds  blow  from  the  ocean. 
The  undergrowth  of  the  forest 
(Fig.  637),  which  is  almost 
tropical  in  character,  includes 
tree  ferns,  palms,  and  orchids. 
These  dense  woods  are  called 
the  "bush." 

None  of  the  fierce  animals, 
as  bears,  wolves,  tigers,  and 
lions,  that  are  common  in 
other  continents,  are  found  in 
Australia.  The  largest  ani- 
mal is  the  kangaroo  (Fig. 
639),  which  instead  of  running 
on  all  fours,  jumps  along  on 
its  hind  legs,  using  its  tail  for 
support.  There  are  other  pe- 
culiar animals  unlike  those  liv- 
ing in  other  parts  of  the 
Name  some  of  those  shown  in  Figure 


Fig.  G.'?8.  "Australian  natives,  who  have  just 
killed  a  kangaroo  with  the  boomerang. 
The  boy  holds  a  boomerang  in  his  bauds. 


RABBIT 


PLATYPUS 


KANGAROO 


Fig.  639.  —  Some  of  the  Australian  animals. 
467 


468 


ASIA,  AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND   GROUPS 


The  native  people  were  found  to  be  a 
very  low  class  of  savages,  and  as  some 
of  them  live  in  "the  Bush"  just  men- 
tioned, they  came  to  be  known  as  Bush- 
men.    Some  of  these  natives    still  live 


/■   %j(i?  ISLANDS  .  ,        .-     •• 

-^  .     '  '  .  y.  *       ''': 

'PACIFIC      ocean'- 


AUSTRALIA 

and 
ISLANDS  or  tiu;  PACIFIC 
Density   of 
Population 

Zcs«  titan 
1  per  square  mile 
1  to  ib  per  gq.mile 
25  to  125  per  eq.rnitt 
125  to  500  per  eq.miU 


I  jf  D  j:  A  N 

WllLUyS  ENB.  CO. 


OCEAN  ^ 

TASMANIA^ 


Fig.  640.  —  Density  of  population  in  Australia  and  neigh- 
boring islands. 

in  the  interior,  building  the  rudest  of 
shelters,  and  gaining  their  living  by 
hunting.  They  still  use  a  peculiar 
weapon,  the  boomerang  (Fig.  638),  which, 
when  skillfully  thrown,  will  fly  in  curves 
and  even  return  to  the  thrower. 

When  the  English  took  possession  of 
Australia,  it  seemed  to  be  of  little  im- 
The  first  use  portance.  At  first  it  was 
made  of  the  used  mainly  as  a  penal  col- 
contment  ^^^^    ^^    prison,    to    which 

criminals  were  sent.  It  was  a  very  se- 
cure prison,  too,  for  there  was  little 
danger  that  a  man  sent  there  would 
soon  reach  home  again. 

As  the  continent  came  to  be  better 
known,   however,  people   began   to   go 

Present  popu-   ^^^^^^^  ^f   their  own  accord 
lation  and  its     to  live.     Australia  has  now 
istnbution       more  than  four  million  in- 
habitants, who  instead  of  being  distrib- 


uted equally  over  all  parts  of  the  conti- 
nent, are  collected  mainly  in  the  southern 

and  eastern  portions  (Fig.  640).  | 

The    temperature    is    not    the    chief  | 

cause  of  this,  for  that  is  pleasant  enough  I 

in  most  parts  of  Australia,  as  rr.,    ,  -^ 

^.  '  Ine  reason  ,. 

you  can  infer  from  the  lati-  for  this 
tude.     Show  this  by  means  ^i^t^bution 
of   the  map  (Fig.  634).     What  portion 
is  in  the  tropical  zone  ?  ■ 

The  great  difficulty  is  the  lack  of  rain,  . 
and  this  is  due  to  the  location  of  the 
mountains  and  the  direction  of  the 
winds.  The  larger  part  of  Australia  is  ; 
a  low  plateau,  with  the  chief  mountain  , 
range  on  the  eastern  side.  Point  out  v 
these  mountains.  What  are  they  named?  ' 
In  the  southeast  some  of  the  peaks  reach  ;' 
a  height  of  more  than  a  mile. 

The  prevailing  winds  come  from  the 
southeast  (Fig.  641),  so  that  they  must  . 
blow  over  these  mountains  before  reach-   - 


Fig.  641.  —  Showing  the  heavy  rainfall  on  the  east  facing 
coast  of  Australia,  where  the  trade  winds  blow.  Notice 
also  the  arid  interior  and  west  coast.  What  is  the  con- 
dition in  the  belt  of  calms?  What  resemblance  do  you 
see  to  Figure  430  ? 

ing  the  interior.  This  causes  heavy 
rainfall  on  the  eastern  slopes ;  but  as 
the  winds  continue  on  toward  the  in- 
terior, they  become  very  dry.  At  a 
distance  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 


AUSTRALIA 


469 


from  the  coast  it  is_so  dry  that  farming 
without  irrigation  is  impossible ;  the  only 
exception  being  what  is  called  "dry 
farming."  Farther  west  still,  there  are 
extensive  deserts.  How  does  this  re- 
semble the  condition  in  the  northwest- 
ern part  of  our  own  country  (p.  205)  ? 

If  you  examine  the  map,  you  will  see  signs 
of  the  desert,  for  some  of  the  rivers  fiow  into 
lakes  that  have  no  outlet.  These  lakes,  there- 
fore, are  salt,  like  the  Great  Salt  Lake  of  Utah. 
There  is  so  little  rainfall  in  the  interior  that 
the  Murray  River  becomes  smaller  toward  its 
mouth;  and  its  chief  tributary,  the  Darling, 
dries  up  almost  entirely  in  its  lower  course. 
Such  rivers  cannot  be  of  use  for  navigation, 
and  therefore,  unlike  the  Mississippi,  they  have 
no  large  cities  along  their  banks. 

When  it  is  remembered  that  the 
northern  part  of  Australia  has  a  tropical 
climate,  and  that  the  central  and  west- 


ern parts  are  arid  or  desert,  we  can 
understand  why  most  of  the  people  live 
in  the  southeastern  part.  What  good 
farm  land  there  is,  is  found  mainly 
there ;  here  is  the  chief  river,  the  Mur- 
ray ;  and  here  are  the  principal  cities. 

Fortunately  the  coast  line  in  south- 
eastern Australia  is  also  favorable  to 
settlement.  For  long  distances  the  coast 
elsewhere  is  so  regular  that  there  are 
no  good  harbors  ;  but  the  sinking  of  the 
land  in  the  southeastern  part  has  formed 
excellent  ports,  on  some  of  which  large 
cities  have  grown. 

Finding  native  plants  and  animals  of 
little  use,  the  English  began  Agricultural 
to  import   others.      Merino  products 
sheep,    for   instance,  were  taken   there 
and  found  to  thrive  (Fig.  642). 

Sheep  were  first  known  in  Asia ;  and 


Fig.  G42.  —  A  flock  of  sheep  in  tlie  slieep  raising  country  of  New  South  Wales  in  Australia. 


470 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


Fig.  643.  —  HarveMiui;  (iai?>  iu  Ausintlia. 


the  ancestors  of  the  Merino  were  such, 
as  those  tended  by  Jacob.  From  Asia 
the  breed  spread  along  the  Mediter- 
ranean and  found  in  Spain  a  favorable, 
dry  climate.  From  this  point  flocks 
were  taken  to  the  early  Dutch  colony  of 
South  Africa,  and  thence  to  Australia. 
Here  the  dry  climate  and  the  native 
plants  have  still  further  improved  the 
quality  of  the  wool. 

In  the  early  days  of  Australia  the 
flocks  were  reared  upon  the  unfenced 
government  land,  as  in  the  western  part 
of  the  United  States  (p.  214).  The  sheep 
were  driven  to  pasture  and  watered  and 
cared  for  at  night  by  lonely  shepherds, 
much  as  in  the  days  of  David.  Now, 
however,  the  land  is  largely  fenced  with 
wire,  each  sheep  station  having  its  own 
run,  or  ranch.  To-day,  grazing  is  the 
leading  occupation  in  Australia,  the  best 
section  for  sheep  raising  being  Victoria 
and  New  South  Wales  (Fig.  642).  There 
are  more  than  eighty-three  million  sheep. 


and  wool  is  the  principal  export  of  the 
commonwealth. 

Horses,  cattle,  and  swine  also  are 
raised  in  large  numbers ;  and  frozen 
and  canned  beef,  mutton,  hides,  and  tal- 
low, are  exported.  Many  cattle  are 
raised  for  dairy  products,  and  butter 
is  sent  to  England.  At  the  season 
when  the  cows  of  Belgium  and  Den- 
mark are  kept  in  barns  on  account 
of  the  cold,  the  dairy  herds  of  New 
South  Wales  feed  on  fresh  pastures. 
How  can  you  account  for  this  fact? 

Wheat,  corn,  and  oats  flourish  also 
(Fig.  643) ;  and  many  fruits  and  vege- 
tables, such  as  we  raise  in  our  country, 
are  grown  in  southeastern  Australia  and 
in  Tasmania.  Farther  north,  in  the 
torrid  zone,  tropical  fruits  are  raised, 
and  there  are  also  valuable  products 
from  the  tropical  forests. 

Other  farm  products  are  sugar,  cotton, 
and  rice.  Much  fruit  is  raised  ;  oranges 
in  the  north,  and  the  orchard  products 


A  USTRALIA 


471 


Minerals 


and  small  fruits  of  cool  temperate 
lands,  in  the  south.  In  Victoria  and 
South  Australia,  there  are  many  vine- 
yards. 

Australia  is  a  noted  mineral  region, 
producing  much  gold.  Almost  at  the 
same  time  that  gold  was 
discovered  in  California, 
it  was  also  found  in  Australia,  and 
tens  of  thousands  of  people  rushed 
there  to  wash  the  sands  for  the  precious 
metal.  For  many  years  this  continent 
has  ranked  as  one  of  the  leading  gold- 
producing  regions  of  the  world.  Silver, 
copper,  iron,  coal,  and  other  mineral 
products  also  are  mined  here. 

Manufacturing  is  not  yet  greatly 
developed  in  Australia.  Some  wool 
Manufac-  is  woven  into  cloth ;  some 
tures  leather  is  tanned  and  made 

into  shoes ;  and  much  flour  is  made 
from  the  wheat.  There  are  sawmills 
and  planing  mills ;  and  other  forms 
of  simple  manufacturing  are  carried 
on.  But  most  of  the  wool,  hides, 
and  metals  are  exported ;  and  since 
this  is  a  British  colony,  they  go  mainly 


Fig.  645. 


One  of  the  grand  tiords  on  the  coast  of  New  Zealand,  where  there 
is  some  of  the  finest  scenery  in  the  world. 


Fig.  644.  —  A  street  in  Sydney,  New  South  Wales. 

to  England.  Some  of  the  imports,  many 
of  which  are  received  from  England, 
you  can  probably  name.  Gradually, 
however,  the  Australians  are  develop- 
ing manufacturing,  and  are  thus  com- 
ing to  depend  upon  themselves. 

Since   the  people   and   the  industries 
are   found  mainly  in  the 

humid     south-   Principal 

eastern  part  "ti^^ 
of  Australia,  we  see  why 
several  large  cities  have 
grown  up  in  that  section. 
The  largest  is  Mel- 
bourne, the  capital  of 
Victoria,  and  the  principal 
seaport,  beautifully  situ- 
ated at  the  head  of  a 
broad  harbor.  The  next  in 
size  is  Sydney  (Fig.  644), 
the  capital  of  New  South 
Wales,  which  is  almost  as 
large  as  Melbourne.     It  is 


472 


ASIA,   AFRICA,  AUSTRALIA,  AND  ISLAND  GROUPS 


the  oldest  city  of  Australia.  Adelaide, 
the  capital  of  South  Australia,  is  the 
third  city  in  size.  What  is  the  capital 
and  the  chief  city  of  Tasmania  ?  Of 
Queensland  ? 

One  third  of  the  Australian  people  live  in 
the  capitals  of  the  six  divisions  of  the  common- 
wealth.    These  capitals  are  seaports  connected 
with  the  interior  by  railway, 
and  have   therefore   become 
important  cities.     They  have 
fine    government    buildings 
and  large  public  parks  and 
gardens.     A  few  mining  cen- 
ters,   like     Ballakat     and 
Bendigo,   in  Victoria,  have 
become  large  towns. 

2.   New  Zealand 

More  than  a  thousand 
miles  southeast  of  Aus- 
1.   Surface        traliaarethe 

and  climate  ^^q       large 

mountainous  islands  of 
New  Zealand,  the  North 
Island  and  the  South 
Island.  The  surface  of 
these  islands  is  very 
rugged,  and  there  is 
much  wonderful  scenery 
(Fig.  645).  The  moun- 
tains are  very  grand,  and 
some  of  the  highest  peaks  are  volcanic 
cones.  Heavy  snow  falls  upon  the 
high  mountains  of  South  Island,  and 
from  these  snow  fields  large  glaciers 
descend  through  the  mountain  valleys. 
In  North  Island  there  are  active  vol- 
canoes, and  also  hot  springs  and  geysers 
(Fig.  646),  like  those  of,  the  Yellow- 
stone National  Park. 

Since  these  islands  lie  in  the  belt 
of  stormy  west  winds,  there  is  heavy 
rainfall  on  the  western  slopes.  The 
mountains     are     consequently     clothed 


Fig.  646.  —  A  geyser  in  eruption  in 
'New  Zealand. 


with  forests  of  pine  and  other  trees. 
On  the  lee,  or  eastern,  slopes  the  rain- 
fall is  less,  and  the  land  is  covered 
with  wiry  grasses.  What  effect  must 
the  presence  of  the  ocean  on  all  sides 
have  upon  the  temperature  ? 

The  native  people,  or  Maoris,  who  must  have 
cometo  the  islands  in  boats,  were  a  hardy,  warlike 
race,  living  in 
protected  vil-  f„jj^^ 
lages,  m  the 
midst  of  cultivated  fields. 
At  first  they  opposed  the 
white  men,  and  the  country 
was  not  settled  until  a  half 
century  after  the  founding 
of  Sydney.  After  a  time  the 
Maoris  were  conquered,  and 
those  that  survive  live  mostly 
in  the  interior  of  the  North 
Island.  Many  of  them  are 
civilized,  and  they  are  now 
allowed  representatives  in 
the  legislature. 

As  in  Australia,  graz- 
ing is  the  leading  indus- 
try.     There  3.  industries 

are      twenty    *°^  government 

million  sheep,  and  wool 
and  frozen  mutton  are 
exported  to  England. 
Cattle  likewise  are 
raised,  and  butter  is  ex- 
ported. Agriculture  is  important,  but 
much  land  that  is  suited  to  farming  has 
never  been  cleared  of  forest. 

In  the  south  the  crops  are  those  of 
the  cool  temperate  belt;  but  in  the 
north  the  climate  is  mild  enough  for 
the  growth  of  oranges.  There  are  gold, 
silver,  and  coal  mines  among  the  moun- 
tains, and  valuable  timber  is  obtained 
from  their  slopes.  Manufacturing  is 
not  greatly  developed,  and  is  chiefly 
for  home  use. 

The  situation  of  these  islands,  in  the 


THE  EAST  INDIES 


473 


temperate  zone,  is  favorable  to  rapid 
progress,  and  the  British  people  who 
have  settled  here  have  done  much  to 
develop  the  resources.  They  have  also 
established  one  of  the  best  governments 
in  the  world.  Being  so  far  away  from 
Australia,  and  therefore  with  such  dif- 
ferent interests.  New  Zealand  has  not 
joined  the  Australian  commonwealth, 
but  is  known  as  the  Dominion  of  -Neio 
Zealand. 

Several  short  lines  of  railway  connect 
the  settled  interior  with  the  seaports ; 
4.  Commerce  Toads  and  stage  lines  extend 
and  chief  cities  ^q  ^\^q  j^ore  distant  dis- 
tricts; and  steamers  ply  around  the 
coasts  and  to  distant  countries.  There 
are  four  cities  of  nearly  the  same  size, 
the  smallest  of  which  is  Wellington, 
the  capital,  and  the  largest,  Auckland. 
Find  the  other  two  on  the  map  (Fig. 
634). 

3.   The  East  Indies 

Between  Asia  and  Australia  are  hun- 
dreds of  islands,  some  very  large,  others 
1.  Divisions  so  Small  that  they  find  no 
among  them  place  ou  our  map.  This 
group  of  islands,  or  archipelago,  known 
as  the  East  Indies,  has  animals,  plants, 
and  people  similar  to  those  of  Asia. 
New  Guinea,  however,  which  is  nearest 
to  Australia,  resembles  that  continent 
rather  than  Asia. 

While  the  islands  farther  west  are  overrun 
with  Malays  from  Asia,  the  natives  of  I^ew 
Guinea  are  like  the  native  Australians.  The 
animal  life  also  resembles  that  of  Australia. 
It  is  believed,  therefore,  that  New  Guinea  and 
Australia  were  once  connected.  For  these 
reasons  New  Guinea  is  usually  considered  a  part 
of  Australia,  while  the  islands  west  and  north- 
west are  classed  with  Asia. 

The  Philippine  Islands,  which  belong  to  the 
United  States,  are  really  a  northern  extension 


of  the  East  Indies.     What  can  you  say  about 
them  (p   246)  ? 

It  was  the  East  Indies,  as  well  as 
India  and  the  Malay  Peninsula,  that  Co- 
lumbus was  trying  to  reach.  2.  Their 
Their  products  are  so  valu-  ownership 
able  that  the  European  nations  have 
eagerly  taken  possession  of  them.  Eng- 
land, as  usual,  has  a  part.  Point  it  out. 
This  time,  however,  she  has  not  ob- 
tained the  lion's  share.  That  belongs 
to  the  little  country  of  Holland.  Name 
the  large  islands  that  are  controlled 
wholly,  or  in  part,  by  the  Dutch.  What 
nations  control  the  island  of  Timor  ? 
What  three  have  possession  of  New 
Guinea  ? 

The  immense  size  of  these  islands  is  shown 

by  the  fact  that  Java  has  a  greater  area  than 

New  York  State,  while  Sumatra  is 

T  ..         /-I  Tr        •         T>  3.    Their  area 

larger  than  California.     Borneo, 

one   of   the   largest   islands   in   the   world,   is 

larger  than  all  the  New  England  and  Middle 

Atlantic  States  together. 

New  Guinea,  another  one  of  the  large  islands 

of  the  world,  has  an  area  equal  to  Texas  and 

Pennsylvania    combined.      The    Dutch     East 

Indies  alone   are   fifty  times  as  large   as  The 

Netherlands,  and   have   seven   times  as  many 

inhabitants,   or   nearly   half  as    many   as  the 

United  States. 

All  of  the  larger  islands  are  mountain- 
ous; in  fact  they  are  parts  of  mountain 
ranges  rising  out  of  the  sea.  4.  Their  sur- 
Among  them  are  many  face  and  climate 
active  volcanoes,  some  of  which  have 
had  terribly  destructive  eruptions. 
Many  of  the  smaller  islands  are  merely 
coral  reefs  slightly  raised  above  the 
ocean. 

Lying  so  near  the  equator,  the  islands 
all  have  a  tropical  temperature  and  heavy 
rainfall.  The  dampness  and  heat  to- 
gether make  them  in  some  parts  very 


474 


ASIA,   AFRICA,   AUSTRALIA,   AND   ISLAND   GROUPS 


5.  The  products 


uiihealthful.  Be- 
cause of  the  cli- 
mate, and  of  the 
mountains  and  the 
dense  jungles,  there 
are  large  areas 
which  have  never 
been  explored. 

The  forests  sup- 
ply valuable  woods 
and  gums,  includ- 
ing rub- 
ber and 
camphor.  Large 
areas,  especially  in 
Java,  are  highly 
cultivated  and  pro- 
duce quantities  of 
rice,  sugar  cane,  and 
coffee.  In  the  production  of  the  last 
two  articles,  Java  is  one  of  the  leading 
countries  of  the  world.  Other  products 
are  tea,  indigo,  tobacco,  cotton,  and 
grains.  Among  the  noted  products  of 
the  East  Indies  are  spices,  such  as  pep- 
per, cloves,  and  nutmegs ;  in  fact,  one 


Fig.  G47.  —  New  Guinea  houses  built  iu  trees. 


of  the  island  groups 
is  known  as  the 
Spice  Islands.  What 
is  its  other  name? 
There  are  also  val- 
uable minerals,  in- 
cluding tin,  gold, 
and  precious  stones ; 
and  in  the  tropical 
sea  beautiful  pearl 
shells  are  found. 

The  largest  city 
among  all  the  is- 
lands in  this  region 
is  Manila,  in  the 
Philippines;  and 
next  in  size  is  Ba- 
TAviA,  which  is  the 
center    of    the    co- 


lonial government  of  the  Dutch. 


4.   Islands  of  the  Pacific 

The  map  (Fig.  634)  shows  the  western  Pacific 
dotted  with  island  groups ;  but  these  islands  are 
all  very  small.  What  names  among  them 
have   you    heard   before?     Name   and   locate 


ISLANDS   OF  THE  PACIFIC 


475 


Review 
Questions 


those  that  belong  to  the  United  States.  All 
together,  these  thousands  of  islands  have  a  popu- 
lation of  less  than  a  million  persons. 

The  "high,"  or  volcanic  islands,  like  Fiji 
and  New  Caledonia,  have  peaks  which  rise 
several  thousand  feet.  On  these  islands  there 
are  sugar  and  coffee  plantations,  as  in  Hawaii, 
while  tropical  fruits,  such  as  bananas  and  pine- 
apples, are  raised  in  large  quantities. 

On  the  "  low,"  or  coral  islands,  on  the  other 
hand,   the  cocoanut  palm  is  the  main- 
stay of  human   life,    supplying    food, 
clothing,   shelter,  boats,   and   many 
utensils.      Copra,   the    main   export 
from  Samoa,  and  from  many  other 
Pacific  islands,  is  the  dried  meat 
of  the  cocoanut.    It  is  of  value 
for  food,  and  for  oil. 

1.    Locate  and  state  the  area 
of   Australia.     2.    Who  owns 

Australia,  and  how 

is  it  governed? 

3.    What    can 
you  tell  about  the  native  plants? 

4.  About    the     native    animals? 

5,  State  some  facts  about  the 
Bushmen.  6.  What  use  was  first 
made  of  Australia  ?  7.  What  is 
the  population?  8.  In  what 
part  of  Australia  do  the  inhabit-  ' 
ants  live?  9.  State  the  main 
reasons  why  they  live  in 
that  section.  10.  Describe 
the  coast.  11.  State  im- 
portant facts  about  the 
sheep  industry.  12.  What 
other  animals  and  ani- 
mal products  are  there? 
13.  What  are  the  agricul- 
tural products?  14.  How  do  they  change  from 
north  to  south  ?  15.  What  can  you  tell  about 
the  minerals?  16.  What  is  the  condition  of 
manufacturing?  17.  Name  and  locate  the  prin- 
cipal cities.  18.  Which  of  these  are  capitals, 
and  of  which  division  of  the  Commonwealth? 
19.  What  are  the  surface  features  and  climate 
of  New  Zealand  ?  20.  What  about  the  native 
inhabitants?  21.  The  industries  and  govern- 
ment? 22.  Name  and  locate  the  chief  cities. 
23.  Tell  about  the  East  Indies ;  divisions  among 
them  ;  government ;  area ;  surface  and  climate ; 
products  and  chief  city.     24.   How  does  New 


Fig.  049.  —  A  native  of  Fiji  Islands 


Guinea  differ  from  the  East  Indies  ?     26.   What 
can  you  tell  about  other  islands  of  the  ^j^acific  ? 

1.   Australia  resembles  South  Africa  in  its 
surface,    climate,    occupation,    and    products. 
Show  how  this  is  true.     2.    Aus- 
tralia also  resembles  the  western   General 
part   of    the    United    States    in  Review  Ques- 
^, .  , .  ,         ,     tions  and 

climate,  in  occupations  and  prod-   comparisons 
ucts,  and  in  the  order  of  develop- 
ment of  her  resources.     Show  how  this  is 
true,    also.     3.    What   other  countries,  be- 
sides   Australia,  are  especially  noted  for 
cattle  and  sheep?     4.   For  gold  mining? 
5.   In   what  respects  does  southern  South 
America   (Chile   and   Argentina)    resemble 
Australia?     6.   What  part  of  Australia 
has  the  same  latitude,  in  the  south- 
ern  hemisphere,   that    southern 
Florida  has  in   the  northern  ? 
7.   Name  and  locate  the  prin- 
cipal desert  regions  on  the  earth. 
8.    Which  of  our  states  most  nearly 
equals  New  Zealand  in  area?     9.   What 
peninsula  of  Europe  resembles  New  Zea- 
land in  shape?     How  do  the  two  coun- 
tries compare  in  area  ?    In  population  ? 

1.  If  it  were  within  your  power, 
how  would  you  arrange  the  high- 
lands of  Australia  so    _ 

,,  .    Suggestions 

as  to  secure  the  most 

even  distribution  of  rain  ? 
2.  Estimate  the  greatest 
length  of  New  Zealand. 
Compare  it  with  a  line  ex- 
tending from  New  Orleans 
northward.  3.  Estimate 
the  distance  from  Batavia 
to  Manila.  4.  Write  your 
impression  of  the  climate  of  Melbourne  in  Janu- 
ary ;  in  July.  5.  Read  Whittier's  poem  on  the 
Palm  Tree.  6.  Learn  something  about  the  work 
of  missionaries  in  the  small  Pacific  islands. 
7.  Find  out  about  the  trouble  caused  by  rabbits 
that  were  imported  into  Australia.  8.  By  what 
routes  can  you  go  from  New  York  City  to  Aus- 
tralia ?  Through  what  waters  ?  Which  would 
be  the  shortest  ?   About  how  many  miles  shorter  ? 

9.  Make  a  sketch  map  of   Australia,  putting 
in  the  principal  mountains,  rivers,  and  cities. 

10.  Read  in  Tarr's  "  Elementary  Geology  "  (pp. 
251-256)  about  the  origin  of  atolls. 


PART  YIII 

REVIEW   OF   UNITED   STATES   AND   COMPARISONS   WITH 

OTHER   COUNTRIES 


The  Great 
Powers  of  the 
world,  and 
their  forms  of 
government 


British    Empire 


We  have  seen  that  there  are  six  na- 
tions of  Europe  that  are  called  Great 
Powers,  or  World  Powers. 
Name  each  of  them  (p.  337). 
The  United  States  makes  a 
seventh  World  Power,  and 
Japan  an  eighth.  Give  the 
principal  boundaries  of  each.  Which 
two  have  a  republi- 
can form  of  govern- 
ment ?  Which  one 
is  an  absolute  mon- 
archy (p.  882)  ? 
What  form  of  gov- 
ernment have  the 
other  five  ?  Each 
of  the  other  nations 
on     the     earth     is 

called  a  "  Minor "  or  Lesser  Power,  be- 
ing much  weaker  than  any 
one  of  the  eight  World 
Powers. 

On  what  continent  is  each 
eight   World    Powers   located? 


What  continents,  therefore,  contain  no 
Great  Powers  ? 

In  what  zone  does  the  United  States 
lie  ?  In  what  zone  is  the  main  portion  of 
the  other  World  Powers  ?  Can  you  give 
any  reasons  why  the  chief  nations  of  the 
earth  are  found  in  the  temperate  zone  ? 

The  greatest  of  these  eight  Powers, 


RuMian   Empire 


United   Stale; 
and  Pt>«»e»»ion«    Germany 


Aiutria-Hungary  241,333 

Japan  and  PoueMiont   161,113 
Italy     and  PoMeuiont   160,839 


Fig   650.  — The  areas  controlled  by  the  eight  World  Powers. 


Continents 
and  zone  to 
which  the 
World  Powers 
belong 

of    the 


in  area,  is  the  British  Empire,  as  seen 
in  Figure  650.     What  is  the 
rank  in  area  of  each  of  the 
others  ? 

In  Figure  651  the  British 
Empire  is  seen  to  have  also  Powers 


United  States 
compared  in 
area  and  popu- 
lation with 
other  Great 


\J^'y^J -r'X-r-' -■ 


United    States  France 


RutsUn      Empire 


Fig.  651.  —  Population  of  the  eight  World  Powers  (1906). 
476 


i 


COMPARISONS    WITH  OTHER    COUNTRIES 


477 


the  largest  population  of  the  eight. 
What  is  the  rank  of  each  of  the  others 
in  population  ?  What  is  the  rank  of 
our  country  in  area  and  in  population 
compared  with  the  other  World  Powers? 
The  Power  that  has  the  most  important 
foreign  possessions  is  the  British  Empire. 
Dependencies  I^  Figure  476  point  out  the 
of  the  principal  foreign  possessions 

Great  Powers    ^f  ^j^^  British.     Can  you  ac- 
count in  any  way  for  the  fact  that  the 


F.ngl«n«< 


^E~ 


Belgium 


588  J«p«n 


TsS 


Argentim 


IhJT" 


~36i 


se^ 


tion  than  most  of  the  eight.  Yet  it  is 
a  backward  nation,  for  reasons  that  we 
have  already  studied.  What  are  they 
(p.  427)  ?  China,  however,  is  a  very 
promising  nation  for  the  future.  Why 
(p.  428)  ?  What  do  you  know  about 
its  occupations  (pp.  429-431)  ? 

Argentina  is  the  most  promising  coun- 
try in  South  America.  What  can  you 
tell  about  it  (p.  316)  ?  What  other  two 
nations  of  that  continent  might  be  com- 
pared with  Argentina  in 
importance  (pp.  317,  326)  ? 
Tell  the  principal  facts 
about  each.  How  does 
Brazil  compare  with  the 
Great  Powers  in  area  ? 
(See  Appendix.) 

About  one  person  in 
eight  now  living  in  the 
United    States 


United  Stete*        25 


rfjB 


GemiMir~ 


Philippine  Ii.  S** 


Australia 


Fig.  653.  —  Density  of  population  of  some  of  the  countries  of  the  world 


British  have  control  over  so  much  of  the 

earth  ?    Point  out  the  foreign  possessions 

of  the  United   States,   (Fig.   487).     Of 

Russia, ;  Germany ;  France  (Fig.  652). 

It    should*  be    remembered    that   the 

eight  World  Powers  mentioned  are  not 

the     eight    largest    nations 

and  promising   oi    the    earth.      They    are 

countries  of      simply    the    eisrht   stronaest 
the  world  J  -^       ^,  .      ^ ,      .      ^    *^ 

nations.  China,  tor  instance, 

is  much  larger  both  in  area  and  popula- 


Immigrants 

came  here  from  to  the 
some      other  United  states 

land.  Figure  458  shows 
which  countries  have  been 
sending  us  the  greatest 
number.  Which  ranks 
second  in  this  respect  ? 
Can  you  name  other  coun- 
tries not  named  in  this 
diagram  that  have  sent  us 
immigrants  ?  Which  of 
the  Great  Powers  has  been  sending  us 
the  most  immigrants  ?  Which  have  sent 
very  few  ? 

Figure  653  shows  the  density  of  popu- 
lation, or  the  number  of  people  to  the 
square  mile,  in  -some  of  the 

,    .  .  , ,  ,  ,      Density  of 

countries      m      the     world,   population  in 
From    this   it   will    be  seen   several 
that   the    United    States    is  ^''""t"^^ 
very  thinly  settled,  compared  with  many 
countries.     Compare  the  United   States 


478 


REVIEW  OF   UNITED   STATES 


in  this  regard  with  Belgium,  England, 
Cuba,  Mexico,  and  Canada. 

Name  and  locate  the  principal  moun- 
tain systems  in  the  United  States. 
Surface  Describe    the    drainage    of 

features  the  United    States.     Name 

and  locate  our  principal  rivers.  Which 
continent  has  its  lofty  mountains  arranged 
most  nearly  like  those  of  North  America  ? 
Show  this.  HoAv  does  the  arrangement 
of  mountains  in  North  America  compare 
with    that    in    Europe?     Compare    the 


countries  in  Europe  having  most  nearly 
the  same  latitude.  Why  the  difference 
(pp.  334,  368)? 

Tell  about  the  prevailing  winds  and 
the  rainfall  in  western  United  States 
(p.  294) ;  the  cyclonic  storms  and  their 
effects  (p.  297);  the  prevailing  winds 
of  Europe  (p.  334) ;  the  rainfall  there, 
with  reasons  (p.  334).  In  what  respects 
are  North  America  and  Europe  alike  in 
regard  to  winds  and  rain  ? 

In  spite  of  the  fact  that  some  nations 


GEOGRAPHIC  DISTRIBUTION ' 
OF  INDIAN  CORN  OR  MAIZE 


Fig.  (J54.  —  Coru  sections  of  the  world. 


Climate 


surface  of  the  United  States  with  that 
of  European  Russia  (p.  382)  ;  of  Brazil 
(p.  317)  ;  of  China  (p.  429). 

What  is  the  latitude  of  the  north- 
ern boundary  of  the  United  States  ? 
Of  the  southern?  Compare 
the  latitude  of  our  country 
with  that  of  the  British  Isles  (Fig.  459) ; 
with  that  of  Germany,  Italy,  Egypt, 
India,   China,    Argentina,  Australia. 

How  do  ocean  currents  affect  the 
temperature  of  the  eastern  part  of  our 
country?  Of  the  western  part  (p.  303)? 
Compare  our  temperature  with  that  of 


are  larger  and  more  densely  settled,  the 
United  States  leads  the  world  in  many 
very  important  respects,  and  j^^^^  ^^^^ 
approaches      leadership     in  products 
several  others.     Figure  654  ^-   ^""^ 
shows  that  no    nation  is  a   close   rival 
to  us  in  the  production  of  Indian  corn. 
What    countries,    however,  *  raise  large 
quantities  of  it  ?      Why  is  no  Indian  corn 
raised  in  the  British  Isles  (p.  340)  ? 

Wheat  is  more  widely  cultivated  than 
corn   (Fig.    655).      Yet   we  ^    ^^^^^ 
are   far  in  the   lead  in   the 
production    of    that    grain.      Point   out 


w 


COMPARISONS    WITH   OTHER    COUNTRIES 


479 


(Fig.  655)  the  leading  wheat  fields  of 
the  world.  Which  sections  are  important 
for  both  wheat  and  corn  ?  On  which 
side    of    the   Atlantic   is    wheat    raised 


farthest  north  ?     Why  (p.  334)  ?     Name 

in  order  the  eight  countries  that  lead  in 

the  production  of  this  grain  (Fig.  656). 

Note  what  sections  of  the  world  raise 


United     States 


Fig.  655.  —  Wheat  sections  of  the  world 


659.000,000     BtuheU 


451,000,000 


302,000,000 


Austria-Hungaor 


224,000,000 


Italy 


162,000,000 


Germany        Argentina 


135,000,000 


122,000,000' 


Fig.  65t).  —  The  eight  leading  wheat  producing  countries  of  the  world. 


3.  UniudStaut 

4.  Uawaii 

5.  Jtraiil 

6.  Pliilippine  lehcnjl 


4.  Ruaaia 

5.  Betffium 

6.  United  Statet 


Fig.  657.  —  Sugar  cane  and  sugar  beet  sections  of  the  world. 


480 


REVIEW   OF  UNITED   STATES 


Cuba 


JL  1,1 75,000  Ton* 


sugar  cane  and  sugar  heets  (Fig.  657). 
Name  countries  and  islands  engaged  in 

8.     Sugar  cane     t  h  6  S  6 
and  sugar  beets    indus- 
tries.    Is  it  mainly 
the  sugar  beet  or 
sugar  cane  that  is 
raised  in  Europe  ? 
Why     (p.     153)? 
What  is  our  rank  in 
the  raising  of 
sugar  cane  and 
sugar    beets 
(Fig.    658)? 
Name  the  six 
regions  that 
lead  in  this 
kind   of   agri- 
culture. 

Figure   659 
shows  the  prin- 
cipal 

4.    Rice  t 

rice 
sections  of  the 
world.  What 
continent 
grows  by  far 
the  largest 
amount?  \\  hat 
countries  in 
that  conti- 
nent? What 
other  parts  of 
the  world  pro- 
duce much  of 
it?  What  parts 
of  the  United 
States?  What 
kind  of  climate 
does  it  require, 
and  how  is  it 
raised  (p.  154)? 
Figure   660 


shows  that  coffee  is  not  grown  within  our 
states,  although  in  almost  every  house- 


Java 


1.009,000 


United  States       Hawaii 


330.000 


312,000 


Brazil    Philippine  Is. 


190,000 


180,000 


Fig.  658.  —  Ihe  six  countries  producing  llie  most  sugar  caue  and  sugar  beets. 


Fig.  660.  —  Coffee-producing  sectious  of  the  world. 


COMPARISONS    WITH  OTHER   COUNTRIES 


481 


Brazil 


Brazil 

1,431,328,038 

Pounds 

Venezuela 

94,370,090 

Guatemala 

81,081,600 

Dutch  East  Indies 

72,864,649 

Colombia 

70.000.000 

Salvador  61,822^3 

Fig.  661.  —  Leading  coffee-prod uciug  couiiUies. 


Fig.  GG2.  —  Tea-producing  sections  of  the  world. 


Fig.  663.  —  Cattle  and  sheep  sections  of  the  world. 


hoid  it  is  in  daily  use. 
Notice,  however,  that  it  is 
produced  in 
Cuba,  Porto 
Rico,  and  the  Philippine 
Islands  (Fig.  660).  To 
what  climate  and  coun- 
tries is  it  confined  ? 
State  the  rank 
of  the  prin- 
cipal coffee- 
producing  sec- 
tions, and 
compare  their 
output  (Fig. 
661). 

Our  tea 
(Fig.  662), 
also,  comes 
almost 

.      ,      6.   Tea 

entirely 
from    other 
countries. 
Mainly    from 
what  parts  of 
the    world? 
Name  the  prin- 
cipal    countries 
and  islands. 

Note  the  dis- 
tribution     of 

cattle    7.    Cattle 

and  ^^^  ^^®®P 
sheep  (Fig.  663). 
What  countries 
are  included? 
Recall  some 
facts  concerning 
sheep  raising  in 
Australia,  Ar- 
gentina, and  the 


2i 


482 


REVIEW  OF  UNITED   STATES 


Australasia 

Russia 

United  States 

480,000,000    Pound* 

421,000,000 

370,000,000 

292,000,000 

Kingdom 

133,000,000 

103,000,000 

Fig.  0(54.  —  The  six  leading  wool-producing  countries. 


United  States.    Why  are  cattle  and  sheep 
raised  in  the  same  regions  ? 

Figure  664  shows  the  six  leading  ivool- 
producing  countries.     Name 
products  them.     What  is  the  rank  of 

1.  Wool  the  United  States  ? 


the     principal     sections      (Fig.     665). 

Within  what   parallels  of   latitude   are 

they    found  ?       Name    the 

eight  countries  that  lead  in 

its  production  (Fig.  666).     How  much 

greater    is   the   output   of    the    United 


Fig.  665.  —  Tlie  cotton  sections  of  the  world. 


Cotton  grows  only  in  warm  climates, 
so  that  fewer  countries  raise  it.     Name 


States  than  that  of  the  seven  other  coun- 
tries together  ? 


United     Sutes 


10,631,000 
Bales  of  500  lb. 


Chin*  EfTpl 


K<r^  RuMi.  BrMtU  , 


KoTM  400.000 

Riuua  354.000 

Biuil  347,000 

Mexico  I24.00O 


Fig.  666.  —  The  eight  chief  cotton-producing  countries  of  the  world. 


COMPARISONS   WITH  OTHER  COUNTRIES 


488 


GEOGRAPHIC  DISTRIBUTION 

OF  SILK  WORM  CULTIVATION 

PRODUCTION  OF  RAW  SILK 


China 


13,250,000 


Fig.  CG7.  —  The  raw  silk-produciug  sectious  of  the  world. 
Japan Italy 


10,183,000 


9,788,000 


What  about 
this  industry 
in  the  3.  r^w 
United  ^iik 
States?  Name 
in  order  of 
amounts  pro- 
duced, the 
countries  that 
produce  raw 
silk(Fig.668). 
Tell  how  the 
work  is  car- 
ried on  (p. 
363). 

The     great 
importance  of 
coal  and  .,.      , 

Mineral 

iron    for  products 
use    in  1-   ^°^^ 
i.393.ooo|i,o8o.oo(j     mauuf  actuHng     has 


Asia 
Minor      France   Syria 


Fig.  668.  —  The  six  leading  raw  silk-producing  countries. 


often    been    pointed 
'out.        Figure      669 
shows  that  the  coal 
fields     are     very 
Figure   667  shows  the   sections   that  I  limited.     What  countries  have  little  or 
produce    silk.     What  are  their  names?  |  no     coal?      Name     the     leading     coal- 
producing      sec- 
tions, and  state 
the  rank  of  the 
United  States  in 
the     production 
of   this  mineral 
(Fig.  670). 

The      United 
States  leads  the 

world    2.     Petro- 

inthe  ^eum 
production     of 
petroleum,     or 
mineral  oil  (Fig. 
671).     The  sec- 

Fig.  669.  —  Leading  coal-producing  sections  of  the  world.  OnO.      mOSt      im- 


484 


SEVIEW  OF  UNITED   STATES 


United    States 

Great  Britain 

Germany 

Aiutai*- 

414,157^78  Tom 

281.195.743 

■1     :      -                        0 

>\'  1 

222.350,526 

-.    (.1     c.  fi    r.  n  1    ■' 

'"1  ? 

4M09,»33 

37323,931 

J^IWB 

Belgium 
Riuna 

26,026,119 
18,996396 

Fig.  670.  —  The  eight  leading  coal-producing  countries  of  the  world 


GEOGRAPHIC  DISTRIBUTION 
OF  RUBBER  AND  PETROLEUM 


WIlirAUS  tN&flAV■^ 


Flu.  671.  —  The  leading  petroleum-producing  sections  of  the  world. 


Fig.  G72.  —  Leading  sections  of  the  world  that  produce  iron  ore. 


COMPARISONS    WITH  OTHER   COUNTRIES 


485 


portant  district  is  in  Russia,  near  the 
Caspian  Sea.  Other  districts  produce 
little  petroleum.     What  are  its  uses  ? 


of  countries  as    manufacturing  nations 
(Fig  679)  ? 

Tell  about   the    distribution    of   gold 


United     States 


Germany 


23,444,073 


Great  Britain 


14,590,703 


SP«»  France 


9,077,245 


7.395,400 


Russia 


Austria- 
Sweden    Hungary 


4,365:967  3.697,671 


Fig.  673.  —  Tlie  eight  leading  pig-iron-producing  countries. 


Is  iron  ore  more  or  less  widely  dis- 
3.  Iron  ore  tributed  than  coal  (Figs.  672 ; 
and  pig  iron  669)?  How  does  the  United 
States  rank  in  the  output  of  this  mineral 


(Fig.    674),  and  give  our  rank    in  the 
production    of    that    metal  4.   xhe 

(Fis".  675).  precious  metals 

Where  are  the  principal  silver-mimng 


Fig.  674.  — Leading  gold-producing  sections  of  the  world. 
South  Africa 


$119,618,500 

United  States 

.              Auitralia 

$94,373,800 

$71,340,050 

Ruuia           McTiico 

BritUh 
India 

$19,494,700 

$18,534,700 

I12,087,70( 

Fig.  675.  —  The  six  leading  gold-producing  countries. 


(Fig.  673)  ?  How  does  the  output  of  coal 
and  iron  correspond  to  the  importance 


sections    (Fig.    676)?       How    does   the 
United  States  compare  with  other  coun- 


486 


REVIEW  OF  UNITED   STATES 


Fig.  676.  —  Leading  silver-producing  sections  of  the  world. 
United  States  Mexico 


$38;!56,400 


07381,400 


$8,938;200 


$5,800,000 


$5,01 1,900 


Germany 


tries  in  this 

product 

(Fig.    677)? 

Notice     to 

what  extent 

the  world  is 

indebted    to 

the      New 

World     for 

silver.    How 

does    the 

value  of  the 

total     silver 

production 

c  o  rn  p  a  r  e 

with  that  of 

gold   in   the 

six  leading  regions  for 

each? 

The    United    States 
produces    great    quan- 

5.    other  min-     tities       of 

era!  products  ^ther  min- 
erals. Name  some  of 
them(pp.l22, 160, 161, 
188,189).  In  the  pro- 
duction of   some,  such   as   copper,  and  |  natural  gas,  our  country  also  leads. 

According    to 
Figure  678,  what 

two  con-  Manufac- 

tinents  t"n°g 
lead  in  manufac- 
turing f  What 
other,  smaller 
sections  are 
active  in  this  in- 
dustry ?  Taking 
into  account  the 
size  of  our  coun- 
try, the  abun- 
dance of  our  raw 
materials,  and 
the   energy   and 


Fig.  677.  —  The  six  leading  silver-producing  countries. 


Fig.  678.  —  Manufacturing  sections  of  the  world. 


COMPARISONS    WITH  OTHER   COUNTRIES 


487 


intelligence  of  our  people,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  we  surpass  all  other 
countries    in    such    work    (Fig.    679). 


United    States 


United 

Kingdom 


iences  for 
transportation 


Fig.  (i7y.  —  The  four  leading  manufacturing  countries. 

State  the  rank  of  other  leading  nations 
in  this  occupation. 

Into  what  articles  is  corn  manufactured 
in    the    United    States  (p.    178)?     An- 
swer  the    same    question   about  wheat 
(p.    189).      What   are    the    lead- 
ing centers  for  the  preparation  of 
meats  in   the  United  States  (pp. 
193,    199)?     What    countries   in 
South  America  are  extensively  en- 
gaged  in   this  industry  -(pp.  316 
and  317)? 

In  what   parts  of   the   United 
States  is  most  cotton  manufactur- 
ing carried  on   (pp.    131,  161)  ?     Why 
there  ?     What  other  countries  have  much 
cotton  manufacturing  ?     What  countries 


In  provisions  for  transportation  by 
rail,  also,  the  United  States  takes  the 
leadinar  place.     It  has  a  far 

^  /  ,  J,        .,        Commerce 

greater  number  or  miles  ^    conven- 
of     railway     than     any 
other  nation  (Fig.  680)  ; 
but  several  small  European  nations 
have  a   greater  number  of  miles  in 
proportion  to  their  area.  -> 

The  United  States  ranks  second 
in  provisions  for  transportation  by 
ivater  (Fig.  681).  State  the  rank  of 
the  six  chief  countries  in  total  length 

of   railivays,  and   in    merchant   marine. 

Give  reasons  why  the  United  Kingdom 

should  lead  in  merchant  marine  (p.  348). 

Why  should  Norway  be  of  importance 

in  this  respect  (p.  390)  ? 

United   States 


^"^ 

218^91  Miles 

Russia 

Germany 

France 

British 
India 

Austria- 
Hungary 

^ 
^^^ 

^^^ 

39,591 

34,526 

29,018 

28,221 

24,338 

•'^ 

p^^gl^:;; 

/    ■"      ■••■7-^^'^-.*-N 

of  the  world  are  noted  for  the  manufacture 


United    Kingdom 


Fig.  ()81.  — The  six  countries  having  the  largest  merchant  marine. 

of  pig  iron  and  other  iron  and  steel  goods  ?         Name 
Name  great  centers  for  this  industry  in 
our  own  country;  in  foreign  countries. 


Fig.  680.  —  The  six  countries  having  greatest  length  of  railways. 

We  produce  many  more  raw  products 
and  manufacture  many  more  goods,  than 
we  can  use.     These  we  send 
abroad,   or   export   to   other  with  foreign 
countries,       and  countries 

„  ,  1      ,  (1)  ^«^  exports 

tor   that   reason 
they  are  called  our  exports. 
Oiir     ten     leading    exports, 
named    in    order    of    value, 
together  with  the  principal 
countries  to  which  the  goods 
are     sent,     are     shown     on 
p.  488. 
from    memory    our    principal 
exports  in  the  order  of  their  value. 
'While  we  sell  an  enormous  quantity 


488 


REVIEW  OF  UNITED  STATES 


Table  of  Chief  Exports  of  the  United  States 


10. 


Articles  Value  in  1909 

Cotton  (mainly  manufactured)  $449,269,231 

Meat  and  dairy  products  150,496,717 

Breadstuffs  (wheat,  corn,  flour,  etc.)  145,244,038 

Iron  and  steel,  and  manufactures  of  144, 951, -357 

Mineral  oils  (crude  and  refined)  105,999,637 

Copper  (manufactures  of)  85,290,186 

Wood,  and  manufactures  of  67,867,4.32 

Leather,  and  manufactures  of  42,974,795 

Tobacco  35,604,517 

Animals  (mainly  cattle)  22,645,438 

Total  value  of  exports  $  1,250,339,-348 


Principal  countries  to  which  they  are  sent 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Japan. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  France,  Belgium. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  Netherlands,  Belgium. 
Gt.  Britain,  Canada,  Germany,  Mexico. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  Netherlands,  Belgium. 
Gt.  Britain,  Netherlands,  France,  Germany. 
Gt.  Britain,  Canada,  Germany,  W.  Indies. 
Gt.  Britain,  Australasia,  Canada. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  Italy,  France. 
Gt.  Britain. 


(2)  Our  imports 


of  goods  to  other  countries,  we  must 
also  buy  many  other  things.  One  of 
these  is  coffee,  as  shown  in 
Figure  660 ;  we  produce  far 
less  sugar  each  year  than  we  consume; 
we  depend  wholly  on  foreign  nations 
for  raw  silk;  our  tea  comes  almost 
entirely  from  abroad  (Fig.  662) ;  and 
while    much    rice    is   produced    in    our 


Southern  States,  a  large  amount  must 
be  purchased.  These  goods,  and  many 
others,  have  to  be  brought  to  our  shores, 
or  imported,  from  other  countries,  and  for 
that  reason  they  are  called  our  imports. 
Our  ten  leading  imports,  named  in 
order  of  value,  together  with  the  princi- 
pal countries  from  which  they  come,  are 
as  follows :  — 


Table  of  Chief  Imports  of  the  United  States 


Articles 

Value  in  1909 

1. 

Silk,  and  manufactures  of 

$110,022,168 

2. 

Sugar 

96,554,998 

3. 

Fiber,  and  manufactures  of 

79,182,266 

4. 

Coffee 

79,112,129 

5. 

Hides  and  skins 

78,489,838 

6. 

Chemicals,  drugs,  etc. 

78,379,(i34 

7. 

Cotton  (mainly  manufactures  of) 

75,673,088 

8. 

Rubber  and  rubber  goods 

64,707,856 

9. 

Wool,  and  manufactures  of 

62,274,454 

10. 

Fruits  and  nuts- 

31,110,683 

Total  value  of  imports 

$757,108,114 

Compare  the  value  and  nature  of  our 
exports  and  imports.     How  is  the  result 


Principal  countries  from  which  they  come 
Japan,  France,  China,  Italy. 
E.  Ind.,    Hawaiian   Ids.,  Cuba,  Germany  (beet 

sugar). 
Mexico,  Philippines,  E.  Indies. 
Brazil,  Cent.  America,  E.  Indies,  Mexico. 
E.  Indies,  S.  America,  Gt.  Britain,  France. 
Germany,  E.  Indies,  Gt.  Britain. 
Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  Switzerland,  France. 
Brazil,  Gt.  Britain. 

Gt.  Britain,  Germany,  France,  S.  America. 
Italy,  Cent.  America,  W.  Indits. 


encouraging    in     comparison    with 
statistics  of  other  countries  ? 


the 


The  Ten  Leading  Countries  with  which  we  Trade 


1.   British  Isles 


2.    Germany 


3.   France 


fExp. 
^•Imp. 
L  Total 
fExp. 
■I  Imp. 
l  Total 
rExp. 
\  Imp. 
L  Total 


Value  in  1909 

$  514,627,365 
208,612,758 
'723,240,123 
235,324,140 
148,526,828 
378,849,968 
108.764,262 
108,387,3.37 
217,151,699 


Kinds  of  Goods 

Provisions,  breadstuffs,  raw  cotton. 

Cotton  goods,  raw  wool,  tin,  jewelry,  rubber  goods. 

Raw  cotton,  breadstuffs,  provisions. 

Beet  sugar,  chemicals  and   drugs,   cotton  goods,   silk 

goods. 
Raw  cotton,  copper,  mineral  oil. 
Silk  goods,  hides,  jewelry,  cotton  goods. 


COMPARISONS    WITH  OTHER   COUNTRIES 


489 


The  Ten  Leading  Countries  with  which  we  Trade  —  Continued 


Countries 

Value  in  1909 

Kinds  of  Goods 

4. 

Canada  (with  New- 

fExp. 

167,388,299 

Coal,  breadstuffs,  cotton,  and  manufactures  of. 

foundland     and 

^  Imp. 
L  Total 

80,479,266 

Lumber,  coal,  hides. 

Labrador) 

247,867,565 

fExp. 

95,012,366 

Breadstuffs,  provisions,  copper,  mineral  oil. 

5. 

Netherlands 

-(  Imp. 
I  Total 

26,086,836 

Jewelry,  tin. 

121,099,202 

fExp. 

64,886,401 

Provisions,  breadstuffs,  animals. 

6. 

West  Indies 

■I  Imp. 
L  Total 

21,833,318 

Sugar,  fruits,  cocoa. 

86,719,719 

f  Exp. 

13,493,106 

Mineral  oil,  cotton  goods. 

7. 

East  Indies 

4  Imp. 
L  Total 

86,875,495 
100,368,601 

Sugar,  hides,  tin. 

fExp. 

17,527,692 

Breadstuffs,  mineral  oil,  provisions. 

8. 

Brazil 

■I  Imp. 
L  Total 

98,053,229 
115,580,921 

Coffee,  rubber,  sugar. 

r  Exp. 

49,793,323 

Coal,  cotton  goods,  iron  and  steel  manufactures. 

9. 

Mexico 

-I  Imp. 
L  Total 

47,712,214 
97,505,537 

Sisal  grass,  coffee,  lead,  hides. 

'Exp. 

26,691,613 

Manufactured  cotton,  mineral  oil,  iron  and  steel  manu- 

10. 

Japan 

i  Imp. 
L  Total 

70,392,722 
97,084,322 

factures. 
Silk,  tea. 

routes  on 
the  oceans 


More  than  one  third  of  all  our  foreign 
trade  is,  as  you  can  see,  with  the  British 
Isles. 

Figure  682  shows  the  main  ocean 
routes  followed  by  vessels  engaged  in  the 
commerce  between  nations. 
fransportattn  Notc  which  are  the  most 
important.  What  countries 
do  they  connect?  Trace 
other  routes  across  the  Atlantic,  and 
tell  what  countries  they  connect.  Name, 
if  you  can,  some  goods  that  are  carried 
by  each  route.  Do  the  same  for  the 
Pacific. 

Our  many  exports  and  imports  show  how  de- 
pendent we  are  upon  other  countries.  We  are 
wonderfully  favored  in  the  abun- 
dance of  our  resources.  Yet  it 
would  be  of  no  use  to  produce  so 
many  things,  if  foreign  countries 
did  not  buy  some  of  them. 
Again,  although  we  have  so  many  products, 
there  are  still  many  things  that  we  need  from 
other  lands.  It  is  true  that  we  probably  could 
depend  upon  ourselves  for  all  that  we  want  bet- 
ter than  any  other  nation.  The  English,  for 
instance,  would  starve  within  a  few  weeks,  if 


(4)  The  depend- 
ence of  nations 
tipon  one 
another 


they  imported  no  food  there.  Yet  note  the 
amount  of  our  imports.  How  do  they  compare, 
in  value,  with  our  exports  ?  Thus,  in  spite  of 
our  great  resources,  we  are  very  dependent  upon 
other  countries. 

Owing  to  our  trade  relations  with  the  United 
Kingdom,  what  hardships  would  probably  be 
brought  upon  the  British,  if  they  entered  upon 
a  war  with  us  ?  How  might  the  Germans  suffer, 
if  they  were  at  war  with  us?  How  might  the 
French  suffer  ?  On  the  other  hand,  what  hard- 
ships would  come  to  us  in  each  case  ? 

All  the  preceding  facts  prepare  us  for 
Figure  683,  which  shows  that  the  United 
States  is  the  wealthiest  nation  wealth  of 
on   the   face    of  the   earth,  nations 
Compare  our  wealth  with  that  of  other 
leading  countries. 

The  figures  and  diagrams  that  you 
have  studied  show  that 
several  European  countries 
compete  with  the  United 
States  in  the  world's  trade. 
Give  examples. 

So  far  as  the  future  is  con- 
cerned, however,  several  im- 
portant facts  are  in  our  favor.     In  the 


Reasons  why 
we  promise 
great  progress 
in  the  future 

1  and  2.    Our 
youthfulness 
and  abundance 
of  room 


490 


BEVIEW  OF  UNITED   STATES 


first  place,  we  are  still  in  our  youth  as  a 
people,  while  some  of  the  leading  nations 
of  Europe  have  perhaps  reached  the 
height  of  their  power.  In  the  second 
place,  the  territory  of  most  of  those  coun- 
tries is  densely  settled,  as  shown  in  Fig- 
ure 653.  Note  the  number  of  inhabitants 
to  a  square  mile  in  Belgium,  in  Germany, 
and  in  France.  When  we  contrast  with 
these  figures  our  average  of  only  twenty- 
five  persons  per  square  mile,  our  possible 
future  growth  seems  almost  without 
limit.  Immense  tracts  of  land,  that  in 
Europe  would  be  carefully  tilled,  in  our 


thing  that  must  be  considered  in  reckon- 
ing our  future  promise.     The  condition 
of  China  shows  that  resources 
alone  will  not  make  an  ener-  *■,  J^L^'^f  *?: 

ter  of  our  people 

getic  people  and  a  great 
nation;  for,  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the 
Chinese  have  been  greatly  favored  in 
their  resources,  they  have  made  very 
little  use  of  them.  Indeed,  their  cus- 
toms have  prevented  progress  (p.  427). 
Our  population  has  been  made  up,  in 
large  part,  of  those  who  had  energy  and 
ambition  enough  to  migrate  to  a  new 
land  in  the  hope  of  bettering  their  con- 


United     States 


116,000 
Million     Dollars 


Britith     Isles 


62.200 


FrsBoe 


42300 


Germany 


42,000 


Russia  Austria. 

Htingary 


35,000 


20,000 


Fig.  683.  —  The  six  wealthiest  nations  in  the  world. 


country  are  not  even  cleared  for  pasture. 
In  no  large  section  of  the  United  States 
do  we  approach  the  careful  tillage  of 
the  soil  that  is  common  in  Belgium  and 
some  other  European  countries. 

The  varied  climate  and  surface  features 
of  our  vast  country  are  also  favorable  to 
3.   Our  variety    ^^^  '  ^^r  they  make  a  variety 

of  climate  and  of  products  pOSsiblc.  AlmOSt 
surface  features       n    r  i       j.  -i 

all  farm  products  can  easily 
be  raised  in  the  United  States,  and  our 
wonderful  mineral  resources  are,  so  far 
as  we  know,  not  equaled  on  any  con- 
tinent. It  will  therefore-  be  seen  that 
our  natural  resources,  which  have  been 
so  important  in  giving  us  our  present 
position,  promise  equally  well  for  the 
future. 

The  character  of  our  people  is  another 


dition.  In  their  new  home  the  oppor- 
tunities have  been  so  great,  that  they 
have  been  encouraged  to  work  and  to 
improve  themselves.  Conditions  in  the 
desert  have  produced  the  nomad,  and 
the  ease  of  life  in  the  tropical  forest,  the 
shiftless  savage.  But  the  conditions 
in  the  United  States  have  produced  a 
people  noted  for  its  energy  and  enterprise. 
This  result  has  been  possible,  however, 
largely  because  our  nation  is  a  mixture 
of  peoples  already  gifted. 

The  statement  of  reasons  for  expect- 
ing great  future  progress  in  the  United 
States  would   not   be  com- 
plete,  if   left   here.     There  care  for  edu- 
are   two    other    factors    of  cation,  and  our 

-         government 

great   importance ;  namely, 

education     and     government.     Where 


COMPARISONS    WITH  OTHER    COUNTRIES 


491 


people  are  ignorant,  and  where  rulers 
subject  them  to  bad  laws  and  heavy 
taxes,  there  is  little  chance  of  prog- 
ress. It  is  those  European  countries 
in  which  there  are  the  best  opportuni- 
ties for  education  and  the  greatest 
freedom,  that  have  made  the  greatest 
advance. 

No  nation  in  the  world  pays  more  at- 
tention to  education  or  guarantees  its 
people  a  more  active  part  in  their  gov- 
ernment than  the  United  States.  These 
facts,  even  as  much  as  the  resources  and 
the  character  of  the  people,  help  to  ex- 
plain our  astonishing  progress  in  the 
past,  and  to  give  reason  for  hope  in  the 
future. 


Of  one  thing,  however,  there  is  need 
of  greater  care.  Hitherto  we  have  had 
such  an  abundance  of  re-  Need  of  con- 
sources that  we  have  used  serving  our 
them  freely,  and  often  care-  ^^^^ources 
lessly.  Thus,  we  have  destroyed  many 
of  our  forests ;  there  has  been  much 
waste  of  coal  and  other  minerals ;  and 
in  many  places  the  soil  has  been  allowed 
to  become  unproductive.  There  is  need 
of  laws  to  prevent  this,  for  a  nation 
should  not  waste  its  resources  any  more 
than  an  individual.  We  have  plenty 
for  the  future,  but  we  should  conserve 
it  far  more  carefully  in  the  future  than 
in  the  past,  else  we  shall  exhaust  even 
the  vast  resources  of  our  country. 


APPENDIX   I 


LATITUDE,   LONGITUDE,   AND   STANDARD   TIME 


1.   Latitude  and  Longitude 

Ix  a  study  of  geography,  it  is  often  neces- 
sary to  locate  places  exactly.  This  is  not  so 
Need  of  some  ^^sy  as  it  might  seem.  For  in- 
way  of  locat-  stance,  suppose  we  wish  to  state 
ing  places  where  London  is  situated ;  how 

exactly  would  it  be  done  ?     By  taking  a 

long  time,  it  would  be  possible  to  describe  the 
general  location  of  this  city;  but  some  more 
accurate  way  must  be  found. 

The  difficulty  is  much  the  same  as  that 
which  arises  in  locating  a  place  in  a  large  city, 
How  houses  where  there  are  thousands  of 
are  located  houses.  No  one  person  knows 
in  cities  who  lives  in  most  of  them,  and 

if  a  stranger  were  looking  for  a  friend,  he  might 
have  much  trouble  in  finding  his  house. 

A  very  simple  means  has  been  found  for  lo- 
cating city  houses.  For  example,  a  street  run- 
ning    east     and 

NORTH 

_ii II II I  1 II il ii_ 

DnnnDnQL 

_|| |80UTH| 1     |4TH,  I ifST^p 

SOUTH 
Fig.  684.  — Map  of  a  part  of  a  city,  as    being    on    the 

streets.*'^'' *^^°''*^°^"''™"'^^^"^'*     «'^«-      ^he 

streets  north  of 
this  central  street  are  numbered  as  North  1st, 
North  2d,  North  3d,  etc. ;  those  to  the  south 


west  may  be  se- 
lected to  divide 
the  city  into  two 
parts,  as  Wash- 
ington Avenue 
does  in  Figure 
684.  Any  place 
north  of  this 
street  is  spoken 
of  as  being  on  the 
north  side ;  any 
place  south  of  it 


of  it  as  South  1st,  South  2d,  South  3d,  and  so 
on.  Then  if  a  man  says  that  he  lives  on  North 
4th  Street,  we  know  at  once  that  he  lives  on 
the  north  side,  and  that  his  house  is  on  the 
fourth  street  from  this  central  one. 

But  we  need  also  to  know  on  what  part  of 
North  4th  Street  this  house  is  to  be  found.  To 
answer  that  question,  another  street  running 
north  and  south,  and  crossing  the  east  and  west 
ones,  may  be  selected  to  divide  the  city  into 
east  and  west  parts.  In  Figure  684,  Jefferson 
Avenue  is  such  a  street.  The  streets  on  the 
two  sides  of  it  are  numbered  as  East  1st,  East 
2d,  West  1st,  West  2d,  etc. 

Then  if  a  man  lives  on  the  corner  of  North 
4th  and  East  3d  streets,  we  know  not  only  that 
his  home  is  north  of  a  certain  line,  but  east  of  a 
certain  other  line.  If  the  blocks,  as  the  spaces 
between  two  streets  are  called,  are  always  of  the 
same  length,  it  will  be  easy  to  tell  the  distance 
from  each  of  the  central  streets  to  the  house. 
Thus  the  house  can  be  located  exactly. 

Such  a  plan  is  not  necessary  in  small  towns 
and  villages,  because  the  people  there  know 
one  another,  and  are  able  to  direct  strangers 
easily.  Few,  if  any,  cities  follow  exactly  the 
scheme  here  given ;  but  many  have  plans  some- 
what similar  to  this.  If  you  live  in  a  city,  you 
can  tell  just  how  houses  are  located  there. 

Places  upon  the  earth  are  located  in  much 
the  same  manner  as  in  the  city  just  de- 
scribed.      The     equator,     which 

extends  around   the   earth   mid-  ^°^  places 

,    ,  .1  1  can  be  exactly 

way    between     the     poles,    cor-  j^^^^ed  on 

responds  to   the  dividing   street  ^^le  earth 
(Washington  Avenue)  that  runs 

east  and  west.  The  distance  between  the 
equator  and  the  poles,  on  either  side,  is  divided 


1  The  topics  in  Appendix  I  and  II  do  not  form  a  necessary  part  of  tlie  subject  as  presented  in  this 
book ;  and  they  are  topics  of  some  difficulty.  Yet  some  teachers  will  doubtless  w  ish  to  introduce  one  or  all 
of  them  in  their  classes  at  some  stage  in  the  study  of  Geography,  and  they  are  therefore  included  in  Apj>en- 
dixes  for  the  use  of  such  classes. 

492 


LATITUDE,   LONGITUDE,   AND   STANDARD   TIME 


493 


into  ninety  parts  (Fig.  685),  corresponding,  we 
might  say,  to  the  blocks  in  a  city.  The  earth 
1  How  thev  ^^  ^°  large,  however,  that  these 
can  be  located  "  blocks,"  or  parts,  are  very  much 
in  a  north  and  larger,  each  being  about  sixty -nine 
south  direction     j^-jgg    ^^^j^      rj^^^^^    distance    is 

called  a  degree,  and  the  sign  for  degrees  is  a 
little  circle  (°)  placed  at  the  right  of  a  figure. 
(For  example,  60°  means  60  degrees.) 


5lfy.° /V.  Lat.^ 
60   N-  Lot. 


20°  S.  Lot. 
13/1°  SLat 


Fig.  685.  —  The  globe,  showing  the  two  hemispheres  aud 
some  of  the  circles  of  latitude. 


Lines  are  drawn  upon  maps  and  globes  to 
represent  these  degrees.  The  lines  on  a  globe 
extend  completely  around  it  from  east  to  west, 
and  are  therefore  circles.  The  first  circle  north 
of  the  equator,  marked  1°,  is  about  sixty-nine 
miles  from  that  dividing  line  ;  the  one  marked 
2°  is  twice  the  distance,  and  so  on.  The  north 
pole  is  90°  from  the  equator.  The  same  plan 
is  followed  south  of  the  equator ;  and  the  south 
pole  is  also  90°  from  the  equator.  Thus  the 
distance  from  pole  to  pole  is  180°. 

All  points  on  any  one  of  these  circles  are 
equal  distances  from  the  equator,  and  from 
each  of  the  other  circles.  That  is,  the  circles 
are  parallel  with  one  another ;  and  on  that 
account  they  are  called  2)ci^'att€ls. 

If  one  finds  that  a  certain  place  is  on  the  8th 
or  the  oOth,  or  some  other  circle  north  of  the 
equator,  he  knows  how  many  miles  it  is  north 
of  that  dividing  line  ;  for  every  degree  is  about 
69  miles.  San  Francisco,  for  example,  is  close 
to  the  38th  parallel ;  Chicago  is  close  to  the 
42d  ;  and  St.  Paul  is  on  the  45th  (Figs.  233  and 
270).     Knowing   this,  it   is   easy   to   see   that 


Chicago  is  4°,  or  about  276  miles,  farther  north 
than  San  Francisco.  It  is  also  easy  to  see  that 
St.  Paul  is  3°,  or  over  200  miles  farther  north 
than  Chicago. 

Thus,  by  the  help  of  the  parallel  lines  one 
can  find  how  far  any  place  is  north  or  south 
of  the  equator.  Instead,  however,  of  saying 
that  places  are  so  many  degrees  north  or  south 
of  the  equator,  we  usually  say  that  they  are  in 
so  many  degrees  7iorth  or  south  latitude,  San 
Francisco,  for  instance,  is  near  38°  7i07'th  latitude 
(abbreviated  JV.  Lat.).  Both  forms  of  state- 
ment are  correct,  but  the  latter  is  the  shorter. 
Latitude  is  nothing  more  than  distance  north  or 
south  of  the  equator,  measured  in  degrees;  and 
the  parallel  lines  are  called  parallels  of  latitude. 

Of  course  there  are  no  marks  upon  the  earth 
to  show  where  these  circles  run.  They  are 
drawn  on  maps,  where  they  are  of  great  use 
because  they  help  to  locate  places. 

Small  maps  and  globes  cannot  well  show  the 
entire  ninety  parallels  on  each  side  of  the  equator. 
That  would  make  too  many  lines.  For  this 
reason,  only  every  fifth  or  tenth  parallel  is 
usually  put  on  such  maps.  Examine  some 
maps  (such  as  Figs.  107,  134,  138,  144,  459,  and 
576),  to  see  which  ones  are  given.  Near  what 
parallel  do  you  live  ? 

As   in   the   city,  some   means  must  also  be 

found   for  locating   places  east  and  west ;  for 

two    points     might     be    in    10°   „     „       , 

...      ,  .  „  "•    How  places 

north     latitude      and      still      be    can  be  located 

several    thousand    miles    apart,   in  an  east  and 

Show  that  this  is  so.  ^'«^*  direction 

Imaginary  lines  are  used  for  this  purpose, 
as  before ;  but  this  time  they  extend  around 
the  earth  from  pole  to  pole  (Fig.  686).  These 
lines,  extending  through  both  poles,  are  called 
meridians. 

In  a  city  it  makes  little  difference  what 
north  and  south  street  is  chosen  from  which  to 
number  the  others.  It  is  necessary  only  that 
a  certain  one  be  agreed  upon.  The  same  is  true 
of  these  meridians.  No  one  is  especially  im- 
portant, as  is  the  equator  among  the  parallels, 
and  any  one  of  them  might  be  chosen  to  start 
from.  Indeed,  different  nations  have  selected 
different  circles  from  which  to  begin  numbering. 
In  France  the  meridian  extending  through 
Paris  is  chosen ;  in  England  that  through 
Greenwich,  near  London;  and  in  America  the 
one  passing  through  Washington  is  sometimes 
used. 


494 


APPENDIX  I 


It  is,  however,  important  that  all  people 
agree  on  some  one  meridian  to  start  from,  so 
that  all  maps  may  be  made  alike.  On  that  ac- 
count, many  countries  begin  their  numbering 
with  the  meridian  which  passes  through  Green- 
wich.    The  maps  in  this  book  follow  that  plan. 


Fig.  686. — The  earth,  cut  in  halves  along  the  Greenwich 
meridian,  showing  some  of  the  meridians.  The  me- 
ridian 20°  is  usually  considered  the  dividing  line  be- 
tween the  eastern  and  western  hemisplieres  because  it 
lies  out  in  the  Atlantic  Ocean. 


It  is  necessary  in  locating  places  on  the 
earth  to  sti;dy  the  movements  of  the  sun  and 
the  stars ;  and  this  is  done  in  a  building  called 
an  observatory,  in  which  there  are  telescopes  and 
other  instruments.  Since  there  is  such  au  ob- 
servatory at  Greenwich,  this  seemed  to  the 
English  people  to  be  a  fitting  place  from  which 
to  begin  numbering  the  meridians. 

Commencing  with  the  meridian  of  Green- 
wich, we  measure  off  degrees  both  east  and 
west  of  it.  On  maps  and  globes  these  distances 
are  represented  by  circles  extending  completely 
around  the  earth,  through  both  poles.  Thus 
there  is  a  meridian  1°  west,  another  2°,  a  third 
3°,  etc.  Going  eastward,  the  meridians  are 
numbered  1°,  2°,  3°,  etc.,  in  the  same  way.  Any 
place  on  the  3d  meridian  toest  of  Greenwich  is 
3°  west  of  the  principal  meridian ;  if  on  the 
60th  meridian,  it  is  60°  west. 

Again,  however,  instead  of  saying  that  a 
place  is  so  many  degrees  east  or  west  of  the  jirin- 
cipal  meridian,  we  say  it  is  in  so  many  degrees 
east  or  west  longitude.  This  is  merely  the 
shorter  way  of  saying  it.  The  place  on  the 
third  meridian,  just  mentioned,  is,  therefore,  in 
3°  west  longitude,  and  the  other  place  is  in  60° 
west  longitude.  Longitude  is  nothing  more  than 
distance  east  or  ivest  of  the  principal  meridian, 


measured  in  degrees}  The  circles  that  form 
the  meridians  are  also  known  as  circles  of 
longitude. 

Any  place  on  the  20th  meridian  east  of 
Greenwhich  is  20°  east  longitude  {E.  Long.). 
Kew  York  is  in  74°  W.  Long.,  while  San  Fran- 
cisco is  in  about  123°  W.  Long.  What  meri- 
dian passes  near  Chicago  ?     Denver  ? 

The  distance  around  the  earth  from  north 
to  south,  through  both  poles,  is  four  times  90°, 
or  360°  in  all.  The  equator  is  likewise  divided 
into  360  parts,  or  degrees.  There  are  there- 
fore 360  meridians,  if  they  are  drawn  one  de- 
gree apart.  They  are  numbered  up  to  180°  in 
both  directions  (Fig.  687).  Thus,  180°  E.  Long. 
is  the  same  as  180°  W.  Long. 


GV^^^ 


^EST. 


Fig.  687.  —  A  view  looking  down  on  the  north  pole,  to 
show  how  the  meridians  come  to  a  point  at  the  north 
pole.  Notice  that  if  the  0°  meridian  were  continued,  it 
would  unite  with  the  meridian  180°. 

The  meridians  are  not  parallel,  like  the  cir- 
cles of  latitude.  They  are  farthest  apart  at 
the  equator,  where  the  width  of  a  degree  of 
longitude  is  about  69  miles.  But  all  the  me- 
ridians come  together  at  the  poles,  as  you  can 
see  on  a  globe  or  on  Figure  687.  Therefore  the 
width  of  a  degree  of  longitude  becomes  smaller 
toward  the  poles. 

Knowing  the  latitude  and  longitude  of  any 
place,  it  may,  by  the  aid  of  a  map,  be  as  easily 
located  as  a  house  in  a  great   city.     For  in- 

1  The  ancients  thought  that  the  world  extended 
farther  in  an  east  and  west  direction  than  in  a  nortli 
and  south  direction.  Therefore  they  called  the  east 
and  west,  or  lone/  direction,  longitude;  the  north  and 
south  direction,  latitude  (Intus  =  broad). 


LATITUDE,   LONGITUDE  AND  STANDARD   TIME 


495 


stance,  Denver  is  about  40°  N.  Lat.  and  105° 
W.  Long.  It  is  therefore  far  to  the  north  and 
west  of  New  Orleans,  which  is  about  30°  N. 
Lat.,  and  90°  W.  Long.  Find  the  latitude  and 
the  longitude  of  some  of  the  large  cities,  on  the 
map  (Fig.  138).  Notice  also  that  only  every 
fifth  meridian  is  marked  on  this  map.  Compare 
this  with  the  map  of  ihe  Northeastern  States 
(Fig.  144).  Since  the  latter  map  represents  a 
smaller  section,  more  meridians  can  be  drawn 
upon  it. 

2.    Standard  Time 

If  you  were  to  travel  from  New  York  to  San 

Francisco,  you  would  find  on  arriving  there  that 

your  watch  was  three  hours  too 

The  differ-         fast.     The  reason  is  that  the  ro- 

ences  in  time     ^^tion  of  the  earth  is  from  west 

,  to  east.     This  causes  the  sun's 

places  „  „  1.1- 

rays   to  lali   upon   the  Atlantic 

coast  more  than  three  hours  sooner  than  upon 
the  Pacific  coast.  Hence,  when  it.  is  noon  in 
New  York,  it  is  only  about 
nine  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing at  San  Francisco.  The 
time  steadily  changes  in 
going  either  east  or  west, 
so  that  no  two  places  on 
an  east-west  line  have  ex- 
actly the  same  time  by 
the  sun. 

every  city 
used  its  own 
suntime,  or 
local  time. 
This  was  a 
source  of 
great  trouble  to  travelers  ; 
for  their  watches  were  al- 
ways wrong  when  they 
arrived  at  new  places. 
When  railroads  were  built, 
and  people  began  to  travel 

more,  and  to  go  longer  distances,  the  many  dif- 
erent  kinds  of  local  time  became  even  a  greater 
inconvenience. 

In  order  to  avoid  this  trouble,  our  continent 
has  been  divided  into  belts,  in 
each  of  which  the  railways,  and 
most  of  the  towns,  have  agreed 
to  use  the  same  time.  Since 
this  time  is  the  standard  for 
all,  these  belts  are  called  the  Standard  Time 


Belts.  The  one  in  the  extreme  East,  including 
eastern  Canada,  is  called  the  Colonial  Belt; 
the  belt  next  west  of  this,  which. includes  New 
England,  New  York,  and  some  of  the  other 
Eastern  States,  is  called  the  Eastern  Time  Belt. 
What  are  the  others  called  (Fig.  688)  ? 

In  traveling  across  the  country  from  New 
York  City  to  San  Francisco,  one  starts  with 
his  watch  set  at  the  standard  time  for  the 
Eastern  Time  Belt.  After  a  while  he  comes 
to  a  place  where  the  time  is  changed  one  full 
hour;  then  he  sets  his  watch  back  an  hour 
so  as  to  have  the  Central  Time.  Going  still 
farther  west  to  the  Mountain  Belt,  the  watch 
is  again  set  back  one  full  hour.  What  is  done 
when  the  Pacific  Belt  is  reached  ?  By  this 
arrangement,  the  same  time  is  used  over  a  very 
broad  belt,  and  only  a  few  changes  of  the  watch 
have  to  be  made.  State  how  a  watch  would 
have  to  be  changed  when  one  goes  eastward 
from  San  Francisco  to  New  York. 

Our  study  of  longitude   helps  us  to  under- 


Formerly 

The  trouble 
caused  by 
such  differ- 
ences 


How  this 
trouble  is 
now  largely 
avoided 


STANDARD  TIME.  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 

Fig.  688.  —  To  show  the  Standard  Time  Belts  of  the  United  States. 


stand  what  determines  the  places  for  changing 

this  time.     The  earth  makes  one 

complete  rotation  every  24  hours,   ^°^  *^®  **"^® 
.i    ,    , ,  o^A   for  each  time 

so  that  the  sun  passes  over  3b0  ^  .^  .^  ^^^^ 

degrees  in  the  course  of  the  day 

of   24  hours.     Dividing  360  by   24   gives    15; 

that  is,  the  number  of  meridians,  one  degree 

apart,  that  the  sun  passes  over  in  a  single  hour. 

Therefore,  when  it  is  noon  in  a  place  on  the  75th 

meridian,  as   at  Philadelphia  (Fig.  688),  it  is 


496 


APPENDIX  I 


Why  the 
boundaries  for 
these  time 
belts  are  not 
regular 


eleven  o'clock  just  15°  west  of  this,  or  on 
the  90th  meridian.  When  it  is  noon  at  one 
point  on  a  meridian,  it  is  noon  at  other  points 
on  that  meridian. 

This  explains  what  has  determined  the 
boundary  lines  of  the  time  belts.  The  time 
selected  for  the  Eastern  Belt  is  that  of  the 
75th  meridian ;  for  the  Central  Belt,  that  of  the 
90th  meridian,  which  is  just  one  hour  later. 
What  meridian  is  selected  for  the  Mountain 
Belt  (Fig.  688)  ?     For  the  Pacific  Belt  ? 

Each  of  these  meridians  runs  through  the 
middle  of  the  belt  whose  time  it  fixes.  Thus, 
the  eastern  boundary  of  the  Central  Time  Belt 
is  halfway  between  the  75th  and  90th  meridians, 
that  is,  821°  W.  Long. ;  and  the  western  boun- 
dary is  halfway  between  the  90th  and  105th 
meridians,  or  97|^°  W.  Long. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  railways  do  not 
change  their  time  exactly  on  these  meridians. 
It  often  happens  that  the  me- 
ridians chosen  for  boundaries  pass 
through  very  unimportant  points, 
or  even  cross  the  railways  far  out 
in  the  open  country.  Instead  of 
following  the  exact  boundaries, 
therefore,  the  railways  often  select  well-known 
cities  as  the  places  where  the  changes  shall  be 
made.  For  instance,  Buffalo,  Pittsburg,  and 
Atlanta  are  the  principal  cities  along  the  bound- 
ary between  the  Eastern  and  the  Central  time 
belts.  Railway  time-tables  show  a  change  of 
one  hour  at  these  points ;  and  passengers  going 
east  or  west  change  their  watches  one  hour  here 
(Fig.  688).  Name  cities  that  are  located  on 
other  boundaries.  Thus  it  happens  that  the 
boundaries  where  the  railways  actually  change 
their  time  are  somewhat  irregular.  But  that 
makes  little  difference,  so  long  as  there  is  a  gen- 
eral agreement  as  to  the  location  of  the  bound- 
aries. 

It  is  true  that  the  Standard  Time  is  incorrect 
for  most  places.  It  is  the  sun  that  really  fixes 
our  time,  and  at  most  points  Standard  Time 
cannot  agree  with  the  sun,  or  local  time.  Yet 
Standard  Time  relieved  us  of  much  trouble,  and 
that  is  the  chief  reason  for  its  use. 

In  order  that  our  system  may  agree  with  that 
of  other  parts  of  the  world,  the  time  of  the 
Greenwich  meridian  is  taken  as  a  basis.  Thus 
the  whole  world  may  be  divided  into  Standard 


Time  belts,  with  a  change  of  an  hour  at  every 
fifteenth  meridian. 

1.  Explain  the  need  of  some  way  of  locating 
places    exactly.      2.    How    may 
houses  be  located  in  large  cities  ?   ^^^^^^ 

3.  How  can  all  places  be  located 

in  a  north  and  south  direction  on  the  earth  ? 

4.  How     in   an    east  .and    west    direction? 

5.  Locate  several  places  accurately  by  using  a 
map.  6.  Define  latitude  ;  longitude. 
7.  What  is  meant  by  a  degree  ?  8.  How 
many  degrees  of  longitude  are  there  on  the 
equator  ?  9.  How  many  miles  is  each  of  these 
degrees  ?  10.  Why  are  meridians  not  parallel  ? 
11.  How  many  degrees  of  latitude  are  there- 
from pole  to  pole?  12.  Explain  about  the 
differences  in  time  by  the  sun,  in  different 
places.  13.  How  have  these  differences  caused 
much  trouble  ?  14.  How  is  the  difficulty  now 
largely  avoided  ?  15.  Explain  how  the  time 
for  each  time  belt  is  determined.  16.  Name 
the  time  belts  in  North  America,  and  locate 
each.  17.  Why  are  the  boundaries  not 
regular  ? 

1.  Find  how  the  streets  of  Washington  have 
been  numbered  and  lettered.  2.  What  is  the 
latitude  and  longitude  of  Boston  ? 
Of  Washington  ?  Of  Chicago?  Suggestions 
Of  your  home  ?  3.  Find  some  cities  that 
are  on  or  near  the  42d  parallel  of  latitude. 
4.  What  place  is  in  25°  N.  Lat.  and  81° 
W.  Long.  ?  What  place  is  near  40°  N.  Lat. 
and  75°  W.  Long.  ?  5.  Find  places  that  have 
nearly  the  same  latitude  as  your  home. 
6.  Show  on  a  globe  or  map,  where  a  ship 
would  be  in  the  Atlantic,  when  in  zero  lati- 
tude and  zero  longitude.  7.  Examine  a  globe 
to  see  what  meridian  is  a  continuation  of  zero 
longitude  on  the  other  side  of  the  earth. 
8.  Find  the  latitude  of  the  Tropic  of  Cancer ; 
of  the  Tropic  of  Capricorn ;  of  the  Arctic 
Circle ;  of  the  Antarctic  Circle.  9.  W^here 
and  how  much  would  you  change  your  watch 
in  traveling  from  San  Francisco   to  Chicago  ? 

10.  Examine  some  railway  time-tables  to  see 
how    they    indicate     the     changes     in    time. 

11.  What  is  the  difference,  where  you  live, 
between  Standard  time  and  solar,  or  sun,  time. 

12.  Find  out  whether  the  true  Standard  Tii!it> 
is  telegraphed  to  your  city  each  day,  and  if  so 
from  what  place  ? 


APPENDIX  II 


REVOLUTION  OF  THE  EARTH,  AND  ITS  EFFECTS 


The  yearly 
motion  of 
the  earth 


You  have  already  learned  (p.  88)  that  the  earth 
is  rapidly  rotating  on  its  axis.  It  has  another 
motion  that  is  also  very  important. 
This  is  its  motion,  or  revolution, 
around  the  sun,  which  is  illus- 
trated in  Figure  689.  The  object 
shown  in  the  center  of  the  circle  is  the  sun,  and 
the  circle  itself  shows  the  course  that  the  earth 
takes  in  its  revolution. 

At  the  same  time  that  the  earth  is  whirling 
on  its  axis,  it  is  also  swinging  around  the  sun, 
although  the  sun  is  ninety-three  million  miles 
from  it.  It  takes  a  year  to  complete  one  revo- 
lution. Indeed,  the  time  necessary  for  this  great 
journey  is  what  fixes  the  length  of  our  year. 
The  path  that  the  earth  takes  in  this  journey  is 
called  its  orbit. 

In  its  revolution,  the  earth  is  moving  at  the 
rate  of  more  than  one  and  a  half  million  miles 
a  day.  What  fearful  speed ! 
And  this,  too,  while  it  is  whirling, 
or  rotating,  on  its  axis !  One 
might  ask,  "With  such  rapid 
motion,  why  are  we  not  swept 
from  the  earth  by  the  wind  ?  "  The  answer  is 
that  the  air,  as  well  as  everything  else  upon  the 
earth,  is  drawn  toward  the  earth  and  held  in 
place  by  the  force  called  gravity.  It  is  on 
account  of  this  force  that  everything  on  the 
earth  turns  with  it  in  the  daily  rotation,  and 
swings  around  with  it  in  its  annual  revolution. 
Again,  if  the  earth  is  revolving  at  such  speed, 
why  does  it  not  fly  away  into  space  ?  As  a 
stone  swinging  round  at  the  end  of  a  string  flies 
off  when  the  string  breaks,  so  it  might  seem  that 
the  earth  would  fly  off  into  space  ;  for  there 
appears  to  be  nothing  holding  it  to  the  sun. 

As  a  matter  of  fact  there  is  something  hold- 
ing it.     It  is  not  a  string,  nor  a  rope,  to  be  sure, 
but  something  far  stronger.     The  sun  is  very 
2k 


Importance  of 
the  force 
called  gravity 
and  gravitation 


much  larger  than  the  earth ;  in  fact,  it  is  over  a 
million  times  as  large.  It  attracts  the  earth, 
and  holds  it  in  place,  in  much  the  same  way  as 
the  force  of  gravity  attracts  men  and  houses  to 
the  earth.  This  attraction  of  gravitation,  which 
the  sun  exerts  upon  the  earth,  is  what  prevents 
our  sphere  from  flying  off  into  space ;  it  holds 
the  earth  as  firmly  as  the  string  holds  the  stone. 

The  revolution  of  the  earth  is  what  causes 
our  seasons  and  the  changing  length  of  our  day 
and  night. 

In     Figure    689    the     lowest  Effects  of 

sphere,  bearing  the  date  Septem-      ®  ^^\.    ^ 

revolution 
ber   23,  represents  the  earth  as 

receiving  the  light  of  the  sun  from  pole  to  pole. 

On  that  date  day  and  night  are  equal  everywhere 

upon  the  earth.     It  marks  the  end  of  summer 

and  the  beginning  of  our  autumn. 

Following  the  earth  in  its  revolution  (to  the 
right),  you  will  see  that,  as  the  months  pass, 
the  north  pole  falls  farther  and  farther  into  the 
shadow,  until  the  farthest  point  is  reached  on 
December  21.  That  is  the  date  for  our  shortest 
day  and  longest  night.  Farther  north  the 
nights  are  longer  still,  and  the  Eskimos,  who 
live  within  the  Arctic  Circle,  are  having  night 
that  lasts  week  after  week.  It  is  upon  this  date 
that  our  winter  begins. 

After  December  21,  the  Arctic  region  grad- 
ually comes  into  the  light  once  more,  until,  on 
March  21,  the  sun's  light  again  reaches  from 
pole  to  pole.  Day  and  night  are  once  more 
equal  all  over  the  earth,  and  warmer  weather 
returns.  That  date  marks  the  beginning  of  our 
spring.  Going  farther,  on  June  21,  the  north 
pole  is  shown  to  be  just  as  far  within  the  light 
as  it  was  within  the  shadow  on  December  21. 
This  is  thedatefor  our  longest  day  and  shortest 
night.  Farther  north,  the  days  are  longer  still, 
and  within  the  Arctic  Circle  the  day  lasts  week 


497 


498 


APPENDIX  II 


after  week.     It  is  upon  this  day,  also,  that  our 
summer  begins.' 

After  this  date,  until  September  23,  the  rev- 
olution of  the  earth  gradually  brings  the  north 
pole  again  toward  the  shadow.     Then,  on  Sep- 
tember 23,  the  light  of  the 
sun  once  more  reaches  from 
pole  to  pole,  so  that  day  and 
night   are  again  equal,  and 
a  year  is  completed. 

Changes  of  the  same 
kind   are   also 
in  progress  in 
the      southern 
hemisphere ; 
but  the  seasons 
are     exactly 
changed 
around. 
That   is, 
it  is  winter 
there  when 
it    is    summer 
with,    us ;    and 
when  the  north 
pole  is  in  dark- 
ness, the  south 
pole  is  bathed 
in  the  sunlight. 

Figure    690     shows 
the  zones  on  the  earth. 

How     many 


Cause  of 
the  zones, 
and  their 
boundaries 


are      there  ? 

Name      and 

locate    each. 

The  cause  of 
the   zones  is  found  in  the 
slant  at  which  the  rays  of 
the  sun   strike   the   earth. 
You  know  that  it  is  warmer  in  the  middle  of 
the  day,  when  the  sun  is  nearly  overhead,  than 
late  in   the   afternoon,   when   it   is   near    the 
horizon.     In  the  torrid  zone  the  sun's  rays  at 
noon  come  from  directly  overhead,  or  nearly 
that,  and  it  is  very  warm  there.    In  the  temper- 

1  Some  teachers  may  wish  to  introduce  here  an 
explanation  of  the  effects  of  inclination  of  the 
earth's  axis,  and  a  more  complete  study  of  the 
seasons.  This  has  not  been  included  in  this  book 
because  it  is  felt  that,  unless  the  teacher  has  the 
necessary  apparatus,  a  mere  study  from  the  text  is 
too  difficult.  The  authors  believe  that  it  is  a  subject 
that  is  better  fitted  for  the  hi"h  school  aee. 


ate  zone  they  strike  the  earth  at  a  greater 
slant;  and  in  the  frigid  zones  at  a  much 
greater  slant  still.  For  this  reason,  the  heat 
grows  less  and  less,  the  nearer  one  approaches 
either  of  the  poles. 

—  ^                                      The  boundaries  of  the 
torrid     zone    are     easily 
fixed.      They    mark    the 
parts  of  the  earth  farthest 
north    and    south   where 
the  sun's  rays  are  found 
directly  over- 
head, or  verti- 
cal,  at    some 
period  of  the 
year.       On 
December  21, 
hen     the 
north  pole 
is  farthest 
within  the 
shadow 
(Fig.       689), 
the  sun's  rays 
are     vertical 
as  far  south 
as  the  Tropic 
of  Capricorn. 
On  June  21, 
the  other  hand,  when 
north   pole   is   far- 
in  the   light, 
ays  are  verti- 
north  as  the 
dancer. 
Fig.  689.  — To  illustrate  the  revolution  of  the  earth          The  north  frigid  ZOne 
around  the  sun.  The  shaded  portion  represents  night,    jg  ^J^e  region  around  the 
The  end  of  the  axis  around  which  the  earth  rotates  ,i ^i      4-v,„4-   i:„c    ^„ 

.   .,        •  .^    V       4.U         •]•  ..      n,  north  pole  that  lies  en- 

)S  the  point  where  the  meridians  come  together.  -^ 

tirely  in  darkness  on 
December  21.  On  June  21,  this  same  region 
lies  entirely  in  the  light.  The  south  frigid  zone  is 
the  corresponding  region  about  the  south  pole. 

The  two  temperate  zones  are  merely  the  wide 
belts  that  lie  between  the  torrid  zone,  on  one 
side,  and  the  frigid  zones  on  the  other.  One, 
called  the  north  temperate  zone,  is  in  the  north- 
ern hemisphere;  the  other,  called  the  south 
temperate  zone,  is  in  the  southern  hemisphere. 

Name  the  boundaries  of  each  of  the  zones. 
Although  it  is  common  to  use  such  boundaries, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  a  person  would  find 
no  sharp  difference  in  passing  from  one  zone  to 
the  next. 


REVOLUTTON  OF  THE  EARTH,   AND  ITS  EFFECTS 


499 


The  seasons  are  due  to  the  slant  at  which  the 
sun's  rays  strike  the  earth  at  diiferent  times  of 
the  year.  The  rays  reach  us  with 
the  greatest  slant  in  winter,  and 
for  that  reason  this  is  our  coldest 
season.  In  summer,  on  the  other 
hand,  the  rays  are  more  nearly 
vertical,  and  then  we  have  our  warmest  weather. 
As  the  earth  revolves  around  the  sun  the  slant 
of  the  sun's  rays  is  steadily  changing,  and  that 


How  the 
earth's  revo- 
lution causes 
our  seasons 


influences   the   sports   that  we   enjoy.     Name 
some  of  its  other  influences. 

1.  Describe  the  yearly  motion  of  the  earth. 
2.  How  are  gravity  and  gravitation  important 
forces?  3.  State  the  effects  of 
the  earth's  revolution  on  the 
length  of  our  seasons,  and  of  our 
days  and  nights.  4.  With  the  aid  of  the  dia- 
gram (Fig.  689)  point  out  the  parts  of  the  earth 
that  are  lighted  by  the  sun  at  the  four  different 


Review 
Questions 


Fig.  690.  —  A  map  of  the  Zones. 


causes  the  change  from  spring  to  summer,  then 
to  autumn  and  winter. 

The  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun 
is,  therefore,  a  matter  of  great  importance.     It 
causes  our  seasons  by  continually 
changing  the  slant  at  which  the 

That 
affects  us  in  a  thousand  ways. 
It  determines,  for  instance,  the  time  when  our 
lamps  shall  be  lighted;  when  crops  shall  be 
planted  and  harvested ;  and  when  the  naviga- 
tion of  many  of  our  rivers  and  lakes  shall  be 
opened  and  closed.  It  even  leads  to  changes 
in  the  kind  of  clothes  that  we  wear,  and  greatly 


How  the  revo 

lution  affects  ,  „  ,, 

our  daily  lives    «"^^    ^^^^  .^^^^   "P°^  ^^ 


seasons.  5.  At  what  seasons  are  the  days  equal 
in  length  ?  6.  When  are  the  days  longest  ? 
When  are  they  shortest  ?  7.  What  is  the  case 
in  the  southern  hemisphere  ?  8.  State  the 
cause  of  the  zones.  9.  Of  their  boundaries. 
10.  How  does  the  earth's  revolution  cause  our 
seasons?  11.  How  does  this  revolution  in- 
fluence our  daily  lives  ? 

1.    Show  by  a  globe,  or  a  ball,  how  the  two 
movements  of  the  earth,  rotation  and  revolu- 
tion, can  be  going  on  at  the  same 
time.      2.    Are    the    days    now 
growing  longer  or  shorter  ?     3.    During  which 
months  do  they  grow  longer  ? 


APPENDIX  III 

REFERENCES  TO  DESCRIPTIONS,  IN  PROSE  AND  POETRY,  OF 
TOPICS  TREATED  IN  THIS  GEOGRAPHY,  FOR  TEACHER 
AND   PUPIL 


Key  to  Abbreviations,  Publishing  houses. — 
American  Book  Co.,  Xe^^;  York  (A.B.C.)  ;  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York  (App.);  The  Cen- 
tury Co.,  New  York  (Cent.) ;  Doubleday,  Page  & 
Co.,  New  York  (Doub.)  ;  E.  P.  Button  &  Co., 
New  York  (Dutt.) ;  Educational  Publishing 
Co.,  Boston  (E.P.C.)  ;  The  Ginn  Co.,  Boston 
(Ginn);  Harper  &  Bros.,  New  York  {H.B.); 
D.C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston  (Heath) ;  Houghton, 
Mifflin  Co.,  Boston  (H.M.C.);  J.  B.  Lippincott 
Co.,  Philadelphia  (Lipp.)  ;  Longmans,  Green, 
&  Co.,  New  York  (L.0.)\  Lothrop,  Lee,  Shep- 
ard,  Boston,  (L.S.) ;  The  Macmillan  Co.,  New 
York  (McM.)  ;  G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York 
(Put.);  Band,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago 
(R  McN.) ;  Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York 
(Scrib.) ;  Silver,  Burdett  &  Co.,  New  York 
(S.B.C.) 

Magazines.  —  Publications  of  the  Bureau  of 
American  Republics,  Washington,  D.C.  (B, 
Amer.  E..) ;  Journal  of  School  Geography,  until 
1902  (J.S.G.)  ;  beginning  1902,  Joxmial  of  Geog- 
raphy (J.G.,  $0.15  a  number,  $1.00  a  year; 
Madison,  Wis.)  ;  National  Geographic  Magazine 
($0.25  a  number,  $2.50  a  year ;  including  mem- 
bership to  Society),  Washington,  D.C.  (N.G.M.) 
Reference  is  made  to  many  articles  in  these 
journals.  Others  of  equal  value  and  interest 
will  be  found  in  more  recent  volumes,  which 
the  teacher  can  easily  look  up. 

It  is  not,  of  course,  expected  that  schools 
will  find  it  possible  to  obtain  all  or  even  a 
large  proportion  of  the  books  listed  below. 
This  list,  which  could  easily  be  multiplied 
to  many  times  the  present  size,  is  offered 
merely  as  a  suggestion  to  aid  those  teachers 
who  wish   to   have   a   good   working   library. 


Many  good  books  are  omitted,  either  because 
of  their  cost  or  for  other  reasons. 

Among  the  many  valuable  but  expensive 
books  of  reference  mention  may  be  made  of  Rec- 
lus,  "The  Earth  and  its  Inhabitants"  (App., 
19  vols.,  $5.00  each) ;  Stanford,  "  Compendiums 
of  Geography  "  (Scrib.,  10  vols.,  $5.50  each)  ; 
and  Baedeker,  "  Guide  Books  "  (Scrib.  prices 
variable).  The  latter  may  be  found  in  the 
libraries  of  friends  who  have  traveled  abroad. 

Methods  and  Aids.  —  McMurry,  "  How  to 
Study  "  (H.M.C.  $1.25)  ;  Geikie, "  The  teaching 
of  Geography  "  (McM.,  $0.60) ;  King, "  Methods 
and  Aids  in  Geography  "  (L.S.,  $1.20) ;  Parker, 
"How  to  study  Geography"  (App.,  $1.50); 
Trotter,  "  Lessons  in  the  New  Geography " 
(Heath,  $1.00);  McMurry,  "  Special  Method 
in  Geography"  (McM.,  $0.70);  Frye  "The 
Child  and  Nature"  (Ginn,  $0.80);  Frye, 
"  Teacher's  Manual  of  Methods  in  Geography  " 
(Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Redway,  "Manual  of  Geogra- 
phy "  (Heath,  $0.65). 

Standard  reference  works.  —  "  The  States- 
man's Year  Book,"  published  each  year, 
gives  latest  statistics,  etc.  (McM.,  $3.00) ; 
Mill,  "  Hints  to  Teachers  and  Students  on  the 
Choice  of  Geographical  Books "  (L.  G.  &  Co., 
New  York,  $1.25);  Mill,  "  International  Geog- 
raphy "  (App.  $3.50)  ;  Chamberlain,  Home,  and 
World  Series  (McM.,  4  vols.  $0.40  each). 

Geography  Readers,  etc.  —  Strong,  "  All  the 
Year  Round"  (Ginn,  three  volumes,  $0.30 
each)  ;  Payne,  "  Geographical  Nature  Studies  " 
(A.B.C.,  $0.25) ;  Fairbanks,  "  Home  Geography 
for  Primary  Grades"  (E.P.C,  New  York, 
$0.60) ;  Youth's  Companion  Series  (Ginn, 
$0.25   to  $0.40);    Starr's   "Strange   Peoples" 


600 


REFERENCES  FOR    TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


601 


(Heath,  $0.40) ;  Lyde,  "  Man  and  his  Markets  " 
(McM.,  10.50);  Herbertson,  "Man  and  his 
Work  "  (McM.,  $0.60) ;  Pratt,  "  American  His- 
tory Stories"  (F.P.C.,  four  volumes,  $0.36 
each) ;  Pratt,  "  Stories  of  Colonial  Children " 
(E.P.C.,  $0.40). 

Butterworth,  "  Zigzag  Journey  Series  "  (Dana 
Estes  &  Co.,  Boston,  18  vols.,  $1.50  each)  ;  Car- 
penter, "Geographical  Readers"  (A. B.C.,  6 
vols.,  $0.60  each) ;  Carroll,  "  Around  the  World 
Series  "  (S.B.C.,  6  vols.,  $0.60  each)  ;  Cham- 
berlain, "  Home  and  World  Series "  (McM., 
4  vols.,  $0.40  each) ;  Champney,  "  Three  Vassar 
Girls  Series  "  (Dana  Estes  &  Co.,  Boston,  11  vols., 
$0.75  each);  Hale,  "Family  Flight  Series" 
(Lothrop  Pub.  Co.,  Boston,  5  vols.,  $1.50  each) ; 
"  Highways  and  Byways  Series"  (McM., 30  vols., 
$2.00  each);  Knox,  "Boy  Traveler  Series" 
(H.B.,  15  vols.,  $2.00  each) ;  "  Peeps  at  Many 
Lands  Series"  (McM.,  30  vols.,  $0.75  each); 
Pratt,  "People  and  Places,  Here  and  There" 
(E.P.C.,  5  vols.,  $0.40  each)  ;  "  List  of  Books  of 
Travel  in  European  Countries "  (J.G.,  Dec, 
'07:  173). 

Commercial  and  Physical  Geography. — Chis- 
holm,  "  Commercial  Geography  "  (L.  G.  &  Co., 
New  York,  $0.90) ;  Adams,  "  Commercial  Geog- 
raphy" (App.  $1.30);  Gannett  "Commercial 
Geography"  (A.B.C.,  $1.00).  Shaler,  "First 
Book  in  Geology"  (Heath,  $0.60);  Tarr, 
"Elementary  Geology"  (McM.,  $1.40); 
Tarr,  "New  Physical  Geography"  (McM., 
$1.00). 

Government  Publications.  —  Almost  no  refer- 
ence is  made  to  the  many  government  publica- 
tions of  geographic  interest.  There  are  far 
too  many  for  so  brief  a  list.  For  instance,  the 
Smithsonian  Institution  Annual  Reports  usu- 
ally contain  articles  on  geographic  subjects, 
and  the  Fish  Commission  has  published  many 
excellent  accounts  of  the  diiferent  fishing  in- 
dustries. From  the  Weathei-  Bureau  are  issued 
not  merely  weather  maps,  but  Annual  Reports 
and  Monthly  Weather  Reviews.  Among  the 
publications  of  the  Geological  Survey  are  re- 
ports upon  Irrigation,  Annual  Reports  contain- 
ing many  excellent  accounts  of  the  geology 
of  interesting  regions,  especially  mining  re- 
gions, and  also  Annual  Reports  of  the  Mineral 
Resources  of  the  country,  with  statistics.  Be- 
sides these,  the  Geological  Survey  issues  topo- 
graphic maps  (five  cents  each).  A  list  of 
these  maps  can  be  obtained  upon  application, 


and  the  teacher  may  find  a  map  of  the  region 
where  the  school  is  situated. 

A  great  range  of  topics  is  covered  by  the 
various  Annual  Reports  (called  Year  Books) 
and  Bulletins  of  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
upon  such  subjects  as  farming,  various  crops, 
forestry,  botany,  mammals,  irrigation,  etc. 
Special  reports  of  importance  are  issued  by  the 
Treasury  Department,  which  also  issues  Statis- 
tical Abstracts  on  commerce,  finance,  popula- 
tion, etc.  From  the  State  Department,  besides 
valuable  special  papers  (like  the  Report  of  the 
Philippine  Commission),  are  issued  the  Consular 
Reports,  which  have  articles  and  notes  upon 
foreign  industries,  etc.  A  wealth  of  geograph- 
ical information  is  contained  in  the  various 
Census  volumes.  Besides  these,  there  are  other 
reports,  as  that  on  the  Precious  Metals,  issued 
annually  by  the  Director  of  the  Mint,  the  Report 
of  the  Bureau  of  Ethnology,  and  the  Report  of 
the  Commissioner  on  Indian  Affairs.  The  maps 
of  the  United  States  Coast  Survey  will  be  found 
of  value,  especially  in  those  schools  located  on 
the  coast,  which  should  certainly  have  maps  of 
their  immediate  locality.  Many  states  also 
issue  valuable  reports  on  agriculture,  mining, 
manufacturing,  etc. 

In  order  to  find  out  about  the  government 
publications  one  can  often  obtain  a  list  of  those 
issued  by  a  given  bureau  by  writing  to  the 
Superintendent  of  Public  Documents,  Washing- 
ton, D.C.  A  monthly  list  of  all  government 
publications  is  also  prepared  by  the  Super- 
intendent of  Public  Documents,  thus  permitting 
one  to  keep  track  of  new  publications.  Some 
of  the  publications  must  be  purchased,  but 
many  may  be  obtained  by  writing  to  one's  con- 
gressman or  senator,  to  whom  copies  are  given 
for  free  distribution  among  constituents.  The 
great  majority  of  governmeat  documents  are 
issued  for  free  distribution.  Applications  for 
these,  in  moderation,  are  granted  when  needed 
for  schools,  provided  the  quota  is  not  already 
exhausted. 

General.  —  Bartholomew,  "  The  Handy  Ref- 
erence Atlas  of  the  World"  (Dutt.,  $2.50); 
Brigham,  "  Geographic  Influence  in  American 
History"  (Ginn,  $1.25);  Brooks,  "  Century 
Book  for  Young  Americans  "  (Cent.,  $1.50)  ; 
Chase  and  Clow,  "  Stories  of  Industry  "  (E.P.C., 
2  vols.,  $0.40  each) ;  Herbertson,  "  Descriptive 
Geographies  from  Original  Sources "  (for  each 
continent,  McM.,  $0.70  to  $0.90  each);  King, 


502 


APPENDIX    III 


"  Picturesque  Geographical  Readers "  (Lee 
&  Shepard,  Boston,  Vol.  2,  $0.72,  Vols.  3, 
4,  and  5,  each  $0.56) ;  Lummis,  "  Some 
Strange  Corners  of  our  Continent "  (Cent., 
$1.50);  Lyde,  "A  School  Textbook  of  Geog- 
raphy" (McM.  $1.00);  Lyde,  "Geographies 
of  the  Various  Continents"  (McM.,  $0.50  to 
$1.40)  ;  McMurry,  "  Teacher's  Manual  of 
Geography  "  (McM.,  $0.40) ;  Eocheleau,  "  The 
Geography  of  Commerce  and  Industry  "  (E.P.C., 
$1.00);  Eocheleau,  "Great  American  Indus- 
tries "  (C.  A.  Flanagan,  Chicago,  2  vols.,  $0.50 
each) ;  Shaler,  "  Man  and  the  Earth "  (Ginn, 
$1.50). 

Food,  Clothing,  and  Shelter.  —  Chamberlain, 
Home  and  World  Series ;  "  How  we  are  Fed  " ; 
"  How  we  are  Clothed " ;  "  How  we  are  Shel- 
tered " ;  "  How  we  Travel "  (McM.,  4  vols.  $0.40 
each);  Fairbanks,  "Home  Geography,"  the 
following  topics :  "Our  Homes,"  "Homes  of  the 
Animals,"  "  The  Country  Store,"  "  Something 
about  a  City,"  etc.  (E.P.C.,  $0.60);  Payne's 
"Geographical  Nature  Studies:"  "Shelter," 
"Our  Shelter,"  etc.  (A.B.C.,  $0.25);  Starr, 
"  Strange  People,"  "  Eskimo,"  "  Negroes," 
etc.  (Heath,  $0.40) ;  Youth's  Companion  Series : 
"  Strange  Lauds  Near  Home,"  "  The  Play 
of  Eskimo  Boys,"  "The  Home  of  the  Ice- 
bergs "  (Ginn,  $0.25)  ;  "  Under  Sunny  Skies," 
"  Across  the  Desert,"  "  From  Tangier  to 
Tetuan,"  etc.  (Ginn,  $0.25). 

Tlie  Soil.  —King,  "  The  Soil  "  (McM.,  $1.25) ; 
Tarr,  "  Elementary  Geology,"  Chapters  VI,  XI, 
and  pp.  475-487  (McM.,  $1.40) ;  Shaler,  "  First 
Book  in  Geology,"  pp.  24-29  (Heath,  $0.60) ; 
Nature  Study  Qiiarterhj,  No.  2,  October,  1899 
(Cornell  University,  College  of  Agriculture, 
Ithaca,  N. Y.  Free  on  application) ;  Kingsley, 
"Madam  How  and  Lady  Why,"  Chapter  IV, 
"  The  Transformation  of  a  Grain  of  Soil " 
(McM.,  $0.50);  Frye,  "Brooks  and  Brook 
Basins,"  section  on  "How  Soil  is  Made  and 
Carried"  (Ginn,  $0.50). 

Hills  and  Valleys.  —  Whittier,  "  Among  the 
Hills"  (poem);  Whittier,  "The  Hilltop" 
(poem) ;  Hutchinson,  "  The  Story  of  Hills " 
(McM.,  $1.50) ;  see  also  under  "  Rivers  and 
River  Valleys." 

Mountains.  —  Avebury,  "  The  Beauties  of 
Nature,"  Chapters  V  and  VI  (the  former  on 
forests)  (McM.,  $1.50);  Jordan,  "Science 
Sketches,"  section  on  "The  Ascent  of  the 
Matterhorn"    (A.C.   McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago, 


$1.00);  Tarr,  "New  Physical  Geography," 
Chapter  VI  (McM.,  $1.00);  Shaler,  "  First  Book 
in  Geology,"  Chapter  V  (Heath,  $0.60);  Kings- 
ley,  "  Madam  How  and  Lady  Why,"  Chapter  V, 
"  The  Ice  Plough  "  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  Fairbanks, 
"  Home  Geography  for  Primary  Grades,"  sec- 
tions on  "The  Story  of  a  Mountain,"  and  "  What 
we  Learned  by  Climbing  a  Mountain,"  (E.P.C., 
$0.60)  ;  Youth's  Companion  Series,  "  Strange 
Lands  Near  Home,"  section  on  "  A  Grow- 
ing Mountain"  (Ginn,  $0.25);  Under  Sunny 
Skies,",  section  on  "  Mount  Vesuvius "  (Ginn, 
$0.25). 

Rivers  and  River  Valleys.  —  Tarr,  "  Elemen- 
tary Geology,"  Chapters  VI-X  (McM.,  $1.40)  ; 
Shaler,  "  First  Book  in  Geology,"  Chapter  VI 
(Heath,  $0.60);  Payne,  "Geographical  Nature 
Studies,"  sections  on  "  Valleys,"  "  Plants  of 
the  Valleys,"  and  "Animals  of  the  Valleys," 
etc.  (A.B.C.,  $0.25)  ;  Kingsley,  "  Madam  How 
and  Lady  Why,"  Chapter  I,  "The  Glen" 
(McM.,  $0.50);  Frye,  "Brooks  and  Brook 
Basins  "  (Ginn,  $0.50) ;  Avebury,  "  The  Beau- 
ties of  Nature,"  Chapters  VII  and  VIII 
(McM.,  $1.50);  Parker  and  Helm,  "Uncle 
Robert's  Geography,"  Vol.  Ill,  Chapters 
XII  and  XIV  ($0.50) ;  Poems :  "  The  Brook," 
Tennyson ;  "  The  Mad  River,"  Longfellow  ; 
"  The  Falls  of  Lodore,"  Southey  ;  "  The  Brook 
and  the  Wave,"  Longfellow ;  "  A  Water  Song," 
E.  G.  W.  Rowe ;  "  The  Endless  Story,"  A.  K. 
Eggleston;  "The  Impatient  River,"  E.  G.VV. 
Rowe ;  the  last  three  in  Payne's  "  Geographi- 
cal Nature  Studies  "  (A.B.C.,  $0.25). 

Ponds  and  Lakes.  —  Shaler,  ''First  Book  in 
Geology,"  pp.  125-129  (Heath,  $0.60);  Tarr, 
"New  Physical  Geography,"  Chapter  IX, 
(McM.,  $1.00);  Avebury,  "The  Beauties  of 
Nature,"  Chapter  VIII  (McM.,  $1.50)  ;  Payne, 
"Geographical  Nature  Studies,"  section  on 
"Pools,  Ponds,  and  Lakes"  (A.B.C.,  $0.25); 
"  The  Lakeside,"  poem,  by  Whittier. 

Tlie  Ocean.  —  Shaler,  "  Sea  and  Land"  (Scrib., 
$2.50);  Tarr,  "New  Physical  Geography," 
Chapters  X,  XT  (McM.,  $1.00);  Avebury,  "  The 
Beauties  of  Nature,"  Chapter  IX  (McM.,  $1.50) ; 
Andrews,  "  Stories  Mother  Nature  told  her 
Children,"  section  on  "  Sea  Life  "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ; 
Holland,  "  The  Sea  Voyage,"  in  "  Arthur  Bonni- 
castle  " ;  Dickens,  "  David  Copperfield,"  Chap- 
ter V  ;  "Robinson  Crusoe,"  Chapter  III; 
Taylor,  "The  Waves,"  "Wind  and  Sea,"  in 
Marble's  "  Nature  Pictures  by  American  Poets" 


REFERENCES  FOR    TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


503 


(McM.,    $1.25);     Coleridge,     "The     Ancient 
Mariner." 

The  Air.  — Tarr, "  New  Physical  Geography," 
Chapters  XII-XIV  (McM.,  $1.00);  "A  Sum- 
mer Shower,"  "  Cornell  Nature  Study  Bulletin," 
No.  1,  June,  1899  (free  on  application  to  College 
of  Agriculture,  Cornell  University,  Ithaca, 
N.Y.)  ;  Murche,  "  Science  Keader,"  Book  III, 
sections  on  "  Air,"  "  Vapor  in  the  Air,"  "  Vapor  ; 
What  Becomes  of  It  ?  "  "  What  the  Atmosphere 
Is,"  "Ice,  Hail,  and  Snow"  (McM.,  $0.40); 
Frye,  "  Brooks  and  Brook  Basins,"  sections  on 
"  Forms  of  Water  "  and  "  The  Atmosphere  in 
Motion  "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Strong,  "  All  the  Year 
Round,"  Part  II,  sections  33-39  (Ginn,  $0.30) ; 
Andrews,  "Stories  Mother  Nature  told  her 
Children,"  section  on  "  The  Frost  Giants " 
(Ginn,  $0.50) ;  Payne,  "  Geographical  Nature 
Studies,"  many  excellent  stories  and  poems 
(A.B.C.,  $0.25) ;  Marble,  "Nature  Pictures  by 
American  Poets  "  ;  "  Summer  Shower,"  Dickin- 
son ;  "  Rain,"  De  Land ;  "  Song  of  the  Snow- 
flakes,"  Cheney  ;  "Cloudland"  (McM.,  $1.25); 
Wilson,  "  Nature  Study  in  Elementary  Schools," 
Second  Reader,  the  following  poems :  "  The 
Rain  Shower,"  "  The  Wind  Song,"  "  The  Bag 
of  Winds,"  "The  Sunbeams,"  "  Snowflakes," 
"Signs  of  Rain,"  "The  Rainbow"  (McM., 
$0.35);  Lovejoy,  "Nature  in  Verse,"  the  fol- 
lowing poems  :  "  Merry  Rain,"  "  The  Clouds," 
"The  Dew,"  "  The  Fog,"  "The  Rain,"  "The 
Snow,"  "The  Frost,"  "Jack  Frost,"  "Little 
Snowflakes"  (S.B.C.,  $0.60);  Shelley,  "The 
Cloud";  Whittier,  "The  Frost  Spirit"; 
Bryant,  "  The  Hurricane  "  ;  Whittier,  "  Snow- 
bound "  ;  Irving,  "  The  Thunderstorm  "  (prose). 

Industi'y,  Comynerce,  and  Government.  — 
Payne,  "  Geographical  Nature  Studies,"  sections 
on  "Occupations,"  "Trade  or  Commerce," 
"  Transportation  by  Land,"  "Transportation  by 
Water, '  School  and  Country.  A. B.C.,  $0.25)  ; 
Andrews,  "The  Stories  Mother  Nature  told 
her  Children,"  section  on  "  The  Carrying  Trade  " 
(Ginn,  $0.50);  Whittier,  "Songs  of  Labor"; 
Brooks,  "Century  Book  for  Young  Americans" 
(Cent.,  $1.50);  Brooks,  "  The  Story  of  the  United 
States "  (The  Lothrop  Publishing  Co.,  Boston, 
$1.50)  ;  Wilson,  "Nature  Study  in  Elementary 
Schools,"  Second  Reader,  section  on  "  Boyhood 
of  Lincoln  "  (McM.,  $0.35) ;  Payne,  "Geograph- 
ical Nature  Studies,"  section  on  "Government" 
(A.B.C.,  $0.25). 

Maps.  —  Excellent  outline  maps   of  states 


and  continents,  costing  \\  to  2  cents  each,  can 
be  purchased  from  D.  C.  Heath  &  Co.,  Boston ; 
Rand,  McNally  &  Co.,  Chicago ;  and  other 
publishers.  Maltby,  "  Map  Modeling  "  (A.  S. 
Barnes  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25);  Kellogg, 
"  Geography  by  Map  Drawing  "  (same  publish- 
ers, $0.30)  ;  Red  way,  "  The  Reproduction  of 
Geographical  Forms  "  ($0.30)  and  "  Teacher's 
Manual  of  Geography  "  ($0.65)  (both  by  Heath) ; 
Frye,  "The  Child  and  Nature"  (Ginn,  $0.80); 
Frye,  "  Sand  and  Clay  Modeling  "  (A.B.C.,  New 
York,  ($0.10);  Frye,  "Teacher's  Manual  of 
Methods  in  Geography  "  (Ginn,  $0.50) ;  Kellogg, 
"How  to  Teach  Clay  Modeling"  (A.  S.  Barnes 
&  Co.,  New  York,  $0.25)  ;  King,  "  The  Pictur- 
esque Geographical  Readers,"  First  Book, 
Lesson  XIII  (L.  S.,  $0.50). 

Form  and  Size  of  the  Earth.  —  Andrews, 
"  Seven  Little  Sisters,"  section  on  "  The  Ball 
Itself"  (Ginn,  $0.50);  Irving,  "  Life  and  Voy- 
ages of  Christopher  Columbus"  (Put.,  New 
York,  $1.75) ;  for  Columbus,  Magellan,  etc., 
see  various  school  histories.  Also,  poem  on 
"  Columbus  "  by  Tennyson,  D'Anvers,  "  Science 
Ladders,"  Vol.  I  (E.P.C.,  $0.40) ;  Gee,  "  Short 
Studies  in  Nature  Knowledge,"  section  on  "  The 
Great  Globe  Itself"  (McM.,  $0.10). 

Daily  Motion  of  the  Earth  and  its  Restdts.  — 
Red  way,  "  Manual  of  Geography,"  Chapter  VI 
(Heath,  $0.65);  "Daybreak"  (poem),  Long- 
fellow. 

The  Zones. —  Eggleston,  "Stories  of  American 
Life  and  Adventure,"  section  on  "  Adventures 
in  Alaska  "  (A.B.C.,  $0.50) ;  Andrews,  "  Seven 
Little  Sisters,"  sections  on  "  The  Little  Brown 
Baby,"  "  Agoonack,  the  Esquimau  Sister,"  and 
"How  Agoonack  Lives"  (Ginn,  $0.50); 
Schwatka,  "  The  Children  of  the  Cold  "  (E.P.C., 
$1.25);  Ballou,  "Footprints  of  Travel," 
Chapters  XXIX  and  XXX  (Ginn,  $0.60); 
King,  "  The  Picturesque  Geographical  Read- 
ers," First  Book,  Part  2  (L.S.,  $0.50). 

The  Continents  and  Oceans.  —  Andrews, 
"  Seven  Little  Sisters  "  (Ginn,  $0.50)  ;  Ballou', 
"Footprints  of  Travel"  (Ginn,  $0.60);  Kelly, 
"  Leaves  from  Nature's  Story  Book,"  Vol.  Ill, 
"  A  Visit  to  the  Bottom  of  the  Ocean  "  (E.P.C., 
$0.40)  ;  Shaler,  "The  Story  of  Our  Continent," 
section  on  "  Coral  Reefs  "  (Ginn,  $0.75) ;  Tarr, 
"  Elementary  Geology,"  p.  251  (McM.,  $1.40) ; 
D'Anvers,  "  Science  Ladders,"  Vol.  Ill,  Lesson 
VIII  (E.P.C.,  $0.40) ;  Youth's  Companion 
Series,    "  Strange    Lands  Near    Home "   and 


504 


APPENDIX  III 


«  The  Wide  World  "  (Ginn,  each  $0.25)  ;  An- 
drews, "  Each  and  All"  (L.S.,  $1.00);  Miller, 
"Little  People  of  Asia"  (E.P.D.,  $2.50); 
Schwatka,  "Children  of  the  Cold"  (E.P.C., 
$1.25)  ;  Shaw,  "  Big  People  and  Little  People 
of  Other  Lands"  (A.B.C.,  $0.30);  Poems: 
Shelley,  "  A  Vision  of  the  Sea " ;  Longfellow, 
"  The  Secret  of  the  Sea  "  ;  Longfellow,  "  The 
Wreck  of  the  Hesperus "  ;  Holmes,  "  The 
Chambered  Nautilus  "  ;   Byron,  "The  Ocean." 

North  America.  —  Carpenter,  "Geographical 
Eeader  of  North  America"  (A.B.C.,  $0.60); 
Herbertson,  "  Descriptive  Geography  :  North 
America"  (McM.,  $0.75);  Shaler,  "The  Story 
of  our  Continent"  (Ginn,  $0.75);  Lyde,  "North 
America"  (McM.,  $0.50);  Chase  and  Clow," 
"  Stories  of  Industry,"  Vols.  I  and  II  (E.P.C., 
$0.40) ;  Hurlburt,  "Historic  Highways  of  North 
America"  (A.  H.  Clark  Co.,  Cleveland,  $2.50); 
McMurry,  "  Excursions  and  Lessons  in  Home 
Geography"  (McM.,  $0.50)  ;  McMurry,  "Larger 
Types  of  American  Geography  "  (McM.,  $0.75); 
Pratt,  "American  History  Stories"  (E.P.C.,  4 
vols.,  $0.36  each);  Keynolds,  "The  Americas" 
(McM.,  $0.75);  Russell,  "North  America" 
(App.,  $2.50);  Russell,  "Glaciers  of  North 
America"  (Ginn,  $1.75);  Russell,  "Lakes  of 
North  America "  (Ginn,  $1.50)  ;  Russell, 
"Rivers  of  North  America"  (Put.,  $2.00); 
Semple,  "American  History  and  its  Geo- 
graphic Conditions"  (H.M.C.,  $1.25). 

The  United  States.  General.  —  Adams, 
"America's  Economic  Supremacy"  (McM., 
$1.25);  Adams,  "The  New  Empire"  (McM., 
$1.50);  Austin,  "Steps  in  the  Expansion  of 
our  Territory  "  (App.,  $1.25  )  ;  Baedeker,  "The 
United  States"  (Scrib.,  $3.60) ;  Brigham,  "Geo- 
graphic Influences  in  American  History " 
(Ginn,  $1.25);  Brooks,  "Century  Book  of 
American  Colonies "  (Cent.  $1.50) ;  Brooks, 
"First  across  the  Continent"  (Scrib.,  $1.50); 
Bryce,  "American  Commonwealth"  (McM., 
$4.00;  abridged  edition,  $1.75);  Channing, 
"  Students'  History  of  the  United  States " 
(McM.,  $1.40);  Fiske,  "How  the  United 
States  became  a  Great  Nation  "  (Ginn,  $1.25) ; 
Gannett,  "  The  Building  of  a  Nation  "  (H.  T. 
Thomas  Co.,  New  York,  $2.50)  ;  Hale,  "  Tarry 
at  Home  Travels"  (McM.,  $2.50);  McMurry, 
"  Type  Studies  from  Geography  of  the  United 
States"  (McM.,  $0.50);  Newell,  "Irrigation  in 
the  United  States  "  (Crowell  &  Co.,  New  York, 
$2.00) ;  Patton,  "  The  Natural  Resources  of  the 


United  States"  (App.,  $3.00);  Ries,  "Eco- 
nomic Geology  of  the  United  States"  (McM., 
$2.00);  Shaw,  "Uncle  Sam  and  His  Chil- 
dren" (A.  S.  Barnes  Co.,  New  York,  $1.20); 
Smith,  "Our  Own  Country"  (S.B.C.,  $0.50); 
Smith,  "  The  Story  of  Iron  and  Steel "  (App., 
$0.75) ;  Stevenson,  "Across  the  Plains"  (Scrib., 
$1.25)  ;  Stoddard,  "  Beautiful  Scenes  of  Amer- 
ica" (Saalfield  Pub.  Co.,  Akron,  0.,  $0.75); 
"The  Story  of  Paper  Making"  (Butler  Paper 
Co.,  Chicago,  $1.25);  Whitney,  "The  United 
States "  (Little,  Brown  &  Co,  Boston,  $2.00) ; 
Young,  "The  Cotton  Industry  "  (Scrib.,  $0.75); 
Eggleston,  "  Stories  of  American  Life  and 
Adventure,"  "Stories  of  Whaling,"  and  "A 
Whaling  Song,"  "  A  Story  of  Niagara,"  "  How 
Fremont  Crossed  the  Mountains,"  "  The  Find- 
ing of  Gold  in  California,"  "Descending  the 
Grand  Canon,"  and  several  Indian  stories, 
(A.B.C.,  $0.50);  Chase  and  Clow,  "Stories  of 
Industry,"  Vol.  I,  "  Lumbering,"  «  Ship  Build- 
ing," "Marble  and  Granite,"  "Slate  and 
Brick,"  etc.,  Vol.  II,  "  Manufacturing,"  "  Fish- 
eries," "Whaling,"  etc.  (E.P.C.,  each  volume 
$0.40);  Adams,  "The  United  States:  Land 
and  Water"  (N.G.M.,  May,  '03:  171);  Austin, 
"The  United  States:  Her  Industries "  {N.G.M., 
Aug.,  '03:  301);  Kirchhoff,  "The  United 
States:  Her  Mineral  Resources"  {N.G.M., 
Sept.,  '03:  331);  Price,  "The  Influence  of 
Forestry  iipon  the  Lumber  Industry  of  the 
United  States  "  {N.G.M.,  Oct.,  '03 ;  381) ;  "  The 
Growth  of  the  United  States"  (N.G.M.,  Sept., 
'98:  377);  Wiley,  "The  United  States:  Its 
Soils  and  Their  Products"  {N.G.M.,  July,  '03: 
261) ;  Brown,  "  Seaports  in  the  United  States  " 
{J.G.y  Oct.,  '05:  337);  Emerson,  "A  Glimpse 
of  Steel  Manufacture"  {J.G.,  April,  '03:  169). 
Poems  :  Whittier,  "  Mogg  Megone,"  "  Pen- 
tucket,"  "The  Bridal  of  Pennacook,"  "The 
Merrimack,"  "  The  Norsemen " ;  Longfellow, 
"The  Woods  in  Winter,"  "The  Building  of 
the  Ship,"  "The  River  Charles";  Emerson, 
"  Boston  "  ;  Riley,  "  When  the  Frost  is  on  the 
Pimkin,"  "Knee  Deep  in  June";  Bryant, 
"The  Prairies,"  "The  Hunter  of  the  Prai- 
ries"; Whittier,  "The  Pass  of  the  Sierra"; 
Joaquin  Miller,  "  In  the  Yosemite  Valley  "  : 
Holmes,  "  Our  Country." 

Northeastern  States.  —  Bacon,  "  Historic  Pil- 
grimages in  New  England "  (S.B.C.,  $1.50)  ; 
Davis,  "  Physical  Geography  of  Southern  New 
England"  (A.B.C.,  $0.20)  ;  Drake,  "Nooks  and 


REFERENCES  FOR    TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


505 


Corners  of  tlie  New  England  Coast"  (H.B., 
$2.50);  Emerson,  "New  England  States" 
(McM.,  $0.30);  Johnson,  "New  England  and 
its  Neighbors  "  (McM.,  $2.00) ;  Kimball,  "  Ver- 
mont for  Young  Vermonters  "  (App.,  $1.00) ; 
Kipling,  "Captains  Courageous"  (Cent.,  $1.50); 
Thoreau,  "Maine  Woods"  (H.M.C.,  $1.50); 
Barton,  "  General  Geographic  Features  in  and 
around  Boston"  (J.G.,  June,  '03  :  277) ;  Dodge, 
"  Approaching  Boston  "  {J.G.,  June,  '03  :  261)  ; 
Emerson,  "  Boston,  A  Center  of  Industry " 
{J.G.,  June  '03:  315);  Gulliver,  "Geographi- 
cal Development  of  Boston  "  (J.  G.,  June,  '03  : 
323);  "Geographical  Notes  on  Boston"  {J.G., 
June,  '03 :  330)  ;  Bibliography  of  Boston  and 
Vicinity  {J.G.,  June,  '03:  333);  King,  "Ex- 
cursions in  and  and  around  Boston"  (J.G., 
June,  '03:  286);  Shurtleff,  "Boston  Parks" 
(J.G.,  June,  '03:  302);  Brigham,  "From  Trail 
to  Railway  through  the  Appalachians  "  (Ginn, 
$0.50) ;  Gilbert,  "Niagara  Falls  and  their  His- 
tory "  (A.B.C.,  $0.20);  Rupert,  "Pennsylva- 
nia "  (McM.,  $0.30)  ;  Southworth,  "  Story  of 
the  Empire  State"  (App.,  $0.75);  Whitbeck, 
"New  Jersey"  (McM.,  $0.30):  Whitbeck, 
"New  York  "  (McM.,  $0.30)  ;  Brigham,  "  The 
Eastern  Gateway  of  the  United  States  "  {J.S.G., 
April,  '00:   127). 

Southern  States.  —  Barrett,  "  Tennessee  " 
(McM.,  $0.30) ;  Brook,  "  Cotton  :  Its  Uses,  Cul- 
ture, etc."  (Spon  &  Chamberlain,  New  York, 
$3.00);  Burkett,  "Cotton"  (Doub.,  $2.00); 
Earle,  "  Southern  Agriculture"  (McM.,  $1.25); 
Chandler  &  Foushee,  "Virginia"  (McM  .,$0.30) ; 
Twitchell,  "Maryland"  (McM.,  $0.30);  Faust 
and  Allen,  "North  Carolina"  (McM.,  $0.30); 
Hitchcock,  "  Louisiana  Purchase "  (Ginn, 
$1.25);  Littlejohn,  "Texas"  (McM.,  $0.35); 
Mitchell,  "Georgia;  Land  and  People"  (F.  L. 
Mitchell,  Atlanta,  Ga.,  $1.25);  Ralph,  "Dixie, 
or  Southern  Scenesand  Sketches"  (H.B.,  $2.60)  ; 
Taylor  and  Stephen,  "Louisiana"  (McM., 
$0.25) ;  Tompson,  "  From  Cotton  Field  to  the 
Cotton  Mill"  (McM.,  $1.50);  Willoughby, 
"Across  the  Everglades"  (Lipp.,  $1.50); 
Dietz,  "  The  Fall  Line  "  {J.G.,  June  '05 :  244)  ; 
Harrison,  "  Cultivation  of  Rice  in  the  United 
States"  (J.G.,  Sept.,  '03:  369);  Lloyd,  "The 
Delta  of  the  Mississippi"  (J.G.,  May,  '04: 
204)  ;  Series  of  papers  on  the  Geography  of 
the  Louisiana  Purchase  (J.G.,  June, '04:  243 
-278);  "The  Mississippi  River"  {J.G.,  Oct., 
'02:374). 


Central  States.  —  Bender,  "Iowa"  (McM., 
$0.20);  Barnard,  "Missouri"  (McM.,  $0.30); 
Condra,  "Geography  of  Nebraska"  (University 
Pub.  Co.,  Lincoln,  Neb.,  $.90) ;  Cooley,  "Michi- 
gan "  (H.M.C.,  $1.10);  Darling,  "Illinois" 
(McM.,  $0.30);  Dryer,  "Studies  in  Indiana 
Geography"  (Inland  Pub.  Co.,  Indianapolis, 
Ind.,  $0.50)  ;  Fox,  "  Out  Doors  in  Old  Ken- 
tucky" (Scrib.,  $1.75);  Grinnel,  "Jack,  the 
Young  Explorer "  (F.  A.  Stokes,  New  York, 
$1.25) ;  Hall,  "  Geography  of  Minnesota"  (H. 
W.  Nelson  Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minn.,  $1.20); 
Hovey,  "  Celebrated  American  Caverns "  (B. 
Clarke  Co.,  Cincinnati,  O.,  $2.00)  :  Stanchfield, 
"  Lumbering  in  Minnesota "  (D.  Stanchfield, 
Minneapolis,  Minn.,  $1.00) ;  Thwaites,  "  Down 
Historic  Waterways,"  "  On  the  Storied  Ohio  " 
(McClurg,  Chicago,  $1.20  each);  Willard, 
"Story  of  the  Prairies"  (R.  McN.,  $1.75); 
Wilson,  "Ohio"  (McM.,  $0.30);  Winans, 
"  Kansas  "  (McM.,  $0.30) ;  Hall,  "  Minnesota, 
a  Sketch"  (J.G.,  June,  '02  :  241)  ;  Hall,  "Min- 
neapolis and  its  Environs"  (J.G.,  June, '02  : 
249). 

Western  States. —  Austin,  "  The  Land  of  Lit- 
tle Rain"  (H.M.C.,  $2.00);  Brooks,  "First 
across  the  Continent"  (Scrib.,  $1.50)  ;  Brown, 
"  The  Glory  Seekers "  (McClurg,  Chicago, 
$1.50) ;  Clark,  "  Indians  of  the  Yosemite  Valley 
and  Vicinity  "  (G.  Clark,  Yosemite  Valley,  Cal., 
$1.00);  Cody,  "True  Tales  of  the  Plains" 
(Cupples  &  Leon,  New  York,  $1.00) ;  Fairbanks, 
"California"  (McM.,  $0.30);  Fultz,  "Out  of 
Door  Studies  in  Geography  "  (Public  Schools 
Pub.  Co.,  Bloomington.,  111.,  $0.60) ;  Groham, 
"  Camps  in  the  Rockies  "  (Scrib.,  $1.25)  ;  Hew- 
itt, "  Across  the  Plain  and  over  the  Divide  " 
(Broadway  Pub.  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50) ;  Irish, 
"  Arizona  "  (McM.,  $0.20)  ;  Jones,  "  Utah  " 
(McM.,  $0.40)  ;  Jordon,  "  California  and  the 
Californians  "  (A.  H.  Robertson,  San  Francisco, 
Cal.,  $0.75);  Muir,  "Our  National  Parks" 
(H.M.C.,  $1.75);  Munk,  "Arizona  Sketches" 
(Grafton  Press,  New  York,  $2.00);  Paine, 
"  Greater  America"  (Outing,  New  York,  $1.50); 
Parkman,  "  The  Oregon  Trail  "  (Little,  Brown 
&  Co.,  Boston,  $2.00)  ;  Prudden,  "  On  the  Great 
American  Plateau "  (Put.,  $1.50) ;  Ralph, 
"  Our  Great  West  "  (H.B.,  $2.50) ;  "  The  Pacific 
Coast  Guide  Book"  (R.  McN.,  $1.00);  Tonge, 
"  Handbook  of  Colorado  Resources  "  (T.  Tonge, 
Denver,  Col.,  $0.50)  ;  Van  Dyke,  "  The  Desert " 
(Scrib.,  $1.25) ;  "  Washington  "  (McM.,  $0.20)  ; 


506 


APPENDIX  III 


Barrows,  "  The  Colorado  Desert "  {N.O.M.,  '00  : 
337)  ;  Blanchard,  "  Home  Making  by  the  Gov- 
ernment" {N.G.M.,  April,  '08  :  250)  ;  Blanchard, 
"  Millions  for  Moisture  "  {N.G.M.,  April,  '07  : 
217)  ;  Chapman,  *'  Deserts  of  Nevada  and  the 
Death  Valley"  {N.G.M.,  Sept.,  '06:  483); 
Chapman, '' Our  Northern  Rockies"  (N.G.M., 
Oct.,  '02  :  361.)  ;  McGee,  "  The  Yuma  Trail  " 
{N.G.M.,  April'Ol:  103);  Newell,  "The  Rec- 
lamation of  the  West "  {N.  G.M.,  Jan.,  '04 : 
15) ;  Ransome,  "  The  San  Francisco  Earth- 
quake" {N.G.M.,  May,  '06  :  280)  ;  Rody,  ''  Ari- 
zona and  New  Mexico"  (N.G.M.,  '06:  101); 
"The  Redwood  Forest  of  the  Pacific  Coast" 
{N.G.M.,  May,  '99 :  145)  ;  Dodge,  "  Life  on  the 
Colorado  Plateaus"  {J.S.G.,  Feb.,  '00:  45); 
Dodge,  "The  Big  Trees  of  California"  (J.S.G., 
Jan.,  '01 :  16) ;  Russell,  "  Climate,  Vegetation, 
and  Drainage  of  Cascade  Mountains"  (J.S.G., 
Oct.,  '01 :  280) ;  Lee,  "  Canyons  of  Southeastern 
Colorado"  (J.G.,  Oct.,  '02:  357). 

Alaska.  —  Burroughs,  "  Far  and  Near  " 
(H.M.C.,  11.10);  De  Windt,  "Through  the 
Gold  Fields  of  Alaska  to  Bering  Strait"  (H.B., 
$2.50)  ;  Edwards,  "  Into  the  Yukon  "  (R.  Clarke 
Co.,  Cincinnati,  0.,  $1.50) ;  Greeley,  "  Alaska," 
(Scrib.,  $2.00) ;  Higginson,  "  Alaska,  the  Great 
Country"  (McM.,  $2.50);  MacDonald,  "The 
White  Trail  "  (H.  M.  Caldwell,  Boston,  $1.25)  ; 
Scidmore, "  Guidebook  to  Alaska"(App.,$1.25)  ; 
Stoddard,  "  Over  Rocky  Mountains  to  Alaska  " 
(B.  Herder,  St.  Louis,  $0.75) ;  Thompson, 
"  Gold  Seeking  in  the  Dalton  Trail  "  (Little, 
Brown  Co.,  Boston,  $1.50) ;  "  Alaska  "{N.G.M., 
April,  '98  :  105,  twelve  articles)  ;  "  An  Expo- 
sition through  the  Yukon  District"  {N.G.M., 
Vol.  2,  '92:  117);  Brooks,  "Geography  of 
Alaska"  {N.G.M.,M.'e,j,  '04:  213);  Gannett, 
"The  General  Geography  of  Alaska"  {N.G.M., 
May,  '01 :  180)  ;  Georgeson,  "  The  Possibilities 
of  Alaska  "  (A^.G«.3f.,  March  '02  :  81)  ;  Grosvenor, 
"Reindeer  in  Alaska"  {N.G.M.,  April,'  03: 127) ; 
"Life  on  a  Yukon  Trail"  (N.G.M.,  Oct., 
'99  :  337  and  457) ;  "  The  Alaskan  Boundary  " 
{N.G.M.,  Nov.,  '99:  425);  Bay  ley,  "The  Yu- 
kon and  its  Basin"  {J.G.,  Oct.,  '08:  25); 
Brooks,  "  An  Exploration  to  Mt.  McKinley  " 
{J.G.,  Nov.,  '03  :  441)  ;  Brooks,  "  Geography 
of  Alaska"  (United  States  Geological  Survey, 
Washington). 

The  Polar  Regions.  —  Baker,  "  Out  of  the 
Northland"  (McM.,  $0.25);  Hayes,  "The  Land 
of  Desolation"  (H.B.,  $1.75);    Horton,  "The 


Frozen  North  "  (D.  C.  Heath,  Boston,  $0.40)  ; 
Long,  "Northern  Trails"  (Ginn,  $1.50); 
Nansen,  "First  Crossing  of  Greenland"  (L.G. 
$1.25)  ;  Mrs.  Peary,  "  The  Snow  Baby  "  (F.  A. 
Stokes,  New  York,  $1.30) ;  Mrs.  Peary,  "  Chil- 
dren of  the  Arctic"  (F.  A.  Stokes,  $1.20); 
Mrs.  Peary,  "  My  Arctic  Journal  "  (Contempo- 
rary Pub.  Co.,  New  York,  $2.00) ;  Schwatka, 
"  Children  of  the  Cold  "  (E.P.C.  $1.25)  ;  Scott, 
"From  Franklin  to  Nansen"  (Lipp.,  $1.25); 
Scott,  "  Romance  of  Polar  Exploration  "  (Lipp., 
$1.50);  Smith,  "Eskimo  Stories"  (R.McN., 
$1.00) ;  "  An  Ice-wrapped  Continent,  Antarc- 
tica" {N.G.M.,  Feb.,  '07:  95);  Peary,  "The 
Value  of  Arctic  Exploration  "  (N.G.M.,  Dec.  '03: 
429)  ;  "  Climatic  (Control  in  Greenland  "  (J.S.  G. , 
Oct.,  '00:  281);  Poem:  "An  Arctic  Vision," 
Bret  Harte. 

West  Indies  and  Bermuda.  —  Arthur,  "  Ten 
Thousand  Miles  in  a  Yacht "  (Dutt.,  $2.00) ; 
"  Handbooks  on  Haiti  and  Santo  Domingo"  (B. 
Amer.  B.,  $0.35  each)  ;  Hill,  "  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico"  (Cent.,  $3.00);  Kennan,  "Tragedy  of 
Pelee  "  (McM.,  $1.00)  ;  Kingsley,  "  At  Last :  A 
Christmas  in  the  West  Indies  "  (McM.,  $1.25)  ; 
Nicholas,  "  Around  the  Caribbean  and  across 
Panama"  (H.  M.  Caldwell,  Boston,  $2.00); 
Ober,  "  Our  West  Indian  Neighbors  "  (James 
Pott  &  Co.,  $2.00);  Rod  way,  "  The  West  Indies 
and  the  Spanish  Main  "  (Put.,  $1.75);  Stoddard, 
"  Cruising  among  the  Caribbees "  (Scrib., 
$1.50);  "  The  United  States  and  Porto  Rico" 
(L.G.,  $1.30) ;  Chester,  "  Haiti,  a  Degenerating 
Island"  {N.G.M.,  March,  '08:  200);  "Cuba" 
(NG.M.,  Sept.,  '98 :  193)  ;  "  Cuba,  the  Pearl  of 
the  Antilles"  {N.G.M.,  Oct.,  '06:  535);  Hill, 
"Cuba  and  Porto  Rico"  (Cent.,  $3.00);  Hill 
and  Russell,  "Volcanic  Disturbances  in  the 
West  Indies"  {N.G.M.,  July,  '02:  223); 
"Porto  Rico"  {n.G.M.,  March,  '99:  93); 
Russell,  "  Volcanic  Eruptions  on  Martinique 
and  St.  Vincent"  {N.G.M.,  Dec,  '02:  415); 
Wilcox,  "  Among  the  Mahogany  Forests  of 
Cuba"  {N.G.M.,  July,  '08:  485);  Cline,  "The 
Island  of  Porto  Rico  "  (J.S.G.,  Dec,  '01 :  362)  ; 
Heilprin,  "  The  Bermuda  Islands "  (A.  Heil- 
prin,  Philadelphia,  $3.50). 

Hawaiian  and  Small  Islands. — Alexander, 
"A  Brief  History  of  the  Hawaiian  People" 
(A.B.C.,  $1.50)  ;  Baldwin,  "  Geography  of  the 
Hawaiian  Islands"  (A.B.C.,  $0.60)";  Dole, 
"Hiwa:  Tale  of  Ancient  Hawaii"  (H.B., 
$1.00) ;  "  Greatest  America ;  the  Latest  Acquired 


REFERENCES  FOR    TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


507 


Possessions"  (Perry  Mason  Co.,  Boston  $0.50)  ; 
Young,  "  The  Eeal  Hawaii "  (Doubleday,  New 
York,  $1.50);  Wallace,  "Island  Life"  (McM., 
$1.75);  Whitney,  "Hawaiian  America"  (H.B., 
$2.50)  ;  articles  on  "Samoa"  (N.G.M.,  June,  '99 
207). 

Philippine  Islands.  —  Coulter,  "  Nature 
Study  Header  for  the  Philippine  Islands " 
(App.,  $0.60);  Coursey, "  History  and  Geography 
of  the  Philippine  Islands  "  (Educator  School 
Supply  Co.,  Mitchell,  S.D.,  $0.50) ;  Jernegan, 
"Philippine  Geography"  Heath,  $0.60); 
Knapp,  "Story  of  the  Philippines"  (S.B.C., 
$0.60) ;  Sonnichsen,  "  Ten  Months  a  Captive 
among  Filipinos  "  (Jennings  &  Graham,  Cin- 
cinnati, $1.75);  Worcester,  "The  Philip- 
pine Islands  and  their  People "  (McM., 
$2.50) ;  Younghusband,  "  The  Philippines  and 
Round  About"  (McM.,  $2.50);  "Report  of 
the  Philippine  Commission"  (State  Depart- 
ment, Washington) ;  Articles  on  the  Philip- 
pines (JV:(?.iltf.,  June '98:  257-304;  Oct.,  '99: 
33-72;  Nov.  '00:  1);  Barrett,  "The  Philip- 
pine Islands  and  their  Environment"  (N.G.M., 
Jan.,  '00:  1) ;  Gannett,  "The  Philippine  Islands 
and  their  People"  {N.G.M.,  March,  '04:  71); 
Papers  on  Philippines  {N.G.M.,  May,  '03); 
Sanger  and  others,  "  A  Revelation  of  the  Fil- 
ipinos" {N.G.M.,  April,  '05:  139);  "The 
Climate  of  the  Philippine  Islands"  (J.S.G., 
Dec,  '99:  361). 

Canada.  —  Aner,  "  The  North  Country  " 
(R.  Clarke  Co.,  Cincinnati,  $2.00);  Butler, 
"  Wild  Northland,  a  Winter  with  a  Dog"  (A.  S. 
Barnes  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.00);  "Canadian 
Guide  Book"  (App.,  $1.00) ;  Coe,  "Our  Ameri- 
can Neighbors  "  (S.B.C.,  $0.60);  Howe,  "Four- 
teen Thousand  Miles,  a  Carriage,  and  Two 
Women "  (F.  S.  Howe,  Leominster,  Mass., 
$1.50);  Morely,  "Down  North  and  Up  Along," 
(Dodd,  Mead&Co.,New  York,  $1.50);  Parkin, 
"The  Great  Dominion"  (McM.,  $1.75); 
Pauli,  "Record  of  a  Trip  through  Canada's 
Wilderness "  (J.  A.  Pauli  &  Co.,  New  York, 
$1.50) ;  Plummer,  "  Roy  and  Ray  in  Canada" 
(Henry  Holt  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.75)  ;  Ralph, 
"  On  Canada's  Frontier "  (H.  B.,  $2.50) ; 
Statistical  Year  Book  (each  year  by  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  Ottawa) ;  Wallace,  "  Long 
Labrador  Trail"  (Outing,  New  York,  $1.50)  ; 
Willcox,  "Exploration  in  the  Canadian  Rock- 
ies "  {N.G.M.,  May, '02:  151;  June,  '02:  185). 
Poem  :  "  Evangeline,"   Longfellow. 


Mexico.  —  Bancroft,  "  Recources  and  Devel- 
opment of  Mexico "  (The  Bancroft  Co.,  San 
Francisco,  $4.50) ;  Edwards,  "  On  the  Mexican 
Highlands"  (Jennings  &  Graham,  Cincinnati, 
$1.50);  Fitzgerrell,  "Guide  to  Tropical 
Mexico"  (J.  J.  Fitzgerrell,  Mexico  City, 
$0.50);  "Guide  to  Mexico"  (App.,  $1.50); 
Griffin,  "Mexico  of  To-day"  (H.B.,  $1.50); 
Hornaday,  "  Camp  Fires  on  Desert  and  Lava  " 
(Scrib.,  $3.00)  ;  Lummis,  "  The  Awakening  of  a 
Nation"  (H.B.,  $2.50);  McGary,  "An  Amer- 
ican Girl  in  Mexico  "  (Dodd,  Mead  &  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.00) ;  Noll,  "  Short  History  of  Mexico  " 
(McClurg  &  Co.,  Chicago,  $0.75) ;  Plummer, 
"  Roy  and  Ray  in  Mexico "  (Henry  Holt  Co. 
New  York,  $1.75);  Prescott,  "Conquest  of 
Mexico"  (A.  L.  Burt  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25); 
Romero,  "  Coffee  and  India  Rubber  Culture  in 
Mexico  "  (Put.,  $3.00)  ;  Romero,  '^  Geographical 
and  Statistical  Notes  on  Mexico"  (Put., 
$2.00) ;  Schwatka,  "  In  the  Land  of  Cave  and 
Cliff  Dwellers  "  (E.P.C.,  $1.25);  Smith,  "White 
Umbrella  in  Mexico  "  (H.M.C.,  $1.50);  Darton, 
"  Mexico,  the  Treasure  House  of  the  World  " 
(N.G.M.,  Aug.,  '07:  493);  Foster,  "The  New 
Mexico"  {N.G.M.,  Jan.  '02;  1);  Nelson,  "A 
Winter  Expedition  in  Southwestern  Mexico " 
{N.G.M.,  Sept., '04:  341). 

Central  America  and  Panama  Canal  Zone. — 
Belt,  "  Naturalist  in  Nicaragua "  (Scrib.  and 
Welford,  New  York,  $3.00);  Calvo,  "The 
Republic  of  Costa  Rica"  (R.McN.,  $2.00); 
Charles,  "  Honduras"  (R.McN.,  $1.50)  ;  Davis, 
"  Three  Gringos  in  Venezuela  and  Central 
America"  <H.B.,  $1.50)  ;  Herbertson,  "  Descrip- 
tive Geography,  Central  and  South  America  " 
(McM.,  $0.70);  Stevens,  "A  Trip  to  Panama" 
(Lesan-Gould  Co.,  St.  Louis,  gratis) ;  Hand- 
books {B.  Amer.  R.)  on  Costa  Rica,  Honduras, 
Salvador,  and  Nicaragua  (each  $0.35,  Guatemala, 
$0.25) ;  Monthly  Bulletins  of  the  same  Bureau 
(each  $0.25),  also  contain  information  about 
American  Republics  ;  "  Across  Nicaragua " 
{N.G.M.,  Vol.  1,  '89:  315);  Articles  on  the 
Nicaragua  Canal  {N.G.M.,  Aug.,  '99:  297); 
Burr,  "  The  Republic  of  Panama,"  {N.G.M.,  Feb. 
'04  :  57)  ;  "  Notes  on  Panama  and  Colombia  " 
{N.G.M.,  Dec,  '03:  458);  Chester,  "The  Pan- 
ama Canal"  {N.G.M.,  Oct.  '05:  445  and  467); 
Thompson,  "Henequen  —  the  Yucatan  Fibre" 
{N.G.M.,  April,  '03:  150). 

South  America.  —  There  is  a  handbook  for 
each  of  the  republics,  issued  by  the  Bureau  of 


508 


APPENDIX    III 


American  Republics,  Washington,  D.C.,  price 
from  $0.30  to  $0.50  each.  Andrews,  "  Brazil, 
its  Conditions  and  Prospects  "  (App.  $1.50) ; 
Ballon,  "  Equatorial  America  "  (H.M.C.,  $1.50) ; 
Bates,  "A  Naturalist  on  the  River  Amazon" 
(Humbolt  Library,  New  York,  $1.00)  ;  Butter- 
worth,  "  South  America  and  Panama  "  (Doub., 
$1.00) ;  Carpenter,  "  Geographical  Reader, 
South  America"  (A.B.C.,  $0.60);  Carpenter, 
"  South  America,  Social,  Industrial,  and  Politi- 
cal" (Saalfield  Pub.  Co.,  Akron,  0.,  $3.00); 
Childs,  "  South  American  Republic "  (H.B., 
$3.50)  :  Conway,  "  The  Bolivian  Andes  "  (H. 
B.,  $3.00);  Coe,  "Our  American  Neighbors" 
(S.B.C.,  $0.60);  Curtis,  "Between  the  Andes 
and  the  Ocean"  (H.  S.  Stone,  Chicago,  $2.50)  ; 
Curtis,  "  Capitols  of  Spanish  America  "  (H.B., 
$3.50);  Curtis,  "Venezuela"  (H.B.,  $1.25); 
Elliott,  "Chili"  (Scrib.,  $3.00);  Ford,  "Tropi- 
cal America"  (Scrib.,  $2.00);  Hale,  "  The  South 
Americans"  (Bobbs-Merrill  Co.,  Indianapolis, 
$2.50)  ;  Herbertson,  "  Descriptive  Geography, 
Central  and  South  America"  (McM.,  $0.70) ; 
Pepper,  "  Panama  to  Patagonia."  McClurg, 
Chicago,  S2.50) ;  Perez  Triana,  "  Down  the 
Orinico  in  a  Canoe  "  (Crowell  &  Co.,  New  York, 
$1.25);  Pratt,  "Pizarro:  Conquest  of  Peru" 
(E.P.C.,  $0.30);  Reynolds,  "The  Americas" 
(McM.,  $0.75);  Rodway,  "In  the  Guiana 
Wilds  "  (L.  Co.  Page  &  Co.,  Boston,  $1.25) ; 
Ruhl,  "Other  Americans"  (Scrib.,  $2.00); 
Scruggs,  "  Columbian  and  VenezuelanRepublics" 
(Little,  Brown  &  Co.,  Boston,  $2.50) ;  Whymer, 
"Travels  amongst  the  Great  Andes  of  the 
Equator  "  (Scrib.,  $2.50)  ;  Adams, ,  "  Cuzco  : 
America's  Ancient  Mecca"  (JSf.G.M.,  Oct.,  '08: 
669) ;  "  A  Journey  m  Ecuador  ")  N.G.M.,  July, 
'96:  238);  "A  Winter  Voyage  through  the 
Straits  of  Magellan  "  {N.  G.M.,  May,  '97  :  129) ; 
Calderon,  "  Peru,  its  Resources,  Development, 
and  Future"  {N.G.M.,  Aug.,  '04:  311;  Curtis, 
"The  Road  to  Bolivia"  N.G.M.,  June,  '00: 
209;  July,  '00:  264);  Lee,  "Beautiful  Ecua- 
dor" {N.G.M.,  Feb.,  '07:  81);  Pepper,  "South 
America  Fifty  Years  Hence,"  and  other  articles 
on  South  America  {N.G.M.,  Aug.,  '06:  427, 
432,  449,  453,  456);  "Patagonia"  {N.G.M., 
Nov.,  '97  :  305) ;  Root,  "  An  Awakened  Conti- 
nent to  the  South  of  Us"  {N.G.M.,  Jan.,  '07: 
61);  "Venezuela,  her  Government,"  etc.  {N.G. 
M.,  Feb.,  '96 :  49) ;  "  A  Day  in  the  Falkland 
Islands"  J.S.G.,  Feb.,  '98:  49);  "Climatic 
Notes    made   during  a  Voyage  around   South 


America"  (J.S.G.,  Sept.  and  Oct.,  '98:  241  and 
297) :  Johnson,  "  Trade  and  Industries  of 
Western  South  America"  (J.G.,  Jan.,  '02:  25; 
Feb.,  '02:  51;  March,  '02:  109);  "The  Cli- 
matic Control  of  Occupation  in  Chile  "  J.S.G., 
Dec.  '97:  289);  "The  Valley  of  the  Amazon 
and  its  Development"  {J.S.G.,  Sept.,  '97  :  193). 
Europe.  —  Amicis,  "  Holland  and  its  People  " 
(Put.,  $2.00);  Bailey,  "First  Impressions  of 
Europe"  (Grafton  Press,  New  York,  $1.25); 
Brochner  "  Danish  Life  in  Town  and  Country  " 
(Put.,  $1.20) ;  Carpenter,  "  Geographical 
Reader  of  Europe"  (A.B.C.,  $0.75);  Coe, 
"Modern  Europe"  (S.B.C.,  $0.60)  ;  Coolidge, 
"The  Alps  in  Nature  and  History"  (Dutt., 
$2.50);  Corbin,  "Schoolboy  Life  in  England" 
(H.B.,  $1.25) ;  Davis,  "  About  Paris  "  (H.B., 
$1.25);  Davis,  "Our  English  Cousins"  (H.B., 
$1.25) ;  Davis,  "  The  Rulers  of  the  Mediterran- 
ean" (H.B.,  $1.25) ;  Dillon,"  Motor  Days  in  Eng- 
land "  )  Put.,  $3.00)  ;  Du  Chaillu,  "  Land  of 
the  Long  Night"  (Scrib.,  $2.00);  Edwards, 
"  Through  Scandinavia  to  Moscow  "  (R.  Clarke 
Co.,  Cincinnati,  $1.50);  Emerson,  "European 
Glimpses  and  Glances "  (Cassel  &  Co.,  New 
York,  $1.00);  Finck,  "Spain  and  Morocco" 
(Scrib.,  $1.25);  Geikie,  "The  Scenery  in  Scot- 
land" (McM.,  $3.50;;  Green,  "  A  Short  Geog- 
raphy of  the  British  Isles"  (McM.,  $0.90); 
Hapgood,  "  Russian  Rambles"  (H.M.C.,  $1.50) ; 
Herbertson,  "  Descriptive  Geographies  "  ("  Eu- 
rope," $0.90;  "The  British  Empire,"  $0.75, 
McM.);  King,  "Northern  Europe"  (Lee  & 
Shepard,  Boston,  $0.60) ;  Knight,  "  Over-sea 
Britain"  (Dutt.,  $2.00);  Loring,  "A  Year  in 
Portugal"  (Put,  $1.50);  Lubbock,  "The  Scen- 
ery of  Switzerland"  (McM.,  $1.50);  Lyde, 
"  A  Geography  of  the  British  Isles  "  (McM., 
$0.60);  Lyde,  "A  Geography  of  Europe" 
(McM.,  $0.50)  ;  Mackinder,  "  Britain  and  the 
British  Isles"  (App.,  $2.00);  MoncriefP,  "  The 
Peak  Country  "  (McM.,  $2.50)  ;  Monroe,  "Nor- 
way, its  People,  its  Fjords,  and  its  Fjelds  " 
(L.  C.  Page,  Boston,  $3.00);  Nixon-Roulet, 
"Our  Little  Grecian  Cousin"  (L.  C.  Page, 
Boston,  $0.60);  Partsch,  "Central  Europe" 
(App.,  $2.00);  Paton,  "Picturesque  Sicily" 
(H.B.,  $2.50);  Pratt,  "Legends  of  Norseland" 
(E.P.C.,  $0.40) ;  Pratt,  "  Stories  of  England  " 
(E.P.C.,  $0.40) ;  Pratt,  "  Stories  from  Old  Ger- 
many "  (E.P.C.,  $0.40);  Sime,  "Geography  of 
Europe  "  (McM.,  $0.80) ;  Stephens,  "  Portugal" 
(Put.,  $1.50);    Stepniak,  "The  Russian  Peas- 


BEFETIENCES  FOR    TEACHER  AND  PUPIL 


509 


antry  "  (H.B.,  $1.25)  ;  Stepniak,  "  Eussia  under 
the  Tzars"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Stevenson,  "An 
Inland  Voyage "  (Scrib.,  $1.25) ;  Stevenson, 
"  Travels  with  a  Donkey  in  the  Cevennes " 
(McM.,  $0.25);  Stoddard,  "Spanish  Cities" 
(Scrib.,  $1.50)  ;  Sullivan,  "  Lands  of  Summer  " 
(H.M.C.,  $1.50);  Thomas,  "Sweden  and  the 
Swedes"  (R.McN.,  $3.75);  Tyndall,  "Hours 
of  Exercise  in  the  Alps  "  (App.,  $2.00)  ;  Van 
Norman,  "  Poland,  the  Knight  among  Nations  " 
(F.  H.  Revell  Co.,  New  York,  $1.50) ;  Wendell, 
"The  France  of  To-day"  (Scrib.,  $1.50); 
Series :  French,  German,  Russian,  Dutch,  and 
Swiss,  "  Life  in  Town  and  Country "  (Put., 
$1.20  each;  Bosson,  "  Sicily,  the  Battlefield  of 
Nations  and  of  Nature  "  N.G.M.,  Jan.,  '09  :  97)  ; 
Bracq,  "Colonial  Expansion  of  France " 
{N.G.M.,  June,  '00:  225);  "Bulgaria,  the 
Peasant  State"  {N.G.M.,  Nov.,  '08:  760); 
Coffin,  "Where  East  meets  West"  {N.G.M., 
May,  '08  :  309)  ;  Curtis,  "  The  Great  Turk  and 
his  Lost  Provinces  "  N.G.M.,  Feb.,  '03:  45); 
Gore,  "  As  seen  from  a  Dutch  Window " 
(iV.G.Jf.,  Sept.,  '08:  619);  Grosvenor,  "  The 
Growth  of  Russia"  {N.G.M.,  May,  '00:  169) ; 
Koch,  "In  Quaint,  Curious  Croatia"  (N.G.M., 
Dec,  '08 :  809)  ;  Koch,  "  Gibraltar"  (J.G.,  Nov., 
'05  :  378) ;  Koch,  "  The  Forbidden  Balkans  " 
(J.G.,  Oct.,  '06:  354;  Nov.,  '06:  406;  Dec, 
'06 :  451) ;  Matthes,  "  The  Dikes  of  Holland " 
{N.G.M.,  June,  '01 :  219) ;  Mead,  "  The  Expan- 
sion of  England"  N.G.M.,  July,  '00:  249); 
Noyes,  "  A  Visit  to  Lonely  Iceland  "  {N.G.M., 
Nov.,  '07  :  731) ;  "  Servia  and  Mon-tenegro  " 
{N.G.M.,  Nov.,  '08:  774);  Wright,  "The 
World's  Most  Cruel  Earthquake"  {N.G.M., 
April,  '09:  373);  "Austria"  {J.S.G.,  Dec, 
'98  :  394)  ;  Barrett,  "  Features  of  Norway  and 
its  People  "  (J.S.G.  Sept.,  '01 :  241 ;  Oct.,  '01 : 
294);  Jefferson,  "Caesar  and  the  Central 
Plateau  of  France"  (J.G.,  Nov.,  '07:  113); 
Jefferson,  "Man  in  West  Norway"  (J.G., 
Dec,  '08:  86);  Reynolds,  "Mistress  Europe 
Teaching  her  School  "  (J.S.G.,  Sept.,  '00  :  241); 
"The  Geography  of  Greater  London"  (J.S.G., 
Feb.,  '01:  41);  "Notes  on  the  Geography  of 
Scotland"  (J.S.G.,  May,  '98:  161);  "The 
Temperature  of  the  British  Isles"  (J.S.G., 
Dec,  '98:  361);  Tarr,  "Man  and  his  environ- 
ment in  Germany,"  J.G.,  Vol.  IX,  1910,  Nos.  I 
and  II ;  Poems  :  Alice  Cary,  "  The  Leak  in  the 
Dike  " ;  Longfellow,  "  Venice,"  "  The  Belfry  of 
Bruges,"  "  Nuremberg,"  "  To  the  River  Rhone," 


"To  the  Avon";  Joaquin  Miller,  "  Sunrise  in 
Venice,"  "  In  a  Gondola,"  "  To  Florence  "  ; 
Shelley,  "  Ode  to  Naples." 

Asia.  —  Bishop,  "Unbeaten  Tracks  in  Japan" 
(Put.,  $2.50)  ;  Bramhall,  "  Wee  Ones  in  Japan" 
(H.B.,  $1.00);  Brownell,  "The  Heart  of 
Japan  "  (McClure,  Phillips  &  Co.,  New  York, 
$1.50);  Carpenter,  "Geographical  Reader: 
Asia"  (A.B.C.,  $0.60);  Colquhoun,  "China  in 
Transformation"  (H.B.,  $3.00);  Curtis,  "How- 
adji  in  Syria"  (H.B.,  $1.50) ;  Douglas,  "The 
Land  where  Jesus  Christ  Lived "  (Thomas 
Nelson  &  Son,  New  York,  $1.00)  ;  Giles,  "China 
and  the  Chinese"  (McM.,  $1.50);  Griffis, 
"  Korea,  the  Hermit  Nation  "  (Scrib.,  $2.50)  ; 
Hamilton,  "Korea"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Herbert- 
son,  "  Descriptive  Geography,  Asia  "  (McM., 
$0.80)  ;  Hogarth,  "  The  Nearer  East "  (App., 
$2.00)  ;  Kipling,  "  The  Jungle  Books  "  (Cent., 
$1.50) ;  Knight, "  Where  Three  Empires  Meet" 
(L.G.,  $1.25);  Lee,  "When  I  was  a  Boy  in 
China"  (Lothrop  Pub.  Co.,  Boston,  $0.60); 
Little,  "  Through  the  Yangtse  Gorges  "  (Scrib., 
$2.50)  ;  Lyall,  "  The  Rise  of  the  British  Dom- 
inion in  India"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Lyde,  "  A  Ge- 
ography of  Asia"  (McM.,  $0.50);  Mathews, 
"  New  Testament  Times  in  Palestine  "  (McM., 
$0.75)  ;  Norman,  "  The  Real  Japan  "  (Scrib., 
$1.50);  Parker,  "China,  from  Earliest  Times 
to  the  Present  Day"  (Dutt.,  $2.50);  Pratt, 
"Stories  of  China"  (E.P.C.,  $0.40);  Pratt, 
"Stories  of  India"  (E.P.C.,  $0.40);  Ralph, 
"Alone  in  China"  (H.B.,  $2.00);  Scidmore, 
«  Jinrikisha  Days  in  Japan  "  (H.B.,  $2.00)  ; 
Smith,  "Life  in  Asia"  (S.B.C.,  $0.60);  "The 
Crisis  in  China"  (H.B.,  $1.00)  ;  Austin,  "Com- 
mercial Prize  of  the  Orient"  (N.G.M.,  Sept., 
'05:  399);  Barrett,  "China,  her  History  and 
Development"  {N.G.M.,  June  '01:  209;  July 
'01:  266);  Cresson,  "Persia,  the  Awakening 
East"  {N.G.M.,  May  '08:  356);  Fairchild, 
"  Travels  in  Arabia  and  along  the  Persian  Gulf  " 
(N.G.M.,  April, '04: 139);  Grosvenor,  "Siberia" 
{N.G.M.,  Sept.  '01:  317);  Harris,  "Some 
Ruined  Cities  of  Asia  Minor"  {N.G.M.,  Nov., 
'08:  741;  Dec,  '08:  833;  Jan.,  '09:  1);  Hill, 
"A  Trip  through  Siberia"  {N.G.M.,  Feb.,  '02: 
37);  Webster,  "Japan  and  China"  (N.G.M., 
Feb.,  '01 :  70) ;  Williams,  "  The  Link  Relations 
of  Southwestern  Asia"  {N.G.M.,  July  '01: 
249;  Aug.,  '01:  291);  Fenneman,  "  Geography 
of  Manchuria"  (JIG^^.,  Jan.,  '05  :  6)  ;  Huntington, 
"Khirghiz  Nomads  and  their  Influence  on  the 


510 


APPENDIX  III 


High  Plateaus  "  (J.^,  May,  '08:  313);  "The 
Russo-Siberian  Plain"  {J.S.G.,  March,  '00: 
81).  Poems  by  Whittier :  "  The  Holy  Land, 
Palestine,"  "  The  Pipes  of  Lueknow." 

Africa.  —  Badlain,  "  Views  in  Africa  " 
(S.  B.C.,  $0.72) ;  Bigelow,  "  White  Man's  Africa  " 
(H.B.,  $2.50);  Bryce,  "  Impressions  of  South 
Africa  "  (Cent.,  $3.50) ;  Carpenter,  "Geograph- 
ical Reader  of  Africa"  (A.B.C.,  $0.G0);  (h-osby, 
"  Abyssinia,  the  Country  and  People  "  {N.G.M., 
March,  '01:  89);  Curtis,  "Nile  Notes  of  a 
Howadji"  (H.B.,  $1.50);  Davis,  "The  Congo 
and  Coasts  of  Africa  "  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Drum- 
mond,"  Tropical  Africa"  $1.00);  Du  Chaillu, 
"My  Apingi  Kingdom";  "Wild  Life  Under 
the  Equator"  (H.B.,  $1.25  each);  Edwards, 
"A  Thousand  Miles  up  the  Nile"  (Dutt., 
$2.50);  Herbertson  "Descriptive  Geography, 
Africa"  (McM.,  $0.70) ;  Hillegas,  "Oom  Paul's 
People"  (App.,  $1.50)  Kirkland,  "Some  Afri- 
can Highways  "  (Dana,  Estes  &  Co.,  Boston, 
$1.50);  Lyde,  "A  Geography  of  Africa" 
(McM.,  $0.50) ;  Penfield,  "  Present  Day  Egypt " 
(Cent.,  $2.00) ;  Rawlinson,  "  The  Story  of 
Ancient  Egypt  "  (Put.,  $1.50)  ;  Selous,  "Afri- 
can Nature  Note  and  Reminiscences  "  (McM., 
$3.00);  Selous,  "A  Hunter's  Wanderings  in 
Africa"  (McM.,  $2.50);  Stanley  and  others, 
"Africa:  its  Partition  and  its  Future"  (Dodd, 
Mead  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.25);  Stanley,  "My 
Dark  Companions"  (Scrib.,  $2.00);  Stanley, 
"My  Kalulu,"  (Scrib.,  $1.50);  Stanley, 
"Through  South  Africa"  (Scrib.,  $1.00); 
Verner,  "Pioneering  in  Central  Africa"  (Presby- 
terian Board  of  Publication,  Philadelphia, 
$2.00) ;  White,  "  A  Little  Story  of  South  Africa 
and  up  the  East  Coast "  (A.  Flanagan,  Chicago, 
$0.50);  Younghusband,  "  South  Africa  of  To- 
day" (McM.,  $2.00);  "Abyssinia"  {N.O.M., 
March  '01:  89);  "Africa  since  1888"  (N.G.M., 
May,  '96:  157);  Bosson,  "Biskra,  the  Ziban 
Queen"(A^.G^.M:,  Aug., '08:  5G3)  ;  Bridgeman, 
"  The  New  British  Empire  of  Sudan  "  (K  G.M., 


May, '06:  242);  Hilder,  "  British  South  Africa 
and  the  Transvaal  "  {N.G.M.,  March  '00:  81); 
Landor,  "Across  the  Wildest  Africa"  (N.G.M., 
Oct.,  '08:  694);  Perdicaris,  "Morocco,  the 
Land  of  the  Extreme  West"  {N.G.M.,  March, 
'06:  117);  "The  Gold  Coast,  Ashanti  and 
Kumassi"  {N.G.M.,  Jan.,  '97:  1);  W^illiams, 
"  The  Diamond  Mines  of  South  Africa " 
{N.G.M.,  June  '06:  344);  Wollaston,  "Amid 
the  Snow  Peaks  of  the  Equator"  {N.G.M., 
March  '09:  256);  Piatt,  "Climatic  control  in 
the  Desert"  {J.S.G.,  Sept., '00:  255);  "The 
Egyptian  Sudan  audits  History  "  (J.S.G.,  Feb., 
'99:  41). 

Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Pacific.  —  Bal- 
lou  "Under  the  Southern  Cross"  (H.M.C., 
$1.50)  ;  Carpenter,  "  Geographical  Reader,  Aus- 
tralia and  Islands  of  the  Sea"  (A.B.C.,  $0.60) ; 
Chalmers,  "Pioneer  Life  and  Work  in  New 
Guinea  "  (F.H.  Revell  &  Co.,  New  York,  $1.20) ; 
Davitt,  "Life  and  Progress  in  Australasia" 
(New  Amsterdam  Book  Co.,  New  York,  $2.50)  ; 
Herbertson,  "  Descriptive  Geography  :  Austra- 
lia and  Oceanica"  (McM.,  $0.80)  ;  Jose,  "Aus- 
tralia, and  New  Zealand"  (McM.,  $0.40); 
Kellogg,  "  Australia  and  the  Islands  of  the  Sea" 
(S.B.C.,  $.068);  Loughman,  "New  Zealand  at 
Home"  (Scrib.  $1.75);  Nixon-Roulet,  "Our 
Little  Australian  Cousin"  (L.  C.  Page  &  Co., 
Boston,  $.060)  ;  Pratt,  "  Stories  of  Australasia  " 
(E.P.C.,  $0.40);  Reeves,  "Brown  Men  and 
Women  "  (McM.,  $3.50) ;  Shoemaker,  "  Islands 
of  the  Southern  Seas"  (Put.,  $2.25) ;  Grimshaw, 
"In  the  Savage  South  Seas"  (Lipp.,  Phila.); 
Lloyd,  "New  Zealand"  {N.G.M.,  Sept.,  '92 
342);  Morgan,  "The  Samoan  Islands"  (KG.M., 
Nov.,  '00:  417);  Safford,  "Guam  our  Smal- 
lest Possession"  {N.G.M.,  May,  '05:  229); 
"Samoa"  {N.G.M,  June,  '00:  207);  "The 
Samoan  Islands"  (N.G.M.,  Nov.,  '00:  417); 
Kellogg,  "American  Samoa"  (J.G.,  Jan..  '06: 
18). 


.  1  f 


APPENDIX 


TABLES  OF  AREA,  POPULATION,  ETC. 


SIZE  OF  EARTH 


Length  of  Earth's  Diameter  at  the  Equator  (miles) a'V''% 

Length  of  Equator  (miles) 24,902 


The  Earth's  Surface  (square  miles) 190,940,000 

Total  Area  of  Ocean  (square   miles) 141,486,000 


CONTINENTS   AND  PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES,  COLONIES,   ETC. 


Area  in 

Square  Miles  Population 

north  America,  1910 8.559.000  120,000,000 

Alaska,  1900 590,884  08,592 

Anti"ua           ■ '^8  3;),0(3 

Bahama  'islands',  "1901 .'.'.'.'...'.' 5,450  63,735 

Bermuda  Islands,  1901 20  lT,.>3o 

British  Honduras,  1908 T,562  43,270 

Canada,  1901 3,745,574  5,371,315 

Central  America,  1909 208,427  4,912,850 

Costa  Rica,  1907 18,400  351,176 

Cuba,  1907. 44,000  2,048,980 

Greenland,  1901 826,500  11,893 

Guatemala,  1906 48,290  1,882,992 

Haiti  (Island).  1908 28,249  2,029,700 

Honduras,  1905 46,250  500,136 

Jamaica,    1909 4,200  -848.656 

Mexico,    190(J , 767,005  13,605,919 

Newfoundland,   1908 42,734  233,012 

Nicaragua,  1906 ; 49,200  600,000 

Panama,  1909 31,500  419,029 

St.  Croix,  1901 84  18,401 

St.  Thomas.  1901 32  11,269 

Salvador,    1906 7,225  1,110,253 

United  States,  see  p.  426   , 

South  America,  1906 7.598,000  43,770,000 

Argentina,   1908 1,135,840  6,489,023 

Bolivia,  1908 605,400  2,049,083 

Brazil,   1908 3,218,991  21,401,100 

Chile,  1908 292,580  3,302,204 

Colombia,  1908 435,100  4,303,000 

Ecuador,  1889 116,000  1,400,000 

Falkland  Islands,  1908 6,500  2,289 

Galapagos  Islands,  1889 2.400  400 

Guiana,  British,  1908 90,277  304,089 

Guiana,  Dutch,  1908 46,060  81,038 

Guiana.  French,  1906 30,500  89,349 

•Juan  Fernandez 36  

Paraguay,  1905 98,000  631.347 

Peru,  1896 695,7*3  4,609,999 

South  Georgia  Islands 1,000  uninhabited 

Tobago,    1901 114  18,750 

Trinidad  Island,  1901 1,754  255,148 

Uruguay,  1908 72,210  1,042,008 

Venezuela,  1908 393,870  2,664,241 

Europe,  1900 8,796^000  392,246,000 

Andorra,  1897 175  5,231 

Austria,  1900 115,903  26,150,708 

Austria-llungarv.  lOoO 201,100  40,982,8:^6 

Balearic  Isles,  1900 1,935  311,649 

Belgium,  1908 11,373  7,386,444 


Area  In 
Square  Miles    Population 


British  Empire,  1906 11,433,283 

British  Isles,  1909 121,390 

Bulgaria,  1908 38,080 

Corsica,  1906 8,367 

Crete,  1900 3,365 

Denmark,  1906 15,592 

England,  1901 50,874 

England  and  Wales,  1909 58,324 

Faroe  Lslands,  1901 540 

France,  1906 207,054 

German  Empire,  1905 208,780 

Great  Britain,  1909 88,729 

Greece,   1907 25,014 

Hebrides  Islands,  1897 3,000 

Hungary,   1900 125,430 

Iceland,  1901 39,756 

Ireland,  1909 32,300 

Italy,   1909 110,059 

Liechtenstein,    1900 65 

Luxemburg,    1900 1,706 

Malta,  1909 95 

Monaco,  1909 8 

Montenegro,    1909 3,630 

Netherlands,    1908 12,648 

Norway,   1908 124,130 

Orkney  Islands,  1901 376 

Portugal,    1900 85,490 

Prussia,  1905 184,616 

Roumania,  1908 50,720 

.Russia,  1908 1,862,524 

Russian   Empire,   1908 8,647,657 

San  Marino,  1909 38 

Sardinia,   1909 9,306 

Scotland,  1909 30.405 

Servia,  1905 18,650 

Shetland   Islands,  1901 551 

Sicily,  1909 9,935 

Spain,    1908 194,783 

Sweden,    1908 172,876 

Switzerland,    1908 15,976 

Turkey,    1909 65,350 

Turkish  Empire,  1909 1,565,000 

Wales,  1901 T,450 

Asia,  with  East  Indies,  1900 16,770,951 

Aden,   1901 T5 

Afghanistan,  1909 250,000 

Arabia,  1909 880,000 

Baluchistan,   1901 ISLa'iS 

Bhutan,  1909. . ., 20,000 

Bokhara,   1909 83.000 

Burma,  1901 230,733 


892,846,835 

45,520,527 

4,158,409 

291.100 

810,185 

2,605,268 

81,071.703 

35,756,615 

16,349 

89,252,245 

60,641,278 

40,634,268 

2,631,952 

100,000 

19,254,559 

78.470 

4,374,158 

84,269,746 

9,650 

219,210 

212,888 
19,121 

250,000 
5,815,198 
2,352,786 


5,423,132 

37,293,324 

6,771,722 

113,841,000 

155,433,300 

10,810 

861,249 

4,877,648 

2,688,025 

28,106 
3..'i74,424 
19,712..585 
5.429.600 
8,559,849 

6,130.200 

85,400.000 

1,455,940 

877,000,000 

41.222 
4,r..'i0.000 
950.000 
9l.'>.oi;0 
250,000 

1,250,000 
10,490,624 


611 


512 


APPENDIX 


Area  in 

Square  Miles  Population 

Ceylon,  1907 25,382  3,988,064 

China  (proper),  1906 1,532,420  407,253,030 

Chinese  Empire,  1906 4,277,170  438,214,000 

Chinese  Turkestan,  1906 550,340  1,200,000 

Cyprus,  1908 3,584  258,997 

Formosa,   1905 13,458  3,039,751 

French  India,  li)07 196  287,402 

French  Indo-China,  1901 256,000  18,230,000 

India,  1901 1,766,642  294,361,056 

Japan,  1908 147,655  49,581,928 

Khiva,  1909 24,000  800,000 

Korea,  1909 86,000  10,000,000 

Manchuria,  1906 ^  .363,610  16,000,000 

Mongolia,   1906 1,367,600  2,600,000 

Nepal,  1909 54,000  5,000,000 

Oman,    1909 82,000  500,000 

Palestine,  1905 10,000  700,000 

Persia,  1909 628,000  9,500,000 

Portuguese  Indies,  1901 7,330  300,000 

Russia  in  Asia,  1908 6,207.662  22,661,600 

Russian  Turkestan,  1908 400,770  5,961,600 

Siam,  1909 195,000  6,686,486 

Siberia,  1908 4,786,730  7,049,200 

Straits  Settlements,  1901 1,472  .572,249 

Sungaria,    1901 147,950  600,000 

Tibet,  1909 463.200  6,500,000 

Turkey  in  Asia,  1909 693,610  17,683,500 

Africa,  1900 11,403,000  170,000,000 

Abyssinia,  1909 200,000  (ii'ooo'ool]" 

Algeria  (Fr.).  1907 343,500  5.231.850 

Anglo-Egyptian  Sudan,  1909 950,000  2,363,000 

Angola,  1909 484,800  4,119,000 

Belgian  Congo,  1909 909,650  20,000,000 

British  East  Africa,  1909 200,000  4.000.000 

British  Somaliland,  1909 68,000  300.000 

Canary  Islands  (Sp.),  1900 2,807  3.58,564 

Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1910 276,995  507,500 

Cape  Verde  Islands  (Port,),  1900 1,480  147,424 

Egypt.   1907 400,000  11,139,978 

Eritrea  (Italy),  1906 45,800  450,000 

French  Sudan,  1901 354,000  2,860,000 

French  Kongo,  1907 669,281)  5,000,000 

French  Somaliland,  1907 5,790  180,000 

French  Territory,  1906 3,932,900  32,092.340 

Gambia  (Br.),  1909 4,500  152,000 

German  East  Africa,  1909. 384,180  10,000,000 

German  Southwest  Africa,  1909 322,450  120,000 

German  Territory,  1909 1,027,820  14,546,000 

Gold  Coast  (Br.),  1901 82,000  1,486,433 

Italian  Somaliland,  1909 129,700  400,000 


Area  in 
Square  Miles    Population 

Kamerun  (Ger.),  1909 191,130  3,000,000 

Liberia,  1909 40,000  l^g;^ 

Madagascar  (Fr.),  1908 228,000  2,706,661 

Madeira  Islands,  1900 814  150,574 

Mauritius  (Br.),  1901 713  373,336 

Morocco,  1909 219,000  |  4  Igo'ooo" 

Natal  (Br.),  1908 35,871  1,206,386 

Niger  Territories  (Br.),  1901 4-5,000,000    25-40,000,000 

Orange  Kiver  Colony,  1910 50,392  466,880 

Portuguese  East  Africa,  1901 293,400  8,120,000 

Portuguese  Guinea,  1901 13,940  820,000 

Portuguese  West  Africa,  1901 484,800  4,119,000 

Keunion  Island  (Fr.),  1907 970  201,000 

St.  Helena  (Br.),  1908 47  8,558 

Sierra  Leone  (Br.).  1901 4,000  76,656 

South  African  Union,  1910 472,897  5,450,237 

Spanish  Africa,  1900 80,580  291,946 

Togo,  1909 .38,700  1,000,330 

Transvaal,  1910 110,139  1,269.961 

Tripoli  (Turk.),  1906 398,900  1,000,000 

Tunis  (Fr.),  1907 45,779  1,.500,000 

Uganda,  1909 117,681  3,920,000 

Zanzibar  (Br.),  1908 640  176,000  (?) 

Australia.  Commonwealth  of,  1908 2,9;4,5$t  4,275,306 

New  South  Wales,  1909 310,367  1,445,306 

Northern  Territory,  1907 903,690  392,431 

Queensland,  1908 670,500  658,237 

South  Australia,  1907 903.690  892,431 

Tasmania,  1906 26,216  180,166 

Victoria,    1908 87,884  1,273,818 

Western  Australia,  1909 975,920  278,027 

East  Indies  and  larger  islands  of  Pacific 

Borneo,  1905 212,737  1,233,656 

Celebes,  1905 71,470  351,905 

Fiji  Islands,  1908 7,435  130,891 

Hawaiian  Islands,  1900 6,449  154,001 

Java,  1905 50,554  30,098,008 

Molucca  Islands,  1905 48,864  407,906 

New  Caledonia.  1907 7,200  55,800 

New  Guinea,  1901 275,829  8,050,000 

New  Zealand,  1909 104,7.51  1,029,417 

Philippine  Islands,  1908 127,853  7,635,426 

• 

Samoa  Islands,  1906 1,000  88,478 

Solomon  Islands,  1909 12,000  150,247 

Sumatra.  1905. ...'. 161,612  4,029,508 

Total  Area  of  Continents 51,000,000 

Total  Population 1,610,000,000 


STATES  AND  TERRITORIES  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Area  in 
Square  .Miles 

Alabama 51,998 

Alaska 590,884 

Arizona 113,956 

Arkansas 53,336 

California 158,297 

Colorado 108,948 

Connecticut 4,966 

Delaware 2,870 

District  of  Columbia 70 

Florida 68,666 

Georgia 59,266 

Guam 210 

Hawaiian  Islands 6,449 

Idaho 84,313 

lUinois 56,666 


Population 
1900 

Population 
1910 

1,828,697 

63,.592 

122,981 

1,311,564 

1,485,0.53 

2,138,093 

64,.356 

204,354 

1,574,449 

2,377,.549 

5.39,700 
908,420 
,  184,785 
278,718 
628,5i2 

799,024 
1,114,7.56 
202,822 
831,009 
752,619 

2,216.831 

8,561 

154,001 

161,772 

4,821,650 

2,609,121 

11,973 

191.909 

325,.594 

5,688,691 

Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Indiana 86,354 

Iowa 56,147 

Kansas 82,158 

Kentucky 40,598 

Louisiana 48,506 

Maine 83,040 

Maryland 12,827 

Massachusetts 8,266 

Michigan  57,980 

Minnesota 84,682 

Mississippi 46,866 

Missouri 69,420 

Montana 146,572 

Nebraska 77,620 

Nevada 110,690 


Population 
1900 

Population 
1910 

2,516,462 
2,231,863 
1,470,495 
2,147,174 
1,381,625 

2,700,876 
2,224,771 
1,690,949 
2,289,905 
1,656,388 

694.466 
1.188.044 
2,805.346 
2,420,982 
1,751,394 

742,371 
1,295,346 
8,366,416 
2,810,173 
2,075,708 

1,5.51,270 

y,  106,665 

248,329 

1,006,800 

42,336 

1,797,114 

8,293,885 

876,058 

1,192,214 

81,876 

AREA,    POPULATION,   ETC. 


613 


Area  In 
Square  Miles 

Now  Hampshire 9,341 

New  Jersey 8,224 

New  Mexico 122,034 

New  York 49,204 

North  Carolina 52,426 

North  Dakota 70,837 

Ohio 41,040 

Oklahoma 38,843 

Oregon 96,699 

Pennsylvania 45,126 

Philippine  Islands 127,853 

Porto  Rico,  1899 3,606 

Khode  Island 1 ,248 

South  C'arolina 30,989 

South  Dakota 77,615 


Population 
1900 

Population 
1910 

411,588 
1,883,669 

195.310 
7,268,894 
1,893,810 

430,572 
2,537,167 

327,301 
9,113,614 
2,206,287 

819,146 

4,157,545 

398,331 

413,536 

6,302,115 

557,056 
4,767,121 
1,657,155 

672,765 
7,665,111 

8,000,000 
953,243 
428,556 

1,340,316 
401,570 

7,912.593 

1,118,012 

542,610 

1,515,400 

583,888 

Area  in 
Square  Miles 

Tennessee 42,022 

Texas 265,896 

Tutuila 77 

Utah 84,990 

Vermont 9,564 

Virginia 42,627 

Washington 69,127 

West  Virginia 24,170 

Wisconsin 56,066 

Wyoming 97,914 

United  States,  total 3,624,122 

United   States    (.witlioat    Alaska, 
Pliilippine  Islands,  etc.) 3,026,789 


Population 
1900 

Population 
1910 

2,020,616 

3,048,710 

3,800 

276,749 

843,641 

2,184,789 

3,896,542 

6,780  {'09) 

373,351 

355,956 

1,854,184 
518,103 
ii58,800 

2,069,042 
92,531 

2,061,612 
1,141,990 
1,221,119 
2,333,860 
145,965 

84,815,937 

101,037.557 

75,994,578 

91,972,266 

TWENTY-FIVE  OF  THE  LARGEST  CITIES  IN  THE  WORLD 


Population 

1.  London,  England,  1909 4,833,938 

Greater  London,  1909 7,429,740 

2.  New  York,  U.  3.,  1910 4,766,883 

3.  Paris,  France,  1906 2,763,393 

4.  Tokyo,  Japan,  1908 2,186,079 

5.  Chicago,  U.  8.,  1910 2,185,283 

6.  Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  1909 2,085,888 

7.  Berlin,  Germany,  1905 2,040,148 

8.  Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  1903 1,189,252 

9.  St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  1905 1,678,000 

10.  Philadelphia,  U.  8.,  1910 1,549,008 

11.  Moscow,  Russia,  1907 1,3159,254 

12.  Osaka,  Japan,  1908 1,226,590 


Population 

13.  Constantinople,  Turkey,  1910 1,106,000 

14.  Calcutta,  India,  1901 1,026,987 

15.  Siangtan,  China,  1908 .' 1,000,000 

16.  Singanfu,  China,  1908 1,000,000 

17.  Canton,  China,  1908 900,000 

18.  Glasgow,  Scotland,  1909 872,021 

19.  Hankau,  China,  1908 820,000 

20.  Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  1906 811,265 

21.  Hamburg,  Germany,  1905 802,793 

22.  Tientsin,  China,  1908 800,000 

23.  Bombay,  India,  1901 776,006 

24.  Liverpool,  England,  1909 760,357 

25.  Warsaw,  Russia,  1901 766,426 


TWENTY-FIVE  LARGEST  CITIES  IN  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Population  Population 

1900  1910 

New  York,  N.Y 3,437,202  4,766,883 

Chicago,  111 1,698.575  2,185,283 

Philadelphia,   Pa ; 1,293,697  1,549,008 

St.  Louis,  Mo 575,2:38  687,029 

Boston,  Mass 560,892  670,585 

Cleveland,  Ohio 381,768  560,663 

Baltimore,  Md 508,957  558,485 

Pittsburg,  Pa 321,616  53:3,905 

Detroit,    Mich 285,704  465,766 

BuflFalo,  N.Y 352,387  423,715 

San  Francisco,  Cal 342,782  416,912 

Milwaukee,  Wis 285,315  873,857 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 325,902  864,468 


Population       Population 

1900  1910 

14.  Newark,  N.J 246,070  847,469 

15.  New  Orleans,  La 287,104  839,075 

16.  Washington,  D.C 278,718  331,069 

17.  Los  Angeles,  Cal 102,479  319,198 

18.  Minneapolis,  Minn 202,718  301,408 

19.  Jersey  City,  N.J 206,433  267.779 

20.  Kansas  City,  Mo 163,752  248,331 

21.  Seattle,  Wash 80,671  237,194 

22.  Indianapolis,   Ind 169,164  233,650 

23.  Providence,   R.I 175,597  224,326 

24.  Louisville,  Ky 204,731  228,928 

25.  Rochester,  N.Y. 162,608  218,149 


GROWTH  OF  THE  FIFTEEN  LARGEST  CITIES  OF  THE  COUNTRY 


City  1800 

1.  New  York,  N.Y 60,489  (1) 

2.  Chicago,  111 

3.  Philadelphia,  Pa 41,220  (2) 

4.  St.  Louis,  Mo 10,049  (1820) 

5.  Boston,  Mass 24,937  (4) 

6.  Cleveland,  Ohio 606(1820) 

7.  Baltimore,  Md 26,514  (3) 

8.  Pittsburg,  Pa 1,565 

9.  Detroit,  Mich 1,422  (1820) 

10.  Buffalo,  N.Y ; 2,095  (1820) 

11.  San  Francisco.!  al 

12.  Milwaukee,  Wis 

13.  Cincinnati,  Ohio 2,540  (1810) 

14.  Newark,  N.J 8,008  (1810) 

15.  New  Orleans,  La 17,242  (1810) 


1830 

1890 

1900 

197,112  (1) 

2,507,414  (1) 

8,437,202  (1) 

4,470  (1840) 

1,099,850  (2) 

1,698,575  (2) 

80,462  (3) 

1,046,964  (3) 

1,293,697  (3) 

14,125 

451,770  (4) 

575,238  (4) 

61,392  (4) 

448,477  (5) 

560,892  (5) 

1,076 

261,353  (9) 

381,768  (7) 

80,620  (2) 

434,4.39  (6) 

608,9,57  (6) 

12,568 

238,617  (12) 

321,616  (11) 

2,222 

205,876  (14) 

285,704  (13) 

8,668 

255,664  (10) 

852,387  (8) 

298,997  (7) 

842,782  (9) 

1,172  (1840) 

204,468  (15) 

285,315  (14) 

24,831  (7) 

296,908  (8) 

825,902  (10) 

10,953 

181,830 

246,070 

29,737  (6) 

242,039  (11) 

287,104  (12) 

1910 

4,766,883 
2,185,283 
1,649,008 
687,029 
670,685 
560,663 
558,485 
533,905 
46.5,766 
423,715 
416,912 
873,857 
364,463 
347.469 
339,075 


2l 


514 


APPENDIX 


CITIES   OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  "WITH  25,000  OR  MORE  INHABITANTS  IN  1910;   AND   A  FEW   OTHERS,  MOSTLY 

MENTIONED   IN  THE  BOOK 


Population,  1900 

Akron,  Ohio 42.728 

Albany,  N.Y 94,151 

Albuquerque,  N.M 6,288 

AUentown,  Pa 86,416 

Altoona,  Pa 88,978 

Amsterdam,  N.Y 20,929 

Anaconda,  Mont 9,458 

Annapolis,  Md 8,575 

Ann  Arbor,  Mich 14,509 

Asheville,  N.C 14,694 

Ashland,  Wis 13,074 

Astoria,  Ore 8,881 

Atchison,  Kan 15,722 

Atlanta,  Ga 89,872 

Atlantic  City,  N.J 27,888 

Auburn,  Me 12,951 

Auburn.  N.Y 80,345 

Augusta,  Ga 39,441 

Augusta,  Me 11,683 

Aurora,  111 24,147 

Austin,  Tex 22,258 

Baltimore,  Md 508,957 

Bangor,  Me 21,850 

Barre,  Vt 8,448 

Bath,  Me 10,477 

Baton  Rouge,  La 11,269 

Battle  Creek,  Mich 18,563 

Bay  City,  Mich 40,747 

Bayonne,  N.J 82,722 

Bellingham,  Wash 11,062 

Berkeley,  Cal 18,214 

Biddeford,  Me 16,145 

Billings,  Mont • 8,221 

Binghamton,  N.Y 39,647 

Birmingham,  Ala 38,415 

Bisbee,  Ariz 7,000 

Bismarck,  N.D 3,319 

Bloomington,  111 23,286 

Boise,  Idaho 5,957 

Boston,  Mass 560,892 

Bradford,  Pa 15,029 

Bridgeport,  Conn 70,996 

Brockton,  Mass 40,063 

Brookline,  Mass 19,935 

Brunswick,  Ga 9,081 

Buflfalo,  N.Y 352,387 

Burlington,  Vt 18,640 

Butte,  Mont 30,470 

Cambridge,  Mass r 91,886 

Camden,  N.J. 75,935 

Canton,  Ohio 80,667 

Carson  City.  Nev 2,100 

Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa 25,656 

Champaign,  111 9,098 

Charleston,  8.C 55,807 

Charleston,  W. Va 11,099 

Charlotte,  N.C. 18,091 

Chattanooga,  Tenn 30,154 

Chelsea,  Mass 34,072 

Chester,  Pa 33,988 

Cheyenne,  Wyo 14,087 

Chicago,  111 1,098.575 

Chicopee,  Mass 19,167 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 825,902 

Clarksville,  Tenn 9,481 

Cleveland,  Ohio 881,768 

Clinton,  Iowa 22,698  ' 

Colorado  Springs,  Colo 21,085 

Columbia,  S.C 21,108 

Columbus,  Ga 17,614 

Columbus,  Ohio 125,660 

Concord,  N.H 19,632 

Council  Bluffs,  Iowa 25,802 

Covington,  Ky 42,938 

Cripple  Creek,  Colo 10,147 


Population,  1910 
69,007 
100,258 
11,020 
61,918 
52,127 

81,267 
10,134 
8,609 
14,817 
18,762 

11,594 
9,599 
16,429 
154,839 
46,150 

15,064 
84,668 
41,040 
18,211 
29,807 

29,860 

658,485 

24,808 

10,734 

9,896 

14,897 
25,267 
45,166 
65,545 
24,296 

40,434 
17,079 
10,031 
48,443 
182,686 

9,019 
182,685 

25,768 
17,358 
670,586 

14,544 
102,054 
66,878 
27,792 
10,182 

428,715 

20,463 
89,165 
104,839 
94,538 

60,217 

2,466 

82,811 

12,421 

68,833 

22,996 
84,014 
44,601 
82,452 
88,537 

11,320 

2,185,288 

25,401 

864,463 

8,548 

660,663 
25,577 
29,078 
26,319 
20,554 

181,548 
21,497 
29,292 
63,270 
6,206 


Population,  1900 

Dallas.  Tex 42.638 

Danville,  111 16,354 

Danville,  Va 16,520 

Davenport.  Iowa 85,254 

Dayton,  Ohio 85,333 

Decatur,  111 20,754 

Denver,  Colo 133,859 

Des  Moines,  Iowa .62,139 

Detroit,  Mich 285,704 

Douglas,  Ariz 

Dover,  Del 3,829 

Dover,  N.H 13,207 

Dubuque,  Iowa 36,297 

Duluth,  Minn 52,969 

Durham,  N.C 6,679 

Easton,  Pa 25,238 

East  Orange,  N.J 21,506 

Eastport,  Me 5,811 

East  St.  Louis,  111 29,655 

Elgin,  111 22,438 

Elizabeth,  N.J 52,130 

Elmira,  N.Y 35,672 

El  Paso,  Tex 15,906 

Erie,  Pa 52,788 

Evanston,  111 19,259 

Evansville,  Ind 69,007 

Everett,  Mass 24,336 

Fall  River,  Mass 104,863 

Fargo,  N.D 9,589 

Findlay,  Ohio 17,618 

Fitchburg,  Mass 81,581 

Flint,  Mich 13,108 

Fort  Wayne,  Ind ^ 45,115 

Fort  Worth,  Tex 26,688 

Frankfort,  Ky 9,487 

Fresno,  Cal 12,470 

Galveston,  Tex 87,789 

Gloucester,    Mass 26,121 

Goldfield,  Nev 

Grand  Rapids,  Mich 87,566 

Greeley,  Colo 8,023 

Green  Bay,  Wis 18,684 

Greenville,  S.C .11,860 

Guthrie,  Ok 10,006 

Hamilton,  Ohio 23,914 

Harrisburg,  Pa 60,167 

Hartford,  Conn 79,850 

Haverhill,  Mass 87,176 

Ilazelton,  Pa 14,230 

Helena,  Mont 10,770 

High  Point,  N.C 4,163 

Hilo,  Hawaiian  Islands 19,785 

Hoboken,  N.J 59,364 

Holyoke,  Mass 45,712 

Honolulu,  Hawaiian  Islands 39,306 

Hot  Springs,  Ark 9,973 

Houghton,  Mich 3,595 

Houston,  Tex 44,683 

Huntington,  W.  Va 11,923 

Huntsville,  Ala 8,068 

Indianapolis,  Ind 169,164 

Ishpeming,  Mich 13,256 

Ithaca,  N.Y 13,186 

Jackson,  Mich 25,180 

Jackson,  Miss 7,816 

Jacksonville,  Fla 28,429 

Jamestown,  N.Y 22,892 

Jefferson  City.  Mo 9,664 

Jersey  City,  N.J 206,433 

Johnstown,  Pa 36,986 

Joliet,  111 29,358 

Joplin,  Mo 26,028 

Juneau,  Alaska 1,864 

Kalamazoo,  Mich 24,404 

Kansas  City,  Kan 51,418 


Population,  1910 
92,104 
27,871 
19,020 
43,028 
116,577 

31,140 
213.881 

86,368 

465,766 

6,437 

8,720 
13,247 
88,494 
78,466 
18,241 

28,523 
84,871 
4,961 
58,547 
26,976 

73,409 

37.176 
39,279 
66.525 
24,978 

69,647 
33,484 
119,295 
14,881 
14,868 

87,826 
88,550 
63,983 
73,812 
10,465 

24,892 
36,981 
24,898 
4,838 
112,571 

8,179 
25,236 
15,741 
11,654 
35,279 

64,186 
98,915 
44,115 
25,452 
12,616 

9,525 

6,745 
70,324 
67,780 
62,183 

8,772 

6,118 
78,800 
81,161 

7,611 

283,650 
12,448 
14,802 
81,488 
21,262 

67,699 
81,297 
11,850 
267,779 
65,482 

84,670 
82,078 
1,644 
89,487 
82,881 


AREA,  POPULATION,  ETC. 


615 


Population,  1900 

Kansas  City,  Mo 163,752 

Key  West,  Fla '. 17,114 

Kingston,  N.  Y 24,535 

Knoxville,  Tenn 32,637 

La  Crosse,  Wis 28,895 

Lancaster,  Pa 41,459 

Lansing,  Mich 16,485 

Laramie,  Wyo 8,207 

Lawrence,  Mass 62,559 

Leadville,  Colo 12,455 

Lewiston,  Idaho 2,425 

Lewiston,  Me 23,761 

Lexington,  Ky 26,369 

Lima,  Ohio 21,723 

Lincoln,  Neb 40,169 

Little  Rock,  Ark 38,307 

Lockport,  N.Y 16,581 

Lorain,  Ohio 16,028 

Los  Angeles,  Cal 127,927 

Louisville,  Ky 204,731 

Lowell,  Mass 94,969 

Lynchburg,  Va 18,891 

Lynn,  Mass 68,513 

Macon,  Gfa 23,272 

Madison,  Wis 19,164 

Maiden,  Mass 33,664 

Manchester,  N.H 56,987 

Manila,  Philippines,  1903 219,928 

Marquette,  Mich 10,058 

McKeesport,  Pa 34,227 

Memphis,  Tenn 102,820 

Meriden,  Conn 24,296 

Miami,  Fla 1,681 

Milwaukee,  Wis 285.315 

Minneapolis,  Minn 202,718 

Mobile,  Ala 38,469 

Montgomery,  Ala 30,346 

Montpelier,  Vt 6,266 

Mount  Vernon,  N.Y 21,223 

Muskogee,  Okla 4,254 

Nashua,  N.H 23,898 

Nashville,  Tenn 80,865 

Natchez,  Miss 12,210 

New.irk,  N.J 246,070 

Newark,  Ohio 18,157 

New  Bedford,  Mass 63,442 

New  Britain,  Conn 25,998 

Newburgh,  N.Y 24,943 

Newcastle,  Pa 28,339 

New  Haven,  Conn 108,027 

New  Orleans,  La 287,104 

Newport,  Ky 28,301 

Newport,  R.I 22,441 

Newport  News,  Va 19,635 

New  Rochelle,  N.Y 14,720 

Newton,  Mass 33,587 

New  York,  N.Y 3,437,202 

Niagara  Falls,  N.Y 19,45C 

Nome  City,  Alaska 12,486 

Norfolk,  Va .46,624 

Norristown,  Pa 22,265 

North  Yakima,  Wash 3,154 

Oakland,  Cal 66,960 

Ogden,  Utah 16,313 

Oil  City,  Pa 13,264 

Oklahoma  City,  Okla 10,037 

Clean,  N.Y 9,462 

Olympia,  Wash 4,082 

Omaha,  Neb 102,555 

Orange,  N.J 24,141 

Oshkosh,  Wis 28,284 

Oswego,  N.Y 22,199 

Pasadena,  Cal 9,117 

Passaic,  N.J 27,777 

Paterson,  N.J 105,171 

Pawtucket,  R.I 39,231 

Pensacola,  Fla 17,747 


Population,  1910 
248,381 
19,945 
25,908 
86,346 
30,417 

47,227 
31,229 

8,237 
85,892 

7,003 

6,043 
26,247 
85,099 
80,508 
43,973 

45,941 
17,970 

28,833 
319,198 
228,928 

106,294 
29,494 
89,336 
40,065 
25,531 

44,404 

70,003 

11,503 
42,694 

131,105 

27,265 

5,471 

873,857 

801,408 

51,521 
38,136 

7,856 
80,919 

25,278 

26,005 
110,364 

11,791 
847,409 

25,404 

96,652 
43,916 
27,805 
36,280 
133,605 

339,075 
30,309 
27,149 
20,205 
28,867 

89,806 

4,766,883 

30,445 

2,600 

67,452 

27,875 
14,082 
150,174 
25,580 
15,657 

64,205 

14,743 

6,996 

124,006 

29,630 

33,062 
23,368 
30,291 
54,778 
125,600 

51,622 
22,982 


Population,  1900 

Peoria,  111 56,100 

Perth  Amboy,  N.J 17,690 

Petersburg,  Va 21,810 

Philadelphia,  Pa 1,293,697 

Phoenix,  Ariz 5,544 

Pierre,  S.D 2,306 

Pittsburg,  Pa 321,616 

Pittsfield,  Mass 21,766 

Plymouth,  Mass 9,562 

Po'mona,  Cal 5,526 

Ponce,  Porto  Rico,  1899 27,952 

Portland,  Me 50,145 

Portland,  Ore 90,426 

Portsmouth,  N.H 10,637 

Portsmouth,  Va 17,427 

Poughkeepsie,  N.Y 24,029 

Prescott,  Ariz 3,559 

Providence,  R.I 175,597 

Provincetown,  Mass.,  1895 4,555 

Pueblo,  Colo 28,157 

Quincy,  111 36,252 

Quincy,  Mass 23,899 

Racine,  Wis 29,102 

Raleigh,  N.C 13,648 

Reading,  Pa 78,961 

Redlands,  Cal 4,797 

Richmond,  Va 85,050 

Riverside,  Cal 7,973 

Roanoke,  Va 21,495 

Rochester,  N.Y 162,608 

Rockford,  111 31,051 

Rome,  6a 7,291 

Rutland,  Vt 11,499 

Sacramento,  Cal 29,282 

Saginaw,  Mich 42,345 

St.  Augustine,  Fla 4,272 

St.  Joseph,  Mo 102,979 

St.  Louis,  Mo 575,238 

St.  Paul,  Minn 163,065 

Salem,  Mass 35,956 

Salem,  Ore 4,258 

Salt  Lake  City,  Utah  53,531 

San  Antonio,  Tex 53,821 

San  Bernardino,  Cal 6,150 

San  Diego,  Cal 17,700 

San  Francisco,  Cal 342,782 

San  Jos6,  Cal 21,500 

San  Juan,  Porto  Rico,  1899 32,048 

Santa  Fe,  N.M 5,603 

Sault  Ste.  Marie,  Mich 10,538 

Savannah,  Ga 54,244 

Schenectady,  N.Y 31,682 

Scranton,  Pa 102,026 

Seattle,  Wash 80,671 

Shawnee,  Okla 3,464 

Sheboygan,  Wis 22,962 

Shenandoah,  Pa 20,321 

Shreveport,  La 16,013 

Sioux  City,  Iowa 33,111 

Sioux  Falls,  S.D 10,266 

Sitka,  Alaska 1,396 

Skagway,  Alaska 8,117 

Somerville,  Mass 61,648 

South  Bend,  Ind 35,999 

South  Omaha,  Neb 20,001      . 

Spartanburg,  S.C 11,395 

Spokane,  Wash 30,848 

Springfield,  111 34,159 

Springfield,  Mass 62,059 

Springfield,  Mo 23,267 

Springfield,  Ohio 38,253 

Stamford,  Conn 15,997 

Stockton,  Cal 17,506 

Superior,  Wis 31,091 

Syracuse,  N.Y 108,874 

Tacoma,  Wash 37,714 

Tallahassee,  Fla 2,981 


Population,  1910 
66,950 
82,121 

24,147 

1,549.003 

11,134 

3,056 

533,905 

32,121 
12,141 
10,207 
35,027 
58,571 

207,214 
11,269 
33,190 
27,936 
5,092 

224,326 
4,369 
44,395 
86,587 
82,642 

88,002 
19,218 
96,071 
10,449 
127,628 

15,212 
34,874 
218,149 
45,401 
12,099 

18,546 
44,696 
60,510 
6,494 
77,403 

687,029 
214,744 

43,697 

14,094 

92,777 

96,614 
12,779 
39,578 
416,912 
28,946 

48,716 
6,072 
12,615 
65,064 
72,826 

129,867 
237,194 

12,474 

26,898 

25,774 

28,015 

47,828 
14,094 
1,039 


77,236 
53,684 
26,259 
17,519 
104,402 

61,678 
88,926 
85,201 
46,921 
85,183 

28,253 
40,384 
137,249 
88,748 
6,018 


616 


APPENDIX 


Population,  1900 

Tampa,  Fla 15,839 

Taunton,  Mass 31,036 

Terre  Haute,  Ind 36,678 

Toledo,  Ohio 131,822 

Tonopah,  Nev 

Topeka,  Kan 38,603 

Trenton,  N.J 73,807 

Troy,  N.Y 60,651 

Tucson,  Ariz 7,531 

Utica,  K. Y 56,883 

Vicksburg,  Miss 14,884     - 

"Virginia  City,  Nev 2,095 

Waco,  Tex 20,686 

Walla  Walla,  Wash 10,049 

Waltham,  Mass 23,481 

Warwick,  K.I 21,816 

Washington,  D.C 278,718 

Waterbury ,  Conn 45,859 


Population,  1910 
37,782 
34,259 
58,157 
168,407 
8,900 

48,684 
90,815 
76,813 
13,193 
74,419 

20,814 
2,244 
26,425 
19,368 
27,884 

26,629 

831,069 

73,141 


Population,  1900 

Waterloo,  Iowa 12,580 

Watertown,  N.Y 21,696 

Waterville,  Me 9,477 

West  Hoboken,  N.J 23,094 

Wheeling,  W.  Va 88,878 

Wichita,  Kan 24,671 

Wilkes  Barre,  Pa 51,721 

Williarasport,  Pa 28,757 

Wilmington.  Del 76,508 

Wilmington,  N.C 20,976 

Winona,  Minn 19,714 

Woonsocket,  R.I 28,204 

Worcester,  Mass 118,421 

Yonkers,  N.Y 47,931 

York,  Pa 33,708 

Youngstown,  Ohio 44,885 

Zanesville,  Ohio 23,538 


Population,  1910 
26,693 
26,730 

11,458 
85,403 
41,641 
52,450 
67,105 

81,860 
87,411 
25,748 
18,583 
88,126 

145,986 
79,808 
44,750 
79,066 
28,026 


FOREIGN   CITIES  MENTIONED   IN  THE   TEXT 


Population 

Aachen,  Germany,  1905 144,095 

Abbeokuta,  Niger  Territory,  1897 150,000 

Aberdeen,  Scotland,  1909 181,918 

Acapulco,  Mexico,  1897 5,000 

Adelaide,  Australia,  1907 178,300 

Aden,  Aden,  1901 44,079 

Adis  Abeba,  Abyssinia 80,000-35,000 

Alexandria,  Egypt,  1905 860,000 

Algiers,  Algeria,  1906 138,240 

Amsterdam,  Netherlands,  19C8 565,589 

Antwerp,  Belgium,  1908 314,1.35 

Archangel,  Russia,  1897 20,882 

Arequipa,  Peru,  1908 35,000-40,000 

Asuncion,  Paraguay,  1905 60,259 

Athens,  Greece,  1907 167,479 

Auckland,  New  Zealand,  1906 82,101 

Bagdad,  Turkey  in  Asia,  1910 145,000 

Bahia,  Brazil,  1900 2.30,000 

Baku,  Russia,  19U0 179,133 

Ballarat,  Australia,  190;) 48,063 

Bangkok,  Siam 400,000-600,000 

Barcelona,  Spain,  1900 533,000 

Barmen,  Germany,  1905 156,080 

Ba.sel,  Switzerland,  1909 129,600 

Batavia,  Java,  1905 138,551 

Belfast,  Ireland,  1909 ; 336,576 

Belgrade,  Servia,  1905 77,816 

Benares,  India,  1901 209,331 

Bendigo,  Australia,  1908 44,510 

Berbers,  Br.  Somallland,  1910 30,000 

Bergen,  Norway,  1900 72,251 

Berlin,  Germany,  1905 2,040,148 

Berne,  Switzerland,  1909 73,500 

Bethany,  Holy  Land,  1890 1,105 

Bethlehem,  Holy  Land,  1905 8,000 

Bilbao,  Spain,  1900 83,306 

Birmingham,  England,  1909 563,629 

Bloemfontein,  South  Africa,  1904 33,883 

Bogota,  Colombia,  1908 123,300 

Bologna,  Italy,  1908 165,000 

Bombay,  India,  1901 776,006 

Bordeaux,  France,  1900. . . .- 251,917 

Bradford,  England,  1909 293,983 

Bremen,  Germany,  1905 214,861 

Breslau,  Germany,  1905 470,904 

Brindisi,  Italy,  1907 22,021 

Brisbane,  Australia,  1908 • 137,670 

Bristol,  England,  1909 377,642 

Brussels,  Belgium,  1908 637,807 

Bucharest,  Roumania,  1908 800,000 

Budapest,  A ustria-Hungary,  1900 782,42^ 

Buenos  Aires,  Argentina,  1908 1,189,252 

Cadiz,  Spain,  1900 69,382 

Cairo,  Egypt,  1907 654,476 

Calcutta,  India,  1901 1,026,987 


Population 

Calgary,  Canada,  1906 11 ,967 

Calao,  Peru,  1908 31,000 

Cambridge,  England,  1905 38,760 

Canton,  China,  1908 900,000 

Cape  Town,  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  1904 169,641 

Caracas,  Venezuela,  1894 72,429 

Cardiff,  Wales,  1909 195,303 

Cartagena,  Colombia,  1905 14,000 

Cartagena,  Spain,  1900 99,871 . 

Catania,  Italy,  1908 163,000 

Cayenne,  French  Guiana,  1910 12,426 

Cettinge,  Montenegro,  1906 4,500 

Charlottetown,  Canada,  1901 12,080 

Chemnitz,  Germany,  1905 244,927 

Chengtu,  China,  1896 250,000 

Christchurch,  New  Zealand,  1900 67,878 

Christiania,  Norway,   1901 .227,626 

Cludad  Bolivar,  Venezuela,  1894 11,686 

Cologne,  Germany,  1905 428,722 

Colon,  Panama,  1907 8,000 

Constantinople,  Turkey,  1910 1,106,000 

Copenhagen,  Denmark,  1906 426,540 

Cordoba,  Argentina,  1908. 5:j,000 

Cordoba,  Spain,  1900 58,276 

Cork,  Ireland,  1901 76,122 

Cuzco,  Peru,  1908 10,000-15,000 

Damascus,  Turkey  in  Asia,  1910 260,000 

Danzig,  Germany,  1905 159,648 

Dawson,  Canada,  1901 9,142 

Delhi,  India,  1901 208,576 

Dover,  England,  1905 43,734 

Dresden,  Germany,  1905 516,996 

Dublin,  Ireland,  1901 290,6.33 

Dundee,  Scotland,  1909 ; 169,409 

Dunedin,  New  Zealand,  1900 56,020 

Durban,  Natal,  1904 69,903 

Edinburgh.  Scotland,  1909 355,866 

Elberfeld,  Germany,  1905 102,853 

Essen,  Germany,  1905 231.860 

Fachan,  China,  1904 500,000 

Fez,  Morocco,  1910 140,000 

Fiume,  Austria-Hungary,  1900 38,955 

Florence,  Italy,  1908 227,000 

Frankfort,  Germany,  1905 334.978 

Fredericton,  Canada,  1901 7,117 

Freetown,  Sierra  Leone,  1910 87,682 

Fuchau,  China,  1903 624.0OO 

Geneva,  Switzerland,  1909 121,200 

Genoa,  Italy,  1908 275,000 

Georgetown,  British  Guiana,  1908 53,176 

Ghent,  Belgium,  1908 168.768 

Gibraltar,  Spanish  Pen.,  1908 23,443 

Glasgow,  Scotland,  1909 872,021 

Gothenburg,  Sweden,  1908 162,480 

Grenada,  Spain,  1907 6tf,000 


AREA,   POPULATION,   ETC. 


517 


Population 

Grimsby,  England,  1909 T8,036 

Guatemala,  Guatemala,  1906 125,000 

Guayaquil,  Ecuador,  1910 80,000 

Hapue,  The,  Netherlands,  1908 259,012 

Halifax,  Canada,  1901 40,832 

Halle,  Germany,  1905 169,916 

Hamburg,  Germany,  1905 802,793 

Hamilton,  Bermuda,  1907 2,246 

Hamilton,  Canada,  1901 52,034 

Hammerfest,  Norway,  1891 2,239 

Hangchau,  China,  1908 350,000 

Hankau,  China,  1908 820,000 

Hanover,  Germany,  1905 250,024 

Havana,  Cuba,  1907 297,159 

Havre,  France,  1906 132,430 

Hebron,  Holy  Land,  1905 18,000-19,000 

Helsingfors,  Russia,  1905 117,317 

Hobart,  Tasmania,  1901 24,055 

Hongkong,  China,  1908 329,650 

Hue,  French  Ind.  China,  1910 50,000 

Hull,  England,  1909 275,552 

Hyderabad,  India,  1901 448,466 

Iquique,  Chile,  1907 40, 171 

Irkutsk,  Siberia,  1902 70,000 

Jerusalem,  Holy  Land,  1910 70,000 

Johannesburg,  Transvaal,  1904 158,580 

Joppa,  Holy  Land,  1905 45,000 

Kabul,   Afghanistan 60,000 

Khartum,  Egyptian  Sudan,  1909 20,956 

Khelat,  Baluchistan,  1897 14,000 

Kiev,  Russia.  1902 819,000 

Kimberley,  Cape  Colony,  1904 34,331 

Kingston,  Canada,  1901 ; 17,961 

Kingston,  Jamaica,  1891 46,542 

Kioto,  Japan,  1908 442,462 

Konigsberg,  Germany,  1905 223,770 

Krefeld,  Germany,    1905 110,344 

Kumasasi,  Ashanti,  1910 7,000 

La  Guaira,  Venezuela,  1897 8,000 

La  Paz,  Bolivia,   1909 78,856 

La  Plata,  Argentina,  1908 80,000 

Lassa,  Tibet 25,000 

Leeds,  England,  1909 484,012 

Leghorn,  Italy,  1908 108,000 

Leicester,  England,  1909 244,255 

Leipzig,  Germany,   1905 503,672 

Leith,  Scotland,  1909 85,721 

Libreville.  French  Congo,  1897 3,000 

Liege,  Belgium.  1908 175,870 

Lille,  France,  1906 205,602 

Lima,  Peru,  1908 140,884 

Limoges,  France,  1906 88,597 

Lisbon,  Portugal,  1900 •. .  .356,009 

Liverpool,  England.  1909 760,357 

Loanda,  Port.  W.  Africa,  1897 14,000 

Lodz,  Russia,  1900 361,570 

London,  Canada,  1901 37,981 

London.  England,  1909 4,833,938 

London,  Greater,  1909 7,429,740 

Lourenf o  Marquez,  Port.  E.  Africa,  1SK)8 9,849 

Lucerne,  Switzerland,  1909 36,200 

Lucknow,  India,  1901 264*049 

Lyon,  France,  1906 ' '  1472^114 

Madras,  India,  1901 ]!!!509i346 

Madrid,  Spain,  1900 ]  !639,'835 

Magdeburg,  Germany,  1905 240,633 

Malaga,  Spain,  1900 '  "  [  [l3o|l09 

Manaos,  Brazil,  1906 50^000 

Manchester,  England,  1909 , ,, .655|435 

Mandalay,  Burma,  1901 ..!!!!l83|816 

Marseille,  France,  1906 517,498 

Maskat,  Oman,  1907 '.'...'...  .25^000 

Mecca,  Turkey,  1900 ] .  ioo^OOO 

Melbourne,  Australia,  1908 [  ]549J200 

Messina,  Italy,  1908 149|778 


Population 

Metz,  Germany,  1906 60,419 

Mexico  City,  Mexico,  1900 344,721 

Miliin,  Italy,  1908 684,000 

Mocha,  Turkey  in  Asia,  1897 6,000 

Mombasa,  Br.  E.  Africa,  1910 30,000 

Monrovia,  Liberia,  1905 8,000 

Montevideo,  Uruguay,  1908 306,000 

Montreal,  Canada,  1901 267,730 

Morocco,  Morocco,  1897 50,000 

Moscow,  Russia,  1907 1,359,254 

Munich,  Germany,  1905 ^38,983 

Nagoya,  Japan,  1908 378,231 

Naples,  Italy,  1908 596,000 

Nassau,  Bahama,  1910 12,534 

Nazareth,  Holy  Land,  1905 11,000 

Newcastle,  England,  1909 281,584 

Nice,  France,  1906 134,232 

Nizhni  Novgorod,  Russia,  1897 90,053 

Nottingham,  England,  1909 268,443 

Nuremberg,  Germany,  1905 294,426 

Odessa,  Russia.  1900 449,673 

Oporto,  Portugal,  1900 167,955 

Osaka,  Japan,  1908 1,226,590 

Ottawa,  Canada,  1901 59,928 

Oxford,  England,  1909 52,774 

Palermo,  Italy,  1908 819,000 

Panama,  Panama,  1910 20,000 

Para,  Brazil,  1892 65,000 

Paramaribo,  Dutch  Guiana,  1908 34,962 

Paris,  France,  1906 2,763,393 

Peking,  China,  1908 700,000 

Pernambuco,  Brazil,  1906 150,000 

Perth,  West  Australia,  1907 50,627 

Peterborough,  Canada,  1901 11,289 

Pietermaritzburg,  Natal,  1908 31,230 

Pirffius,  Greece,  1907 73,579 

Pisa,  Italy,  1901 61,321 

Port  Arthur,  Canada,  1901 3,214 

Port  Arthur,  China 

Port  au  Prince,  Haiti,  1908 100,000 

Port  Said,  Egypt,  1907 49,884 

Portsmouth,  England,  1909 214,726 

Posen,  Germany,  1905 136,808 

Potsdam,  Germany,  1905 61,414 

Prague,  Austria-Hungary,  1909 283,649 

Pretoria.  Transvaal,  1904 21,161 

Puebla,  Mexico,  1900 93,620 

Quebec,  Canada,  1901 08,840 

Queenstown,  Ireland,  1891 9,082 

Quito,  Ecuador,  1909 70,000 

Rangoon,  Burma,  1901 284,881 

Rheims,  France,  1906 109,859 

Riga,  Russia,  1897 282,280 

Rio  de  Janeiro,  Brazil,  1906 811,265 

Rome,  Italy,  1909 575,000 

Rosario.  Argentina.  1908 160,000 

Rotterdam,  Netherlands,  1908 411,685 

Roubaix,  France,  1906 121,017 

Rouen,  France,  1906 118,459 

St.  Etienne,  France,  1906 146,788 

St.  John,  Canada,  1901 40,711 

St.  John's,  Newfoundland,  1901 31,501 

St.  Petersburg,  Russia,  1905 1,678,000 

Samarkand,  Russian  Turkestan,  1900 68,194 

San  Luis  Potosi,  Mexico,  1900 61,019 

San  Salvador,  Salvador,  1906 59,540 

Santiago,  Chile,  1907 832,724 

Santo  Domingo,  Santo  Domingo,  1909 18,626 

Santos,  Brazil,  1900  . . .' 85.000 

sao  Paulo,  Brazil,  1906 348,000 

Seoul,  Korea,  1908 150,000 

Seville,  Spain,  1900 148,815 

Sevres,  France,  1891 6,902 

Shanghai,  China,  1908 651,000 

Sheffield,  England,  1909 470,968 


618 


APPENDIX 


Population 

Sianetan,  China,  1908 1,000,00J 

Singanfu,  China,  1908 1,000,000 

Singapore,  Straits  Settlements,  1901 228,555 

Smyrna,  Turkey,  1909 201,000 

Sofia,  Bulgaria,  1908 100,000 

Southampton,  England,  1909 124,667 

Stettin,  Germany,  1905 224,119 

Stockholm,  Sweden,  1908 339,582 

Strassburg,  Germany,  1905 167,078 

Stuttgart,  Germany,  1905 249,286 

Suchau,  China,  1908 500,000 

Sucre,  Bolivia,  1909 23,416 

Suez,  Egypt,  1907 18,347 

Swansea,  Wales,  1909 98,308 

Sydney,  Australia,  1908 592,100 

Tampico,  Mexico,  1894 9,885 

Tananarivo.  Madagascar,  1901 72,000 

Tangier,  Morocco,  1901 35,000 

Tashkend,  Russian  Turkestan,  1S97 155,073 

Teheran,  Persia,  1905 280,000 

Tiberias,  Holy  Land,  1905 5,000 

Tientsin,  China,  1908 800,000 

Tiflis,  Russia,  1897 159,590 

Timbuktu,  Sudan,  1897 20,000 

Tokio,  Japan,  1908 2,186,079 

Toronto,  Canada,  1901 208,040 

Trebizond,  Turkey  in  Asia,  1909 35,000 


Population 

Trieste,  Austria-Hungary,  1909 221,993 

Tripoli,  Tripoli,  1909 30,000 

Trondhjem,  Norway,  1900 38,180 

Tunis,  Tunis,  1906 227,519 

Turin,  Italy,  1908 371,000 

Upernlvlk,  Greenland 700 

Valencia,  Spain,  1900 213,530 

Valparaiso,  Chile,  1907 102,447 

Vancouver,  Canada,  1901 26,133 

Venice,  Italy,  1908 160,000 

Vera  Cruz,  Mexico,  1900 29,164 

Versailles,  France,  1906 54,820 

Victoria,  Canada,  1901 20,816 

Vienna,  Austria-Hungary,  1909 2,085,888 

Vladivostok,  Siberia,  1900 38,000 

Warsaw,  Russia,  1901 756,426 

Wellington,  New  Zealand,  1900 63,807 

West  Ham,  England,  1909 321,767 

Windsor,  Canada,  1901 12,153 

Winnipeg,  Canada,  1906 90,153 

Wuchang,  China,  1898 300,000 

Yakoba,  Niger  Terr.,  1897 .50,000 

Yarmouth,  Canada,  1901 6,430 

Yokohama,  Japan,  1908 394,303 

Zanzibar  (British),  1907 55,750 

Zurich,  Switzeriand,  1909 183,500 


ELEVATION  OP  SOME   PLATEAUS  AND  MOUNTAIN  PEAKS 


Feet 

Abyssinian  Plateau 5-7,000 

Aconcagua,  Andes,  Argentina  (highest  in  South  America) 22,860 

Apo,  Mindanao,  Philippines 10,312 

Ararat,  Turkey  in  Asia 17,325 

Mt.  Blanc,  Alps,  France  (highest  in  Alps) 15,781 

Bolivian  Plateau 10-13,000 

Brazilian  Plateau 2-2,500 

Chimborazo,  Andes,  Ecuador 20,498 

Cotopaxi,  Andes,   Ecuador 19,613 

Elbruz,  Caucasus,  Russia 18,200 

Etna,  Sicily 10,835 

Everest,  Himalayas,  Nepal  (highest  known  in  world) 29,002 

Fremont  Peak,  Rocky  Mountains,  Wy 13,790 

Fujiyama,  Japan 12,365 

Hecla,  Iceland 5,110 

Kunchinjunga 28,156 

Kenia,  Africa 18,620 

Kilimanjaro,  Africa  (highest  known  in  Africa) 19,780 

Kosciusko,  Australia  (highest  in  Australia) 7,336 

Logan,  Coast  Ranges,  Canada  (highest  known  in  Canada) 19,539 

McKinley,  Alaska  (highest  known  in  North  America) 20,464 

Mauua  Kea,  Hawaiian  Islands 13,805 


Feet 

Mauna  Loa,  Hawaiian  Islands 13,675 

Mayon,  Luzon  Island,  Philippines 8,900 

Mexican  Plateau 5-6,000 

Mitchell,  Appalachian  Mts.,  N.C.  (highest  in  Eastern  U.  S.) 6,711 

Mt.  Marcy,  New  York 5,344 

Mt.  Tina,  Haiti 10,300 

Orizaba,  Mexico  (highest  in  Mexico) 18,314 

Pico  del  Turquino,  Cuba 8,600 

Pike's  Peak,  Rocky  Mountains,  Colorado 14,111 

Popocatepetl,  Mexico 17,793 

Rainier,  Cascade  Mountains,  Washington 14,363 

St.  Ellas,  Alaska 18,025 

San  Francisco  Mountain,  Arizona 12,794 

Shasta,  Cascade  Mountains,  California 14,380 

Tibet  Plateau 10-15,000 

United  States,  Western  Plateau 5-6,000 

Vesuvius,  Italy 4,200 

Washington,  White  Mountains,  N.H.  (highest    in    North- 
eastern U.S.) 6,279 

Whitney,   Sierra  Nevada,  California   (highest    in  Western 

U.S.) 14,502 

Yunque,  Porto  Rico 3,609 


SOME  OF  THE  LARGEST  RIVERS  OF  THE  WORLD 


Length  in  Basin  Area 

Miles  8q.  Miles  Ocean 
lorth  America 

Arkansas 2,170  185,671  Atlantic 

Colorado 2,000.  225,049  Pacific 

Columbia 1,400  216,537  Pacific 

Mackenzie 2,000  590,000  Arctic 

Missouri 3,000  527,155  Atlantic 

Missouri-Mississippi 4,300  1,257,000  Atlantic 

Nelson 1,732  432,000  Atlantic 

Ohio 975  201,720  Atlantic 

Rio  Grande 1,800  240,000  Atlantic 

St.  Lawrence 2,200  530,000  Atlantic 

Yukon 2,000  440,000  Pacific 

Sonth  America 

Amazon 3,300  2,500,000  Atlantic 

Orinoco 1,850  366,000  Atlantic 

Plata 2,580  1,200,000  Atlantic 

Sao  Francisco 1,800  •  200,000  Atlantic 

Europe 

Danube 1,770  300,000  Atlantic 

Dneiper 1,200  242,000  Atlantic 

Dwina 1,000  140,000  Arctic 

Elbe 725  55,000  Atlantic 

Po 400  27,000  Atlantic 

Rhine 800  75,000  Atlantic 

Rhone 500  88,000  Atlantic 


Length  in  Basin  Area 

Miles  Sq.  Miles  Ocean 
Enrope 

Seine 482  80,300  Atlantic 

Thames 228  6,100  Atlantic 

Volga ■ 2,400  668,300  Caspian 

Asia 

Amur 2.800  620,000  Pacific 

Brahmaputra 1^800  425,000  Indian 

Ganges                          1,500  440,000  Indian 

Hoang-ho 2,700  570,000  Pacific 

Indus 1,800  872,700  Indian 

Irawadi                           1,500  158,000  Indian 

Lena                                   2,800  950,000  Arctic 

Mekong 2,800  280,000  Pacific 

Ob                                  3,200  1,000,000  Arctic 

Yangtse-kiang 8,200  548,000  Pacific 

Yenisei '. 3,000  1,500,000  Arctic 

Africa 

Congo                                         ....2,900  1,200,000  Atlantic 

Nin-er  "   '"                                  ...2,600  563,300  Atlantic 

NiFe    "'"                                    ....3,400  1,273,000  Atlantic 

Zambezi"  ■.■.'.'.■.'. '.".".'.'. 1,600  600,000  Indian 

Aostralia 

Darling 1,100  Indian 

Murray                                  1,000  270,000  Indian 


AREA,   POPULATION,   ETC. 


619 


SOME   OF  THE  LARGE  LAKES   OF  THE  WOELD 


Area  in 
Sq.  Miles 

Aral  Sea 26,900 

Bailial 12,500 

Balltash 7,800 

Caspian 169,000 

Chad,  variable  witli  season 10,000 

and  often  more 

Dead  Sea 370 

Erie 9,990 

Great  Bear  I^alce 11,200 

Great  Salt  Lake 2,360 

Great  Slave  Lake 10,100 

1  Below  sea  level. 


Elevation 
in  Feet 

Greatest 
Depth 
In  Feet 

160 
1,312 

780 
-85» 
800-900 

225 

4,550 

70 

2,400 

12 

-  1,310 » 
573 
200 

4,218 

1,330 
210 

30-50 
over  650 

Area  In 
Sq.  Miles 

Huron 22,322 

Ladoga 7,000 

Manitoba 1,850 

Michigan 21,729 

Nicaragua 3,600 

Nyassa 14.000 

Ontario 7,104 

Superior 30,829 

Tanganyika 12,650 

Titicaca 3,300 

Victoria  Nyanza 30,000 

Winnipeg 9,400 


Greatest 

Elevation 

Depth 

in  Feet 

in  Feet 

582 

750 

60 

730 

810 



582 

870 

110 

88 

1,500 

600  + 

247 

738 

602 

1,008 

2,800 

2,100 

12,875 

700 

4,000 

590  + 

710 

70 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  MANKIND 


longolians 540,000,000 

China 380,000,000 

Japan  and  Korea 55,000,000 

Indo-China 35,000,000 

Malaysia 30,000,000 

Other  Mongolians 40,000,000 

Canrasiaiis 770,000,000 

Europe 355,000,000 

Asia 280,000,000 

America 11.5,000,000 

Africa 15,000,000 

Australasia 5,000,000 


Ethiopians 173,000,0«« 

Africa  and  Madagascar 153,000,000 

North  and  South  America 20,000,000 

American  Indiani  22,170,000 

Mexico 8,765,000 

Brazil  4,200,000 

Colombia 8,150,000 

Peru  2,700,000 

Bolivia,  Guatemala,  and  Venezuela 4,225,000 

United  States  250,000 

Canada   100,000 


RELIGIONS  OF  MANKIND 

Buddhists  and  Brahmins 650,000,000  I    Mohammedans 

Christians 440,000,000        Pagans  and  others. 

Jews 8,000,000  | 


.180,000,000 
.250,000,000 


PRINCIPAL  COUNTRIES   FROM  WHICH  THE    FOREIGN-BORN  POPULATION    OF  THE    UNITED    STATES    HAS   COME 


Country  of  Birth  Number  in  1900 

Germany 2,666,990 

Ireland 1,618,567 

Canada  and  Newfoundland 1,181,265 

England 842,078 

Sweden 573,040 

Italy 484,207 


Country  of  Birth  Number  in  1900 

Russia 424,096 

Poland 383,510 

Norwav 336,985 

Scotland ...233,977 

Total  of  foreign-born  population 10,356,644 


DISTRIBUTION   OF  NEGROES  IN  THE   FIFTEEN  STATES   WHERE  THEY  ARE  MOST  NUMEROUS 


States                      Number  of  Negroes  Percentage  of  Negroes 

in  1900  to  Total 

Population,  1900 

1.  Georgia 1,034,813  46.69 

2.  Mississippi 907,630  68.50 

8.   Alabama 827,307  45.24 

4.  South  CaroUna 782,321  68.86 

5.  Virginia 660,722  -86.68 

6.  Louisiana 650,804  47.10 

7.  North  Carolina 024,469  82.97 

8.  Texas 620,722  20.36 


States  Number  of  Negroes    Percentage  of  Negroes 

in  1900  to  Total 

Population,  1900 
9.   Tennessee 480,243  28.77 

10.  Arkansas 366,856  27.97 

11.  Kentucky 284,706  13.25 

12.  Maryland 235,064  19.75 

13.  Florida 230,730  43.65 

14.  Missouri 161,234  6.18 

15.  Pennsylvania 156,845  2.48 

Total  number  of  Negroes  in  1900,  8,840,789. 


INDEX   AND   PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 

KEY  TO   PRONUNCIATION 

a,  as  in  ale  ;  a,  as  in  sen'Ste  ;  S.,  as  in  care  ;  5,  as  in  am  ;  a,  as  in  arm  ;  a,  as  ask  ;  a,  as  in  fi'nal ;  a,  as  in  all ; 
e,  as  in  6ve ;  e,  as  in  ^-vent' ;  e,  as  in  end  ;  g,  as  in  fern  ;  e,  as  in  re'cent ;  T,  as  in  Ice  ;  t,  as  in  t-de'a ;  T,  as  in  ill ; 
o,  as  in  old  ;  6,  as  in  6-bey' ;  0,  as  in  orb  ;  6,  as  in  odd ;  u,  as  in  use ;  ft,  as  in  ft-nite' ;  y,  as  in  rude  ;  u,  as  in 
full  ;  it.  as  in  tip  ;  u,  as  in  urn  ;  y,  as  in  pit'y  ;  6o,  as  in  food ;  o6,  as  in  foot ;  ou,  as  in  out ;  oi,  as  in  oil ; 
N,  representing  simply  the  nasal  tone  of  the  preceding  vowel  as  in  ensemble  (aN'saN'b'l),  '  (for  voice  glide)  as  in 
pardon  (par'd'n);  g  (hard),  as  in  go  ;  s  (sharp),  as  in  so  ;  z  (like  s  sonant),  as  in  zone  ;  ch  (=  tsh)  as  in  chair ; 
sh,  for  ch,  as  in  machine  ;  zh  (=  sh  made  sonant),  for  z,  as  in  azure  ;  j  (=  dzh),  for  g,  as  in  gem  ;  k,  for  ch,  as 
in  chorus  ;  kw,  for  qu,  as  in  queen  ;  ks  (surd),  for  x,  as  in  vex  ;  gz  (sonant),  for  x,  as  in  exist ;  f,  for  ph,  as  in 
philosophy ;  hw,  for  wh,  as  in  virhat ;  t,  for  ed,  as  in  baked  ;  ng,  as  in  long ;  n  (like  ng)  for  n  before  the  sound 
of  k  or  hard  g,  as  in  bank  ;  n  (ordinary  sound),  as  in  no  ;  th  (sonant),  for  th,  as  in  then  ;  th  (surd),  as  in  thin. 

The  primary  accent  is  indicated  by  a  short,  heavy  mark  ('),  the  secondary  by  a  lighter  mark  ('). 

The  numbers  refer  to  pages.  Where  several  references  are  given,  the  pages  on  v^hich  the  principal  description 
is  to  be  found  are  indicated  by  heavier  type. 


Aachen  (a'Ken),  354,  358. 
Aberdeen  X^b'  er-den),  347. 
Abyssinia  (ilb'Ts-sin'i-a),  461-462. 
Acacia  (a-ka'sha  or  a-ka'shT-a),  7. 
Acapulco  (a'ka-pool'ko),  267. 
Aconcagua  (a'kon-ka'gwa),  321. 
Acropolis  (a-krop'o-lis),  409." 
Adelaide  (Sd'^-lad),  472. 
Aden  (a'den  or  a'den),  424. 
Adirondack     Mountains     (ad'i-ron'- 

dak-),  114,  118. 
Adobe    (a-do'b4),    houses,    Mexico, 

265. 
Adriatic  Sea  (M'r^atlk  or  a'dri-), 

378,  410. 
.ffigean  Sea  (e-je'an-),  410. 
Afghanistan     (af-gSnTs-tan'),    423- 

425, 
Africa    (af'ri-ka),   93,   94,   446-464; 

agriculture,  453,  456,  458  ;  animals, 

8,  450,  451,  453,  462  ;  cities,  454, 

457,  460  ;  climate,  3-4,  9,  447,  450, 

458,  459  ;  deserts,  7-9,  96,  446,  449; 
drainage,  447,  4 19,  450,  452,  453, 
454,  459,  460 ;  exploration  and 
development,    450,   452,   457-458, 

460,  461  ;  irrigation,  456,  458  ; 
minerals,  458,  458,  459,  461; 
people,  3-4,  7,  9,  96,  448,  452,  457, 
458,  461;  position,  453;  products, 

461,  463;  railroads,  452;  rainfall, 
3,  7,  447,  448,  450,  460  ;  shape,  96, 
446 ;  stock-raising,  8,  458  ;  surface, 
446,  449,  455  ;  trade,  452,  456,  462  ; 
Union  of  South  Africa,  458. 

Africa,  Southern,  see  South  Africa. 

Agave  (a-ga'v^),  265. 

Agriculture,  65  ;  see  also  subdivision 

under  names  of  countries,  etc. 
Air,  the,  54  ;  importance  of,  to  life, 

54-55  ;  movement  of,  55-56. 
Aix  la   Chapelle  (aks-la-sha'pgl'  or 

as-),  358. 


Alabama  (ai'a-bii'ma),  160,  161,  162. 
Alameda  (Cal.)  (a'la-ma'da),  225. 
Alaska  (a-lSs'ka),  238-241  ;  agricul- 
ture, 238,  239 ;  cities,  241 ;  climate, 

238  ;  fishing,  239,  240  ;  lumbering, 

239 ;   mining,  240,  241 ;  purchase, 

238 ;  railroad,  240  ;  scenery,  241  ; 

sealing,   239  ;    stock-raising,   239  ; 

surface,  238. 
Albany  (N.Y.)  (al'ba-ni),  129. 
Alberta  (al-ber'ta),  250,  251. 
Albuquerque  (N.  Mex.)  (al'boo-kar'- 

ka).  Fig.  272. 
Alderney  (al'der-nl),  340. 
Aleutian  Islands   (a-lu'shan-).   Fig. 

318. 
Alexandria     (al'egz-an'dri-a),     454- 

455. 
Alfalfa  (ai-fai'fa),  212,  214. 
Algeria    (ai-je'rl-a).  364,   367,    455, 

456. 
Algiers  (ai-jerz'),  457. 
Alhambra  (al-ham'bra),  401,  402. 
Allegheny  Plateau  (ai'^-ga'n!-),  150. 
Allegheny  River,  143. 
Alligators,  in  Florida,  159  ;  in  South 

America,  313,  315. 
Alpaca  (ai-pak'a),  315. 
Alps  Mountains  (aips),  26,  332,  360, 

368,  370,  374,  376,  403,  404,  406. 
Altoona  (Pa.)(ai-too'na),  129. 
Amazon  (am'a-zon),  318. 
Amsterdam  (am'ster-dam'),  395. 
Anaconda     (Mont.)     (an'a-kon'da), 

230. 
Ancestor  worship,   among  Chinese, 

428. 
Andes  (an'd^z),  311,  315,  320,  321- 

322,  326. 
Andorra  (an-dor'ra),  361,  375. 
Androscoggin  (an'dros-kog'gin).  Fig. 

144. 
Angola  (an-go'la),  458. 
Animals,    in   Arctic   regions,   5 ;    of 

African  jungle,  450  ;  of  Asia,  420  ; 
521 


of  Australia,  466,  467  ;  in  British 
Isles,  340 ;  of  Canadian  forests, 
253-255;  of  Central  States,  180- 
181  ;  of  Europe,  380  ;  of  Far  North, 
262  ;  in  France,  362  ;  in  Germany, 
354  ;  of  Indian  jungle,  441  ;  of  the 
Nile  Valley,  453 ;  in  Northeastern 
States,  116-117  ;  of  Philippine 
Islands,  248  ;  of  South  America, 
313,  314-315 ;  of  tropical  North 
America,  269 ;  in  Western  States, 
206,  207  ;  in  Yellowstone  Park,  233, 

Annapolis  (an-nap'6-lTs)  (Md.),  165, 

Antarctic  Circle  (ant-ark'tik-),  92, 

Antarctic  Ocean,  98. 

Antilles  (an-til'lez  or  aN'tel'),  270, 

Anti-trade  winds    (an'ti-trad'),   293. 

Antwerp  (ant'werp),  397. 

Apia  (a-pe'a  or  a'p^-a),  246. 

Appalachian  Mountains  (ap'pa-la'- 
chl-an  or  lach'I-an-),  107,  111,118, 
147,  149. 

Appennines  (ap'en-ninz),  368,  371, 
374. 

Apples,  in  Central  States,  180 ;  in 
Mexico,  264  ;  in  New  York  State, 
117;  in  Nova  Scotia,  252;  on 
Pacific  coast,  206 ;  in  Southern 
California,  209. 

Apricots  (a'pri-kots),  on  the  Pacific 
coast,  206  ;  in  Southern  California, 
209. 

Arabia  (a-ra'bl-a),  423-424;  agricul- 
ture,   424  ;    cities,    424  ;    climate, 
424  ;  irrigation,  424  ;  people,  424 
products,     424 ;     railroads,     424 
stock-raising,  424  ;  surface,  423. 

Arabs  (ar'abs),  448. 

Aral  Sea  (ar'al-),  384,  415. 

Ararat  (ar'a-rat),  419. 

Archipelago  (ar'kT-pel'a-g6),  East 
Indian,  473  ;  Greek,  409. 

Arctic  Circle  (ark'tik-),  91. 

Arctic  Ocean,  5,  97-98,  385. 

Arequipa  (a'rS-ke'pa),  324. 


522 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


Argentina  (ar'ggn-te'na),  316-317, 
363  ;  agriculture,  316  ;  drainage, 
317  ;  industries,  316  ;  lumbering, 
316 ;  railroads,  317  ;  size,  316  ; 
stock-raising,  316  ;  surface,  316. 

Arid  (arTd)  regions,  in  Mexico,  265 ; 
in  western  United  States,  182,  205. 

Arizona  (ar'i-zo'na),  213,  218. 

Arkansas  (ar'k«n-sa'),  160,  161. 

Artesian  (ar-te'zhan)    wells,  182. 

Art  museums,  Brussels,  397  ;  Dres- 
den, 357  ;  Florence,  373  ;  Madrid, 
400  ;  Paris,  365-366  ;  Rome,  372- 
373. 

Asbury  Park  (N.J.)  (az'b6r-i-),  47. 

Ascension  Island  (3.s-sen'shun-),  463. 

Ashland  (Wis.)  (ash'laud),  187. 

Asia  (a'shi-a),  415-419  ;  climate,  415, 
417  ;  desert,  415  ;  people,  418  ;  pop- 
ulation, 415 ;  rainfall,  418 ;  size, 
415 ;  surface,  417,  418  ;  see  also 
under  countries  of  Asia. 

Asia  Minor  (-mi'ner) ,  419-423. 

Asphaltum  (Ss-fSl'tiim),  production 
of,  328. 

Astoria  (Ore.)  (as-t5'rl-a),  222,  228. 

Asuncion  (a-soon's^-6n'),  317. 

Atacama  Desert  (a'ta-ka'ma),  314, 
327 

Athens  (ath'6nz),  408-409. 

Atlanta  (Ga.)  (St-ian'ta),  47,  115, 
145. 

Atlantic  City  (N.J,)(at-15n'tTk-),  96- 
97. 

Atlantic  Ocean,  96-97. 

Atlas  Mountains  (at'ias-),  446,  455. 

Atmosphere,  extent  of  the,  54. 

Attar  of  roses,  411,  424. 

Auburn  (Me.)  (a'burn).  131. 

Auckland  (ak'land),  473. 

Augusta  (Ga.)(a-gus'ta),  162. 

Augusta  (Me.),  131,  133. 

Austin  (Tex.)  (as'tin),  171. 

Australia  (as-tra'li-a),  93,  96,  348, 
303,  464^72;  agriculture,  469, 
470,  471 ;  animals,  466,  467  ;  area, 
464;  cities,  471;  climate,  469; 
coast  line,  469;  irrigation,  469; 
location,  464  ;  manufactures,  471  ; 
people,  466 ;  population,  468  ;  rain- 
fall, 468,  469  ;  stock-raising,  469, 
470  ;  surface,  468  ;  vegetation,  466. 

Austria  (as'tri-a),  376-381. 

Austria-Hungary  (-hQn'ga-rl),  337, 
376-381,  411 ;  agriculture,  378  ; 
cities,  379-381  ;  climate,  376  ;  gov- 
ernment, 376 ;  language,  377  ; 
lumbering,  378  ;  manufacturing, 
378  ;  mining,  378  ;  races,  376,  377  ; 
size,  376  ;  stock-raising,  378 ;  sur- 
face, 376 ;  trade,  378  ;  transporta- 
tion, 378,  379. 

Avalanches,  27,  30,  42,  403. 

Axis,  rotation  of  earth  on  its,  89-90. 

Azores  Islands  (a-zorz'-),  402. 

Aztecs  (az'teks),  265,  276. 

B 

Babylon  (bab'i-lun),  423. 

Bagdad  (bag-dad'  or  bXg'dad),  423. 


Bahamas  (ba-ha'mas),  270,  271,  370. 

Bahia  (ba-e'a),  320. 

Baker  Island  (ba'ker-),  246. 

Baku  (ba-koo'),  385. 

Balearic  Isles  (bal'e-ar'Ik),  401. 

Balkan  Mountains  (bal-kan'- or  bal'- 
kan-),  411. 

Balkan  Peninsula,  407-411. 

Ballarat  (bal 'la-rat'),  472. 

Baltic  Sea  (bal'tik-),  333,  385,  392. 

Baltimore  (Md.)  (bal'tl-mor),  159, 
163,  164,  165,  285. 

Baltimore  and  Ohio  Railway,  165, 
168. 

Baluchistan  (ba-loo'chls-tau'),  439. 

Bamboo,  uses  of,  in  China,  431  ;  in 
India,  441. 

Bananas,  in  tropical  Andean  coun- 
tries, 322,  324  ;  in  Central  Africa, 
4 ;  in  Central  America,  268 ;  in 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  242  ;  in 
Florida,  156  ;  in  the  Guianas,  320  ; 
in  islands  of  the  Pacific,  475 ;  in 
Mexico,  266  ;  in  Philippine  Islands, 
247 ;  in  South  Africa,  458 ;  in 
Venezuela,  321;  in  West  Indies, 
270,  271. 

Bangkok  (bSn'kok'),  438. 

Bangor  (Me.)  (ban'gor),  132,  133. 

Bank  of  England,  346. 

Barbary  States  (biir'ba-ri-),  456- 
457  ;  agriculture,  456  ;  cities,  457  ; 
countries,  455  ;  government,  455  ; 
people,  457  ;  stock-raising,  456  ; 
surface,  455  ;  trade,  456. 

Barcelona  (bar's^-lo'na),  401. 

Barge  Canal,  New  York  State,  257. 

Barley,  in  Austria-Hungary,  378 ; 
in  British  Isles,  340 ;  in  Central 
States,  181  ;  in  Chile,  327 ;  in 
Ecuador,  322  ;  in  Egypt,  453  ;  in 
Germany,  353  ;  in  Ireland,  344  ;  in 
the  Netherlands,  393  ;  in  Ontario, 
252 ;  in  Persia,  424 ;  in  Russia, 
384  ;  in  Saskatchewan  and  Mani- 
toba, 251  ;  in  Venezuela,  321  ;  in 
Western  States,  206. 

Barmen  (bar'men),  358. 

Barre  (Vt.)  (bar're),  122. 

Basel  (bJi'zel),  407. 

Batavia  (ba-tji'vl-a),  475. 

Bath  (Me.),  133.  _ 

Baton  Rouge  (La.)  (bat'an  roozh'), 
169. 

Bauxite  (boks'it),  in  Georgia,  Ala- 
bama, and  Arkansas,  161. 

Bavaria  (ba-va'ri-a),  357. 

Bay  City  (Mich.),  190. 

Bays,  50,  54. 

Beer,  in  Cincinnati,  St.  Louis,  and 
Milwaukee,  181  ;  in  Germany,        ' 

Beet  sugar,  153,  181,  277,  479,-480. 
in  Austria-Hungary,  378  ;  in  Bel- 
gium, 396  ;  in  Germany,  353,  355  ; 
in  the  Netherlands,  394  ;  in  Russia, 
384. 

Belfast  (b61-fast'  or  bgl'fast),  342, 
344,  348. 

Belgium  (bgl'ji-um),  395-398;  agri- 
culture,  396  ;    area,   395 ;     cities. 


397,  398  ;  colonies,  397,  462  ;  com- 
merce, 397  ;  drainage,  397  ;  gov- 
ernment, 395  ;  industries,  396  ; 
mining,  396  ;  people,  395  ;  popula- 
tion, 395  ;  railroads,  397  ;  stock- 
raising,  396  ;  surface,  395  ;  trans- 
portation, 397. 

Belgrade  (bel'grad'),  411. 

Belize  (be-lez'),  268. 

Bellingham    (Wash.)    (bellng-ara), 
222,  229. 

Belt  of  Calms,  293,  294. 

Benares  (ben-a'r6z),  443. 

Bendigo  (ben'di-go),  472. 

Ben  Nevis  (-ne'visi,  339. 

Benue  River  (ben'w^-),  460. 

Bergen  (bar'gen),  390. 

Bering  Sea  (be'ring-),  241. 

Bering  Strait,  98. 

Berkeley  (Cal.)  (berk'li),  225. 

Berkshire  Hills  (berk'shir-),  144. 

Berlin  (ber-l^n'),  356-357. 

Bermudas  (ber-mu'das),  47,  272. 

Berne  (bern),  407. 

Berries,  in  Central  States,  180. 

Bethlehem  (beth'l^-hem  or  -l^-em), 

■    422. 

Bey  (ba)  of  Tunis,  455. 

Bhutan  (boo-tan'),  439. 

Biddeford  (Me.)  (bid'de-f5rd),  131. 

"  Big  Trees  "  of  California,  220. 

Billings  (Mont.)  (bll'llngz),  214. 

Binghamton  (N.Y.)    (bing'am-tiin), 
129,  132. 

Birmingham  (Ala.)  (b5r'mTng-am  or 
-hftm),  160,  163,  341. 

Birmingham  (Eng.)  (bgr'mlng-am), 
341,  342,  345. 

Bisbee  (Ariz.)  (blz'bee),  218. 

Bison  in  Yellowstone  Park,  233. 

Black  Forest,  353,  355. 

Black  Hills,  189. 

Black  lead  in  Russia,  385,  426. 

Black  Sea,  385,  386,  410,  413,  421. 

Blast  furnace,  127,  128. 

Blizzards,  179. 

Blubber,  seal,  256,  261. 

Blue  Grass  Region  of  Kentucky,  156. 

Bluefishing  in  Southern  States,  169. 

Boa  constrictor,  in   South   America, 
313,  314. 

Boers  (boors),  458. 

Bogota  (bo'go-ta'),  322. 

Bogs,  in  Ireland,  344  ;  in  Denmark, 
391. 

Boise  (Idaho)  (boi'zi),  231. 

Bokhara  (bo-KJi'ra),  425,  426. 

Bolivar,  Simon  (bol'i-ver),  324. 

BoUiwa  (bu-liv'i-a),  321,  324-326. 
mbay  (bom-ba'),  443. 
oomerang,  466,  468. 

Boone,  Daniel,  107. 

Boot  and  shoe  making,  132. 

Bordeaux  (bor'do'),  367. 

Borneo  (b6r'ne-6),  474. 

Bosporus  (b6s'p6-rfls),  386,  410,  413. 

Boston  (Mass.)    (bds'tiiu),  63,    120, 
143,  285. 

Boulogne  (boo-l5n'),  366. 

Boundaries  of  countries,  102. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


523 


Bradford  (Pa.)  (brM'fSrd),  123. 

Bradford  (Eng.),  343,  345. 

Brahmanism  (bra'maii-iz'm),  440. 

Brahmaputra   (bra'ma-poo'tra),  439. 

Brands,  cattle,  183. 

Brazil(bra-zil'),  317-320;  agriculture, 
319  ;  area,  317  ;  cities,  320  ;  drain- 
age, 318;  industries,  319,  320; 
manufacturing,  320 ;  population, 
317  ;  products,  319  ;  stock-raising, 
319  ;  surface,  317,  318. 

Brazilian  Highland  (bra-zil'yan-), 
317. 

Breakwaters,  50. 

Bremen  (brfim'en),  350,  351,  358. 

Breslau  (bres'lou),  355,  357. 

Breweries,  181,  189. 

Brick-making,  130-131. 

Bridgeport  (Conn.)  (brij'port),  130. 

Bridges,  railway,  at  St.  Louis,  196, 
197. 

Bristol  (bris'tiil),  347. 

British  Africa  (brltlsh  Sfri-ka), 
457-460. 

British  Columbia  (-k6-lum'bi-a) ,  222, 
250,  251. 

British  Empire  (-6m'plr),  346,  348, 
349. 

British  Guiana  (-gi-a'na),  320. 

British  Honduras  (-hon-du'ras), 
268. 

British  Isles,  337-350  ;  agriculture, 
339,  340,  344 ;  animal  products, 
340;  coast  line,  346,  347,  348; 
cities,  345,  346,  347  ;  climate,  339, 
340 ;  colonies,  348,  458,  462,  473  ; 
fishing,  340,  341 ;  government,  349; 
manufacturing,  342,  343,  344,  346, 
347,  .348;  merchant  ships,  348; 
minerals,  341  ;  population,  338, 
345  ;  size,  338  ;  stock-raising,  340, 
344  ;  trade,  343,  347,  348 ;  trans- 
portation, 348. 

British  Straits  Settlements,  438. 

Brockton  (Mass.)  (brok'tun),  132. 

Brooklyn  (N.Y.)  (brook'lin),  137. 

Bronze  manufacturing,  Munich,  357. 

Brunswick  (Ga.)  (brunz'wik),  158. 

Brussels  (brus'selz),  397. 

Buckwheat,  in  the  Netherlands,  393. 

Budapest  (boo'da-pest),  379. 

Buddhism  (bood'diz'm),  440. 

Buenos  Aires  (b5'nus  a'riz),  317. 

Buffalo  (N.Y.)  (buf'fa-lo),  123,  129, 
140,  187. 

Building  stones,  108 ;  in  Belgium, 
396;  in  Central  States,  189;  in 
France,  363 ;  in  Germany,  354 ; 
in  Ireland,  344 ;  in  Pennsylvania, 
123  ;  in  Southern  States,  160 ;  in 
Western  States,  219. 

Bulbs,  Dutch,  394. 

Bulgaria  (b<x)l-ga'ri-a),  411. 

Bullfighting,  400. 

Bullfrog  (Mont.),  217. 

Buoys,  52. 

Burlington  (Vt.)  (btirltng-tun),  144. 

Burma  (bur'ma),  438,  439,  443-444. 

Burros  (bur'rSs),  in  Mexico,  265; 
in  Jamaica,  271. 


Butte  (Mont.)  (but),  217-218,  230- 
231. 

Butter,  in  Australia,  470  ;  in  Nether- 
lands, 394  ;  in  New  Zealand,  472  ; 
in  Switzerland,  404 ;  see  also 
Dairying. 

C 

Cacao  (ka-ka'6),  481. 

Cadiz  (kM'iz),  401. 

Cairo  (ki'ro),  454. 

Calais  (ka'la'),  366. 

Calcutta  (kai-kiit'ta),  443. 

Calgary  (kal'ga-ri),  251. 

California  (kai'i-fdr'ni-a),  202,  204, 
206,  208,  209,  211,  218,  220,  222, 
223,  224,  225,  226,  227 ;  California, 
University  of,  225. 

Callao  (kal-la'6  or  kal-ya'6),  324. 

Calumet  (Wis.)  (karft-m6t),  188. 

Cambridge    (Mass.)   (kam'brij),  143. 

Camden  (N.J.)  (kam'den),  129,  141. 

Camels,  in  Arabia,  424  ;  in  the  Bar- 
bary  States,  456 ;  on  Desert  of 
Sahara,  8-9 ;  in  Egypt,  454 ;  in 
Russia  in  Asia,  425  ;  in  the  East 
Indies,  474  ;  in  Japan,  435. 

Canada  (kSn'a-da),  101,  102,  249- 
261,  289,  348;  agriculture,  251, 
252;  area,  249,  250;  cities,  250, 
258,  260,  261 ;  climate,  250,  251 ; 
dairying,  252  ;  divisions,  250  ;  fish- 
ing, 255,  256  ;  government,  250  ; 
lumbering,  253,  255;  manufactur- 
ing, 260 ;  mining,  252,  253  ;  popu- 
lation, 250 ;  railroads,  257,  258 ; 
rainfall,  250,  251 ;  stock-raisin ir, 
251 ;  surface,  250,  252 ;  trade,  256, 
257,  258,  260 ;  transportation,  256, 
257,  258. 

Canals,  39,  64 ;  in  Belgium,  397  ; 
in  China,  431 ;  Erie  Canal,  136, 
140  ;  in  France,  366 ;  in  Germany, 
356  ;  in  Holland,  393,  394  ;  Kaiser 
Wilhelm  Canal,  358  ;  Manchester 
ship  canal,  347  ;  in  Northeastern 
States,  135-136  ;  Panama,  94,  244  ; 
around  rapids  of  the  St.  Lawrence, 
257  ;  in  Russia,  385  ;  Soo,  191  ; 
Suez,  95,  453-454  ;  in  Venice,  374. 

Canary  Islands  (ka-na'ry-),  401,  463. 

Cancer,  Tropic  of  (kan'ser),  91,  263. 

Cane  sugar,  108,  153,  242,  245,  248, 
266,  268,  270,  271,  277,  316,  319, 
320,  321,  322,  324,  435,  441,  453, 

458,  470,  474,  479,  480. 
Cannibals,  of  central  Africa,  461. 
Cantabrian    Mountains    (kan-ta'bri- 

an-),  400. 
Canton  (kan-ton'),  432-433. 
Cape    Breton    Island    (-brit'iin-    or 

-bret'iin-),  253. 
Cape  May,  Fig.  150. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  450. 
Cape  of  Good  Hope,  Province  of,  458, 

459,  460. 
Cape  Town,  460. 

Cape  Verde  Islands  (-v5rd-),  402, 463. 
Capital,  of  a  state,  77  ;  of  the  United 
States,  79-80,  166. 


Capricorn,  Tropic  of  (kap'ri-kOrn) , 
91. 

Caracas  (ka-rii'kas),  321. 

Caravan  routes,  in  Turkey  in  Asia, 
423,  456. 

Cardiff  (kJir'dif),  347. 

Caribbean  Sea  (kar'ib-be'an-),  270. 

Carpets,  manufacture  of,  in  Brussels, 
397  ;  in  Yonkers,  132. 

Carrara  (kar-ra'ra),  marble,  370. 

Carriage  manufacturing,  in  America, 
131  ;  in  Belgium,  397. 

Cascade  Ranges  (^kas-kad'-),  205. 

Caspian  Sea  (kas'pi-an-),  383,  384, 
385,  415. 

Cast  iron,  128-129. 

Catskills  (kats'kils),  114,  144. 

Caste,  in  India,  440,  443. 

Cattle,  182-185,  481-482;  see  also 
subdivision  "stock-raising"  under 
names  of  countries,  etc. 

Caucasian  race  (ka-ka'shan-),  306, 
307. 

Caucasus  (kaHia-sus),  382. 

Cave  dwellings  of  southwestern 
United  States,  235-236. 

Cement,  production  of,  191 ;  in  Ger- 
many, 354. 

Center  of  population  of  United 
States,  273. 

Central  America,  268-270 ;  see  also 
under  various  divisions. 

Central  Africa,  3-4,  460-463; 
drainage,  460  ;  divisions,  461 ;  ex- 
ports, 462  ;  products,  461 ;  settle- 
ment, 461. 

Central  States,  174-202 ;  agriculture, 
174,  176-180,  181,  182;  area,  174; 
climate,  176  :  cities,  192,  193,  195- 
200  ;  dairying,  181 ;  fishing,  185  ; 
lumbering,  185;  manufacturing, 
181,  189,  190,  191,  194,  195  ;  meat 
products,  193,  194 ;  mining,  185- 
189,  190;  population,  174,  193; 
soil,  182  ;  stock-raising,  180,  182- 
184,  214 ;  surface,  174  ;  railroads, 
192,  195  ;  transportation,  187,  195  ; 
waterways,  191,  192. 

Cettinje  (tse't6n-yS),  411. 

Ceylon  (se-16n'),444. 

Chad,  Lake  (chad),  447. 

Champlain,  Lake  (sham-plan'),  144. 

Channel  Islands  (chSn'nel-),  340. 

Channels  to  harbors,  62. 

Charleston  (S.C.)  (charlz'tiin) ,  158, 

161,  170. 

Charlotte     (N.C.)     (shar'lot),     161, 

162.  _ 
Chattanooga    (Tenn.)    (c'hat'ta-noo'- 

ga),  163.  169. 

Chelan,  Lake  (-che'lSn'),  235. 

Chelsea  (Mass.)  (ch§l's^),  143. 

Chemnitz  (kgm'nits),  355,  357. 

Cheese,  exported  from  the  Nether- 
lands, 394  ;  in  Switzerland,  404  ; 
see  also  Dairying. 

Chesapeake  Bay  (ch6s'a-pek) ,  150, 
159,  164,  167. 

Chester  (Pa.)  (chgs'ter),  141. 

Cheyenne  (Wyo.)  (shi'en'),  212. 


524 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


Chicago  (111.)  (shi-ka'g*),  174,  187, 

190,  192-195,  196. 
Chicago  River,  192. 

Chile  (che'14  or chil'lT),  314,  321,  326, 
326-328  ;  agriculture,  327  ;  cities, 
328  ;  climate,  326  ;  manufacturing, 
327,  328  ;  minerals,  326,  327  ;  stock- 
raising,  327  ;  surface,  326. 

Chimborazo  (chim'bo-ra'zo),  322. 

China  (chi'na),  97,  364,  418,  419. 

Chinaware,  427,  430. 

Chinese  Empire  (chi-nez'  or  chi- 
nes')? 427-433;  agriculture,  429- 
430  ;  area,  428  ;  canals,  431  ;  cities, 
432,  433  ;  civilization  and  develop- 
ment, 427  ;  climate,  429  ;  customs, 
432 ;  fishing,  430 ;  government, 
428  ;  irrigation,  430  ;  manufactur- 
ing, 430,  431  ;  minerals,  430 ;  peo- 
ple, 428;  population,  428,  429, 
432,  433  ;  products,  429,  430  ;  rail- 
roads, 431  ;  soil,  429  ;  surface,  429 ; 
transportation,  431. 

Christiania  (kris-te-ii'n^-a),  390. 

Christian  religion,  422. 

Cigars,  in  Cuba,  242 ;  in  Tampa, 
164. 

Cinchona  (sin-ko'na),  324. 

Cincinnati  (O.)   (sin'sin-na'ti) ,   181, 

191,  199-200. 
Circumference  of  earth,  88. 

Cities,  attractions  of,  74 ;  life  in,  67, 
69-72  ;  located  on  Fall  Line,  150  ; 
officers  and  law-making  in,  78  ; 
transportation  in,  72-73  ;  see  also 
subdivision  under  names  of  coun- 
tries, etc. 

Clams,  120,  122. 

Clarkesville  (Tenn.),  155. 

Cleveland  (O.)  (klev'land),  187, 195- 
196. 

Cliff  dwellings,  236. 

Clocks,  manufacture  of,  in  America, 
130  ;  in  Switzerland,  405. 

Clothing,  materials  and  manufacture 
of,  2. 

Clouds,  formation  of,  57-58. 

Coal,  125,  126  ;  in  Alaska,  241  ;  in 
Argentina,  316  ;  in  Austria-Hun- 
gary, 378 ;  in  Belgium,  396 ;  in 
Brazil,  320 ;  in  Briti.sh  Columbia, 
253  ;  in  the  British  Isles,  341  ;  in 
Central  States,  185,  186 ;  in  Chile, 
326 ;  in  China,  430;  in  Colorado  and 
other  Western  States,  219 ;  the 
eight  leading  coal-producing  coun- 
tries of  the  world,  484  ;  in  Europe, 
333;  in  French  Indo-China,  4.38; 
geographic  distribution  of,  483  ;  in 
Germany,  354 ;  in  Great  Britain, 
341,  342  ;  in  India,  441  ;  in  Japan, 
435 ;  in  Montana,  217 ;  in  New 
Zealand,  472  ;  in  Nova  Scotia  and 
Cape  Breton  Island,  253  ;  in  Penn- 
sylvania, 124-127  ;  in  Peru,  324; 
in  Russia,  385  ;  in  South  Africa, 
459  ;  in  Australia,  471  ;  in  Southern 
States,  159-160  ;  in  Spanish  penin- 
sula, 400;  in  United  States,  108, 
281,  282. 


Coal  breakers,  126-127. 

Coaling  stations,  246. 

Coastal  Plains,  108,  149-150. 

Coast  Ranges,  205. 

Cobalt  (ko'balt),  253. 

Coca  (ko'ka),  production  of ,  in  Peru, 
324. 

Cocoa  (ko'ko),  in  Andean  countries, 
322;  in  Brazil,  319;  in  Central 
America,  268  ;  in  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico,  242  ;  description  of  method 
of  raising,  323  ;  in  Ecuador,  322  ; 
in  the  Guianas,  320 ;  in  Philippine 
Islands,  248 ;  in  "Venezuela,  321. 

Cocoanut  oil,  248. 

Cocoanuts,  in  the  Bahamas,  272  ;  in 
Ceylon,  444  ;  on  coral  islands  of 
the  Pacific,  475 ;  in  Cuba,  242  ;  in 
Florida,  156  ;  in  India,  441  ;  in 
Malay  Peninsula,  438  ;  in  Mexico, 
266  ;  in  Philippine  Islands,  247. 

CcBur  d'  Alene  (Idaho)  (k6r-da-lin') , 
218,  230. 

Coffee,  in  Abyssinia,  462  ;  irLtropical 
Andean  countries,  322  ;  in  Arabia, 
424  ;  in  Brazil,  319 ;  in  Ceylon, 
444  ;  in  Costa  Rica,  268,  270 ;  in 
Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  242;  geo- 
graphic distribution  of,  480-481  ; 
in  the  Guianas,  320  ;  in  Haiti,  271 ; 
in  Hawaiian  Islands,  246 ;  in 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  475  ;  in  Java 
and  the  East  Indies,  474  ;  in  Mex- 
ico, 266 ;  in  Philippine  Islands, 
248;  in  South  Africa,  458;  in 
Venezuela,  321. 

Coke,  127,  128,  186. 

Colima  (ko-le'ma),  264. 

Cologne  (ko-lon'),  352,  364,  355,  358. 

Colon  (k6-l6n'),  244. 

Colorado  (k61'6-ra'd6),  211,217,  219, 
223,  229. 

Colorado  Canyon  (-kSn'ytin),  231, 
233-234. 

Colorado  Springs  (Colo.),  230. 

Colosseum  (kol'os-se'iim),  373. 

Columbia  (Mo.)  (k6-lum'bi-a),  321, 
322. 

Columbia  (S.  C),  162. 

Columbia.  District  of,  166. 

Columbia  River,  222,  223,  224. 

Columbus,  Christopher  (-ko-liim' 
bus),  86-87,  96,  101,  241,  270,  300, 
310,  322,  440. 

Columbus  (Ga.),  162. 

Columbus  (Ohio),  200. 

Commerce,  domestic  and  foreign,  66 ; 
on  the  ocean,  47-48;  see  subdivi- 
sion "commerce,"  also  "trade" 
under  names  of  countries. 

Compass,  the,  83. 

Comstock  Lode  (kom'stok  lod),  216. 

Concord  (N.  H.)  (kon'kerd),  123. 

Coney  Island  (N.Y.)  (ko'ni-),  47. 

Congo  River  (kon'gft-),  449,  450, 
452,  460,  364. 

Congo  State,  397.  462. 

Congress  of  the  United  States,  79. 

Connecticut  (kon-net'i-kiit),  106. 

Connecticut  River,  117. 


Connecticut  Valley,  38,  39,  52. 

Conservation  of  resources,  491. 

Constantine,  Emperor,  413. 

Constantinople  (kon-stSn'ti-no'p'l), 
412-413,  419. 

Continents,  the  five,  93-96. 

Copenhagen  (ko'pen-ha'gen),  392. 

Copper,  in  Alaska,  240-241  ;  in  Ari- 
zona and  other  Western  States, 
218  ;  in  Australia,  471  ;  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  378  ;  in  Bolivia,  325  ;.  in 
Chile,  326-327  ;  in  Germany,  354  ; 
in  Japan,  435 ;  in  Mexico,  266 ; 
in  Michigan,  188 ;  in  Montana, 
217-218  ;  in  Peru,  324  ;  in  Russia, 
385  ;  in  Scandinavia,  389  ;  in  South 
Africa,  459  ;  in  Spanish  peninsula, 
399  ;  in  Texas  and  Tennessee,  161 ; 
in  United  States,  108, 

Copper  River,  240. 

Copra  (ko'pra),  248,  475. 

Coral  carving  and  fishing,  in  Italy, 
370. 

Coral  Islands,  99-100;  on  Florida 
coast,  151 ;  the  Bermudas,  272  ;  in 
the  East  Indies,  473. 

Cordillera  (kor-dil'ler-a),  205,  263. 

Cordoba  (l<or'd6-va),  317. 

Corinth  (korlnth),  409. 

Cork,  399. 

Cork  oak,  in  Barbary  States,  456  ;  in 
southern  Spain,  399. 

Corn,  in  tropical  Andean  countries, 
322  ;  in  Australia,  470  ;  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  378  ;  in  Brazil,  319  ;  in 
Central  States,  177-178  ;  in  Egypt, 
453  ;  in  Italy,  369  ;  in  Mexico,  264  ; 
in  Ontario,  252 ;  in  Russia,  384 ;  in 
Russia  in  Asia,  425 ;  in  Southern 
States,  155  ;  in  Spanish  peninsula, 
399  ;  in  United  States,  178,  275, 
276-277  ;  in  Western  States,  206. 

Cossacks  (kos'saks),  384. 

Costa  Rica  (kos'ta  re'ka),  268,  270. 

Cotton,  2,  108 ;  in  Argentina,  316  ; 
in  Austria-Hungary,  878 ;  in  Aus- 
tralia, 470  ;  in  Brazil,  319,  320  ;  in 
China,  429  ;  in  the  East  Indies, 
474  ;  in  Egypt,  453 ;  geographic 
distribution  of,  482 ;  in  France, 
363 ;  in  Germany,  355  ;  in  Great 
Britain,  343  ;  in  the  Guianas,  320  ; 
in  India,  441  ;  in  Japan,  436  ;  in 
Korea,  437  ;  in  Malay  Peninsula, 
438 ;  in  Mexico,  266,  267  ;  in  New 
England,  130,  131 ;  in  Persia,  424  ; 
in  Peru,  324  ;  in  Russia,  384,  385  ; 
in  Russia  in  Asia,  425  ;  in  South- 
ern States,  152-1.53,  161-162  ;  in 
Spain,  399  ;  in  Switzerland,  405 ; 
in  Turkey  in  Asia,  421. 

Cottonseed  oil,  162. 

Council  Bluffs  (Iowa)  (koun'sil-), 
199. 

Country,  attractions,  of  the,  73-74 ; 
dependence  of  the  city  on,  for  food, 
71  ;  life  in  the,  67-69  ;  life  in,  con- 
trasted with  life  in  the  city,  139- 
140  ;  schools  in  the,  69  ;  transpor- 
tation in  the,  72. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


525 


Cowboys,  157,  182-184,  214. 

Crater  Lake  (kra'ter),  235. 

Creameries,  in  New  York  State,  117. 

Crete  (kret),  409. 

Cripple  Creek  (Colo.)  (krip'p'l  krek), 
217. 

Crockett,  David,  107. 

Cuba  (ku'ba),  241-244,  270  ;  agi-i- 
culture,  242,  243  ;  cities,  243  ;  cli- 
mate, 242  ;  government,  242  ;  prod- 
ucts, 242,  243  ;  size,  242. 

Currants,  produced  in  Greece,  408. 

Currents,  ocean,  115,  251,  299-303. 

Cutlery,  130,  342. 

Cuzco  (koos'ko),  315,  324. 

Cyclonic  storms  (st-kl6n'ik-) ,  293, 
29(),  21)7. 

Czar  (zar),  382. 


Dairying,  see  "dairying"  and  "in- 
dustries" under  names  of  coun- 
tJi'iGS   etc 

Dallas'(Tex.)  (dSl'las),  171. 

Damascus  (da-mas'kus),  423. 

Dams,  formation  of  ponds  and  lakes 
by,  41-42 ;  irrigation,  208,  213, 
214. 

Danube  River  (dan'ub),  358,  376, 
378,  379,  410,  411. 

Danville  (111.)  (dttn'vil),  155, 164, 166. 

Dardanelles  (dar'dii-nelz'),  410. 

Dark  Continent,  448. 

Darling  River  (dar'llng),  469. 

Date  Palms,  on  Desert  of  Sahara,  8. 

Dates,  in  Arabia,  424  ;  in  the  Bar- 
bary  States,  456  ;  in  Egypt,  453  ;  in 
Spain,  399  ;  in  Tunis,  456. 

Davenport  (Iowa)  (dav'en-port), 
198. 

Dawson  (da'sun),  241,  253. 

Dayton  (Ohio)  (da'tun),  190,  200. 

Dead  Sea,  42-43,  421-422. 

Delagoa  Bay  (del'a-go'a-)  460. 

Delaware  (del'a-war),  106,  147. 

Delaware  Bay,  164. 

Delaware  River,  135. 

Delaware  Water  Gap,  176. 

Deltas  of  rivers,  33-37. 

Democracy,  form  of  government 
called  a,  80. 

Denmark  (den'mark),  391-392;  ag- 
riculture, 391  ;  cities,  392  ;  climate, 
391  ;  coast  line,  392  ;  colonies,  392  ; 
commerce,  391  ;  fishing,  391  ;  in- 
dustries, 391 ;  manufacturing,  392  ; 
stock-raising,  391  ;   surface,  391. 

Denver  (Colo.)  (den'vgr),  211,  212, 
223,  229-230. 

Denver  and  Rio  Grande  Railway, 
231. 

Dependencies  of  the  United  States, 
238-249. 

Desert,  Persian,  415,  417  ;  Atacama, 
314,  327  ;  in  southeastern  Russia, 
383  ;  in  Africa,  446  ;  in  India,  439  ; 
in  Australia,  469. 

Deserts,  rain  belts  in  desert  regions, 
294,  296  ;    fife   and  conditions  on 


Sahara    and   other   African,    7-9, 

446,   449;   South   American,   311; 

in  western  United  States,  205-206, 

213. 
Des  Moines  (Iowa)  (de  moin'),  109. 
Despotisms  (des'po-tiz'mz),  80,  382. 
Detroit  (Mich.)  (de-troit'),  187,  195, 

196. 
Dew,  58. 

Diameter  of  earth,  88. 
Diamond  cutting,  Amsterdam,  395. 
Diamonds,  in  Brazil,  320  ;   in  South 

Africa,  459 ;   in  Southern   States, 

161. 
Dikes,  Holland,  393. 
Distilleries,  whisky,  178,  189. 
District  of  Columbia,  166. 
Divides,  21-22. 
Domestic  commerce,  66. 
Douglas  (Ariz.)  (dug'las),  218. 
Douro  (do'r66),402. 
Dover  (N.  H.)  (do'ver),  131. 
Dover  Strait,  366. 
Drainage,  of  swamps,  17  ;    value  of 

rivers  for,  37. 
Drainage  canal,  Chicago,  195. 
Dredging  of  harbor  entrances,  150- 

151,  299. 
Dresden  (drez'den),  355,  357. 
Dresden  china,  357. 
Dry  farming,  182,  469. 
Dublin  (dub'lTn),  348. 
Dubuque  (du-buk'),  198. 
Duluth  (Minn.)  (du-looth'),  179,  185, 

187,  192,  196. 
Dundee  (dun-de'),  347. 
Durango  (doo-ran'go),  266. 
Durban  (dur'ban  or  dur'ban),  460. 
Durham  (N.  C.)  (dur'am),  155,  164. 
Dutch  Guiana  (-g^-a'na),  320. 
Duties,  customs,  290, 
Dye  woods,  in  Brazil,  319  ;  in  Central 

America,  268  ;   in  India,  440  ;    in 

Paraguay,  317;  in  Venezuela,  321. 


E 


Earth,  axis  and  poles  of,  89-90 ; 
daily  motion,  88-89  ;  form  of  the, 
86-88  ;  revolution  of  and  its  effects, 
497-499. 

Earthenware  manufacture,  Italy, 
370. 

Earthquakes,  among  the  Andes,  322  ; 
in  Caracas  (1812),  321  ;  in  Central 
America,  268  ;  in  Greece,  409  ;  in 
Iceland,  392  ;  in  Japan,  436. 

Easter  lilies  from  Bermudas,  272. 

East  Indies  (-in'diz),  96,  473-475. 

Eastport  CMe.),  122. 

Ebony,  in  Cuba,  243  ;  in  Philippine 
Islands,  247  ;  in  the  Sudan,  461. 

Ecuador  (ek'ua-dor'  or  ek'-),  321, 
322-323,  328. 

Edinburgh  (ed'n-biir-o),  342,  347. 

Education,  importance  of,  to  national 
progress,  490-491. 

Egypt  (e'jipt),  452-455  ;  cities,  454, 
455  ;  climate,  453,  455  ;  govern- 
ment, 4.54  ;  irrigation,  454  ;  people. 


452  ;  products,  453  ;  railroads,  454 ; 
stock-raising,  453. 

Egyptian  Sudan  (e-jip'shan  soo'dan'), 
454,  455,  461. 

Eider  down,  in  Greenland,  261  ;  in 
Iceland,  392. 

Elba  (61'ba),  370. 

Elbe  (elb),  356,  379. 

Elberfeld  (el'ber-felf),  358. 

Elbruz  (61'brooz'),  382. 

Elections,  75-77. 

Electricity,  produced  by  water  power, 
141,  405 ;  value  of,  in  develop- 
ment of  North  America,  290-291. 

Elephant,  in  Africa,  450,  451  ;  in  In- 
dia, 441. 

Elevated  railroads,  72-73,  1.39,  195. 

Elizabeth  (N.  J.)  (*-liz'a-b6th),  137. 

Elmira  (N.  Y.)  (61-nn'ra),  129. 

El  Paso  (Tex.)  (el  pa's6),  171. 

England  (in'gland),  see  British 
Isles. 

Equator,  90,  492  ;  length  of,  90 ;  heat 
at,  91  ;  .sunlight  at,  91. 

Equatorial  Drift,  300. 

Erie  (Pa.),  (e'ri),  129,  142. 

Erie  Canal,  136,  140,  257. 

Erie,  Lake,  180. 

Eritrea  (ft're-tra'a),  462. 

Eskimos  (es'ki-moz),  5-7,  45,  59,  250, 
261,  425. 

Essen  (es'sen),  358. 

Ethiopian  race  (e'thi-o'pi-an-),  306- 
307. 

Euphrates  (fi-fra't6z),  421,  423. 

Eurasia  (u-r^'shi-a),  93,  94,  95,  330. 

Europe,  330-337  ;  area,  330,  335 ; 
climate,  333,  334  ;  coast  line,  333 ; 
drainage,  332  ;  great  powers,  337  ; 
minerals,  333 ;  population,  334, 
335  ;  products,  334  ;  rainfall,  334, 
335  ;  shape,  330  ;  surface,  330,  .332, 
333. 

Evansville  (Ind.)   (ev'ans-vil),  200. 

Everest,  Mt.  (-ev'er-est),  418. 

Everett  (Mass.)  (ev'er-et),  222,  229. 


Fairs  at  Nizhni  Novgorod,  386. 

Falkland  Islands  (fak'iand-),  328. 

Fallieres,  Armand,  360,  361. 

Fall  line,  149-150. 

Fall  River  (Mass.)  131,  139. 

Fargo  (N.  D.)  (fiir'go),  179. 

Farina,  319. 

Farming,  10,  65  ;  on  hilly  land,  18  ; 
importance  of,  as  an  industry,  15- 
16 ;  land  needed  in,  67-69  ;  land 
suitable  for,  16-17  ;  on  plains,  16  ; 
use  of  valleys  for,  20 ;  value  of 
flood  plains  for,  36 ;  see  also  subdi- 
vision "agriculture"  under  names 
of  countries,  etc.  . 

Farming  implements,  194.  198,  200. 

Faroe  Islands  (fa'ro-),  392. 

Ferns  of  Australia,  466. 

Fertilizers,  value  of,  15  ;  varieties  of, 
1(50-161,  327. 

Fez  (fez),  487. 


626 


INDEX  AND  PBONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


Fiber  products,  in  Mexico,  264,  267. 

Figs,  in  the  Barbary  States,  456  ;  in 
California,  206,  209,  211  ;  on  Des- 
ert of  Sahara,  8 ;  in  Egypt,  453  ; 
in  Spain,  399  ;  in  Turkey,  412 ;  in 
Turkey  in  Asia,  421. 

Fiji  (fe'je),  467. 

Findlay  (Ohio)  (find'I*),  186. 

Finland   (fin'land),   381,  387. 

Finland,  Gulf  of,  386. 

Finns,  307,  381,  387. 

Fiords  (fy6rdz),  389. 

Firearms,  129,  130,  398. 

Fishing,  5,  65  ;  in  the'  ocean,  45-46  ; 
on  ponds  and  lakes,  43  ;  see  also 
subdivision  under  names  of  coun- 
tries, etc. 

Fitchburg  (Mass.)  (fich'btirg),  130. 

Fiume  (fe-oo'ma),  381. 

Flanders  (flan'dSrz),  395. 

Flats,  70,  139. 

Flax,  raising  of,  2  ;  in  Austria-Hun- 
gary, 378  ;  in  JBelgium,  396  ;  in 
Central  States,  181  ;  in  Ireland, 
344  ;  in  the  Netherlands,  394  ;  in 
Ontario,  252  ;  in  Russia,  384 ;  in 
the  United  States,  344. 

Flemish  language  (flem'ish),  395. 

Floe  ice,  302. 

Flood  plains,  35-36,  40 ;  along  the 
Mississippi  Rfver,  150  ;  density  of 
population  on,  in  China,  429 ;  in 
Indo-China  and  the  Malay  Penin- 
sula, 438  :  of  the  Nile,  453. 

Florence  (flor'ens),  373. 

Florida  (flor'i-da),  107,  151,  156,  161. 

Flour  mills,  in  Austria-Hungary,  378; 
in  Brazil,  320  ;  in  California,  225  ; 
in  Central  States,  189  ;  at  Minne- 
apolis, 198 ;  at  Odessa,  386 ;  at 
Rochester,  N.  Y.,  133;  in  Russia, 
385  ;  at  Spokane,  230. 

Fog,  formation  of,  57-58  ;  in  Gulf  of 
St.  Lawrence  and  along  Newfound- 
land coast,  257,  302. 

Food,  the  ocean  as  a  source  of,  45- 
46  ;  production  of,  1  ;  supply  of, 
to  cities,  71. 

Fords,  63. 

Forecasting  weather,  297-298. 

Foreign  commerce,  66. 

Forest  products  in  Brazil,  319  ;  in 
Canada,  255 ;  in  Central  States, 
190 ;  in  India,  440-441  ;  in  the 
Guianas,  320 ;  in  Mexico,  264  ;  in 
Northeastern  States,  157-168 ;  in 
Southern  States,  163-164 ;  in  Para- 
guay, 317  ;  in  Germany,  365. 

Forest  reservations,  120. 

Forestry,  in  France,  363;  in  Germany, 
354. 

Forests,  in  Africa,  450  ;  in  Argentina, 
316  ;  in  Brazil,  318-319  ;  in  Califor- 
nia and  otl]er  Western  States,  220 ; 
in  Canada,  253,  255  ;  in  Cuba,  243 ; 
in  the  East  Indies,  474  ;  in  Ger- 
many, 354  ;  in  Northeastern  States, 
118 ;  in  Philippine  Islands,  247- 
248  ;  in  Russia,  384  ;  in  Southern 
States,  157-158. 


Formosa  (f6r-mo'sa),  433. 

Fort  Worth  (Tex.),  171, 

Forum,  Roman,  373. 

Fossils,  125. 

France  (frans) ,  360-368  ;  agriculture, 
362,  363  ;  boundaries,  360  ;  cities, 
365,  366,  367;  climate,  361,  362; 
coast  line,  366,  367  ;  colonies,  364, 
367,  455  ;  drainage,  365  ;  exports, 
364 ;  fishing,  363  ;  government,  360 ; 
imports,  364  ;  lumbering,  362-363  ; 
manufacturing,  363,  364,  366  ;  min- 
erals, 363  ;  stock-raising,  362  ;  sur- 
face, 361 ;  trade,  364,  365,  366  ; 
transportation,  361,  365. 

Francis  Joseph  I,  Emperor,  376. 

Frankfurt  (frank'foort),  358. 

Fredericton,  255. 

Freezing-point,  58. 

French,  in  America,  101-102. 

French  Guiana  (-ge-a'na),  320. 

French  Indo-China,  438. 

Fresno  (Cal.)  (frez'no),  211. 

Frost,  58. 

Fruits,  in  tropical  Andean  countries, 
322  ;  in  Arabia,  424  ;  in  Argentina, 
316  ;  in  Australia,  470 ;  in  the  Ba- 
hamas, 272  ;  in  Brazil,  319  ;  care 
and  disposal  of,  209  ;  in  Central 
Africa,  4  ;  in  Central  States,  179- 
180  ;  in  Ceylon,  444  ;  in  Chile,  327  ; 
in  China,  430  ;  in  Cuba  and  Porto 
Rico,  242  ;  on  Desert  of  Sahara, 
8  ;  in  the  Great  Valley,  211  ;  in 
Greece,  408  ;  in  Hawaiian  Islands, 
246;  in  Italy,'  369,  371,  372;  in 
Japan,  435  ;  in  Mexico,  264,  266  ; 
in  New  York  State,  118  ;  in  North- 
eastern States,  117  ;  in  Ontario, 
252  ;  in  Southern  States,  155-156  ; 
on  Pacific  coast  of  United  States, 
206  ;  in  Russia  in  Asia,  425  ;  in 
South  Africa,  458  ;  in  Southern 
California,  208-209  ;  in  Turkey 
and  Balkan  countries,  411,  412  ;  in 
Utah,  212  ;  in  West  Indies,  270. 

Fuel,  3,  see  Coal,  Peat,  etc. 

Fujiyama  (foo'j^-ya'ma),  Fig.  571. 

Fur  seals,  239. 

Furniture,  manufacture  of,  in  Chi- 
cago, Oshkosh,  Grand  Rapids,  and 
other  cities  of  Central  States,  190  ; 
in  Germany,  355. 

Furs,  255. 

Fustic,  in  Cuba,  243. 


Galdpagos    Islands    (ga-la'pa-g6s-) , 

328. 
Galilee,  Sea  of  (gSl'l-le-),  42-43,  422, 

423. 
Galveston     (Texas)      (gai'v6s-tun), 

171,  285. 
Ganges  (gan'jez),  439,  440,  443. 
Garonne  (ga'ron'),  367. 
Geneva  (je-ne'va),  407. 
Geneva,  Lake,  407. 
Genoa  (jgn'o-a),  271,  374. 
Georgia  (j6r'ji-a),  106,  156,  160,  161. 


Georgia  pine,  158. 

German  (jer'man)  Africa,  460. 

German  Empire,  360-360 ;  agricul- 
ture, 352-354  ;  area,  351  ;  bound- 
ary, 351  ;  cities,  356-358 ;  climate, 
352,  353  ;  colonies,  356 ;  dairying, 
354 ;  defense,  351,  352  ;  exports, 
356 ;  fishing,  364 ;  forestry,  354, 
355  ;  government,  350,  361  ;  im- 
ports,   356 ;    manufacturing,    356, 

358  ;   minerals,  354,  355 ;  popula- 
tion, 351,  356-358  ;   scenery,  358, 

359  ;  stock-raising,  354  ;  trade,  355, 
356,  358,  369  ;  transportation,  366. 

Geysers  (gi'sSrz  or  gi'zerz),  in  Yel- 
lowstone Park,  231-232 ;  in  Ice- 
land, 392  ;  in  New  Zealand,  472. 

Ghent  (gent),  398. 

Gibraltar  (ji-bral't5r),  375. 

Gibraltar  Strait,  448. 

Gila  River  (he'la-),  213. 

Glacier  (gla'sher  or  glasl-er),  Alas- 
kan, 241  ;  in  Greenland,  302  ;  in 
Iceland,  392  ;  in  Scandinavia,  389  ; 
in  Switzerland,  403-404. 

Glasgow  (gias'kS  or  -go),  342,  345, 
346,  .347. 

Glass  making,  in  Belgium,  396  ;  in 
Italy,  370  ;  in  United  States,  130. 

Globe,  the,  87. 

Gloucester  (Mass.)  (glos'tSr),  120, 
122. 

Goats,  in  Arabia,  424  ;  in  the  Bar- 
bary States,  466 ;  in  Denmark, 
391  ;  on  the  Desert  of  Sahara,  8  ; 
in  Italy,  370  ;  in  France,  362  ;  in 
Germany,  354  ;  in  Mexico,  266  ; 
in  South  Africa,  458 ;  in  Spanish 
peninsula,  399;  in  Switzerland, 
404. 

Gobi  (go'be),  418,  428. 

Gold,  in  Abyssinia,  462 ;  in  Alaska, 
240  ;  in  the  Andes,  322  ;  in  Argen- 
tina, 316;  in  Austria-Hungary,  378; 
in  Australia,  471 ;  in  Black  Hills, 
189;  in  Brazil,  320;  in  British 
Columbia  and  Yukon  Territory, 
252-263  ;  in  Chile,  326 ;  in  Colo- 
rado, 217  ;  in  the  East  Indies,  474  ; 
in  Ecuador,  323  ;  in  the  Guianas, 
320;  in  Japan,  435;  in  Mexico, 
266  ;  in  Montana,  217  ;  in  Nevada, 
217  ;  in  New  Zealand,  472  ;  in  On- 
tario, 263  ;  in  Peru,  323-324  ;  in 
Russia,  384  ;  in  Russia  in  Asia, 
426  ;  in  Siam,  438  ;  in  South  Africa, 
458-469;  in  South  America,  311; 
in  Southern  States,  161 ;  in  United 
States,  108,  282 ;  in  Western 
States,  216,  218 ;  in  Venezuela, 
321 

Goldfield  (Nev.),  217. 

Gondolas  (gon'do-laz),  374,  375. 

Gothenburg  (got'en-bGrg) ,  390. 

Government,  local,  state,  and  na- 
tional, 76-80 ;  effect  of  develop- 
ment of  steam  and  electricity  on 
the,  291  ;  forms  of,  80 ;  see  also 
subdivision  under  names  of  coun- 
tries, etc. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


527 


Governor,  office  of,  78. 

Graeco-Russian  Church,  386,  387. 

Grains,  in  Australia,  470  ;  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  378 ;  in  the  Barbary 
States,  456;  in  British  Isles,  340, 
344 ;  in  Canada,  251,  252  ;  in 
China,  429 ;  in  the  East  Indies, 
474 ;  in  France,  362  ;  in  Egypt, 
453  ;  in  Germany,  353  ;  in  Italy, 
369  ;  in  India,  441  ;  in  Japan,  435  ; 
in  Korea,  437  ;  in  Mexico,  264  ;  in 
the  Netherlands,  393 ;  in  Persia, 
424  ;  in  Russia,  384  ;  in  Scandina- 
vian peninsula,  388  ;  in  Spain,  399  ; 
in  South  Africa,  458 ;  in  South 
America,  316,  319,  322,  327  ;  in 
Turkey  and  Balkan  countries,  411, 
412  ;  in  Turkey  in  Asia,  421  ;  in 
United  States,  108,  155,  178-179, 
206,  275-277. 

Granada  (gra-na'da),  400-401. 

Grand  Canal,  China,  431. 

Grand  CaBon  (kan'yiiia)  of  the  Colo- 
rado, 231,  233-234. 

Grand  Rapids  (Mich.),  190. 

Grand  Trunk  Railway,  258. 

Granite,  123,  160,  344. 

Grapefruit,  in  California,  206,  209, 
211 ;  in  Florida,  156. 

Grapes,  in  Argentina,  316 ;  in  the 
Barbary  States,  456 ;  in  Central 
States,  180 ;  importance  of  the 
fruit  in  France,  362  ;  in  Germany, 
353  ;  in  Greece,  408  ;  in  Italy,  369  ; 
Malaga,  401 ;  in  Mexico,  264  ;  in 
Ontario,  252  ;  on  Pacific  coa.st,  206, 
209,  211  ;  in  Russia,  384 ;  in  Servia, 
411 ;  in  South  Africa,  458 ;  in 
Spain  and  Portugal,  399  ;  in  Tur- 
key, 412  ;  in  Turkey  in  Asia,  421.. 

Graphite,  in  Russia,  385,  426. 

Grass,  in  Australia,  466  ;  in  British 
Isles,  340. 

Gravitation,  89. 

Great  Basin,  204-206. 

Great  Britain  (-brit'n),  338,  341, 
342  ;  see  also  British  Isles. 

Great  Falls  (Mont.),  2.30. 

Great  Lakes,  43,  109,  185,  191,  192- 
196,  197,  256,  285. 

Great  Plains,  107,  181-183,  214. 

Great  Powers  of  Europe,  337-387. 

Great  Salt  Lake,  42,  212. 

Great  Valley  of  California,  209,  211, 
225. 

Great  Wall  of  China,  427. 

Greater  Antilles  (-an-til'lez) ,  270. 

Greece  (gres),  407-409  ;  agriculture, 
408  ;  cities,  408,  409  ;  climate,  407  ; 
coast  line,  407  ;  commerce,  408  ; 
history,  408  ;  industries,  408  ;  irri- 
gation, 408  ;  islands,  409  ;  position, 
407  ;  Resources,  408 ;  surface,  407. 

Greeks,  407-409. 

Greeley  (Neb.)  (gre'li),  212. 

Greenland  (gren'land),  261,  392. 

Green  Mountains,  114. 

Greenville  (S.  C.)  (gren'vil),  162. 

Guadalquivir  (ga'dal-kwiv'er),  400. 

Guadeloupe  (ga-da-loop') ,  271. 


Guam  (gwam),  246. 

Guatemala  (ga't^-ma'la),  268,  270. 

Guayaquil  (gwi'a-kel'),  323. 

Guernsey  (gern'zi),  340. 

Guiana  (ge-a'na),  320. 

Gulf  Stream,  115,  301,  302. 

Gums,  of  East  Indian  forests,  474 ; 

produced  in  the  Sudan,  461. 
Gum  trees,  Australia,  466. 
Guthrie  (Okla.)  (guth'ri),  169,  171. 


H 


Hague  (hag),  395. 

Hail,  formation  of,  58. 

Haiti  (ha'ti),  270. 

Halifax  (hai'i-fSks),  256. 

Halle  (hiil'le),  357. 

Hamburg  (ham'burg),  351,  356,  357- 
358. 

Hamilton  (Bermuda)  (ham'il-tun), 
272. 

Hamilton  (Canada),  261. 

Hankau  (han'kou'),  433. 

Harbors,  50-51,  54  ;  see  also  subdivi- 
sion "  coa.st  line"  under  names  of 
countries,  etc. 

Hard  pine,  158. 

Harrisburg  (Pa.)  (hSi-'ris-'burg) ,  129. 

Hartford  (Conn.)  (hart'ferd),  130. 

Harvard  University,  143. 

Havana  (ha-van'a),  243. 

Haverhill  (Mass.)  (ha'ver-il),  132. 

Havre  (ha'ver),  3(56. 

Hawaii  (ha-wi'e) ,  244-246. 

Hawaiian  Islands,  244-246 ;  area, 
245  ;  cities,  246  ;  climate,  245  ; 
position,  244,  245  ;  products,  246, 
246. 

Hay,  in  British  Isles,  340  ;  in  Central 
States,  181 ;  in  Germany,  353  ;  in 
Russia,  384  ;  the  six  states  leading 
in  production  of,  278  ;  in  Southern 
States,  155  ;  in  Western  States,  206. 

Heating,  methods  of,  in  the  city,  71  ; 
in  the  country,  69.  • 

Hebron  (he'brun),  421. 

Hekla,  Mt.  (hek'la),  392. 

Helena  (Mont.)  (hel'^-na),  216,  217. 

Helsingfors  (hel'sing-fors'),  387. 

Hemispheres,  92. 

Hemp,  in  Austria-Hungary,  378  ;  in 
Belgium,  396;  in  Italy,  369;  in 
Philippine  Islands,  248  ;  in  Russia 
in  Asia,  425  ;  in  Yucatan,  264. 

Heniquen  (he-ne'ken),  in  Yucatan, 
264. 

Herculaneum  (her'kft-la'ne-um),  371. 

Herding,  8,  157,  184,  408,  421,  425  ; 
see  also  "stock-raising"  under 
names  of  countries,  etc. 

Hermit  Kingdom,  the,  437. 

Hides,  2,  see  Cattle. 

High  Point  (N.C.),  164. 

Highways,  importance  of  good,  62- 
64  ;  improvement  of  rural,  73  ;  lo- 
cation of,  in  valleys,  20. 

Hills,  18  ;  formation  of,  22-23  ;  uses 
of,  18-19. 

Hilo  (he'15),  246. 


Himalayas  (hi-ma'li-yaz),  418,  439, 
441. 

Hindus  (hin'dooz),  440. 

Hoang-ho  (hwang'ho'),  428,  431. 

Hoboken  (N.J.)  (ho'bo-ken),  129, 
137. 

Hogs,  in  Australia,  470  ;  in  Denmark, 
391 ;  in  France,  362  ;  in  Germany, 
354  ;  in  Mexico,  266  ;  in  Iowa,  181  ; 
in  the  Netherlands,  394 ;  leading 
states  of  United  States  in  produc- 
tion of,  279  ;  see  also  subdivision 
"stock-raising"  under  various 
countries,  etc. 

Holland,  see  Netherlands. 

Holy  Land,  421-423. 

Holyoke  (Mass.)  (hol'yok),  133. 

Honduras  (hon-doo'ras),  268. 

Hongkong  (hong'kong'),  433. 

Honolulu  (ho'no-loo'loo),  246. 

Hood,  Mt.,  229. 

Hops,  in  Central  States,  181  ;  in 
Germany,  353. 

Horse  Latitudes,  293. 

Horses,  in  Arabia,  424  ;  in  Australia, 
470  ;  in  British  Isles,  340  ;  in  Den- 
mark, 391  ;  Flemish,  396 ;  in 
France,  362  ;  in  Germany,  354 ; 
in  Illinois,  181 ;  in  Italy,  369  ;  in 
the  Netherlands,  394  ;  in  Ontario, 
252  ;  in  Southern  States,  156 ;  in 
Spanish  peninsula,  399^  in  Russia 
in  Asia,  425  ;  see  also  subdivision 
"stock-raising"  under  various 
countries,  etc. 

Horse-producing  states,  279. 

Houghton  (xMich.)  (ho'tun),  188,  189. 

Houses  of  Parliament,  349. 

Houston  (Tex.)  (hus'iiin),  171. 

Howland  Island,  246. 

Hudson  Bay  (hiid's'n-),  256. 

Hudson  Bay  Company,  255. 

Hudson  River,  135-136,  358-360. 

Hudson  Valley,  21. 

Hull  (Ma.ss.),  347. 

Hungarian  plain  (hiin-ga'ri-rtn-),  376. 

Hungary  (hiin'ga-ri)',  376,  377,  378, 
411;  see  Austria-Hungary. 

Huntsville  (Tex.),  162. 

Huron  (Mich.)  (hu'riin),  180. 

Hurricane  (hur'ri-kan),  298. 


Icebergs,  98. 

Iceland  (is'land).  392. 

Idaho  (i'da-ho),  213,  218,  231. 

Igloos  (ig'loos),  Eskimo,  6-7. 

Illinois  (il'li-noi' or  il'li-noiz'),  181, 

185. 
Illinois  River,  195. 
Immigrants  to  United  States,  109- 

110,  291. 
Incas,  315,  323,  324. 
Independence,  War  of,  102,  106. 
India    (In'di-a),   96,   348,    364,  418, 

419,  438-444. 
Indiana  (in'di-an'a),  178,  186,  186, 

191. 
Indian       Empire       (in'di-an-       or 

ind'yan-),    438-444;     agriculture, 


528 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


440,  441  ;  cities,  443,  444  ;  climate, 
439  ;  divisions,  439  ;  civilization, 
441 ;  government,  439,  440  ;  irri- 
gation, 439  ;  minerals,  441  ;  people, 
439 ;  population,  438,  443  ;  rail- 
roads, 442  ;  rainfall,  439,  441  ;  re- 
ligions, 440  ;  size,  438  ;  surface, 
439. 

Indian  Ocean,  97. 

Indianapolis  (in'di-an-ap'6-lis),  200. 

Indians,  American,  considered  as 
one  of  the  four  races,  306 ;  clothing 
of,  2  ;  tents  or  wigwams  of,  3  ; 
South  American,  315 ;  of  the 
Western  States,  235. 

Indian  Territory,  171. 

Indigo,  in  Central  America,  268 ; 
in  India,  441  ;  in  the  East  Indies, 
474 ;  in  Mexico,  264. 

Indo-China,  437-438  ;  climate,  438  ; 
divisions,  438  ;  people,  438  ;  prod- 
ucts, 438;  surface,  437. 

Indus  (in'diis),  439,  443. 

Inlet  of  a  lake,  42. 

Ionian  Sea  (i-o'ni-an-),  410. 

Iowa  (I'6-wa),  181,  184,  185. 

Iquique  (e-ke'kS),  327. 

Irawadi  (ir'a-wa'di),  444. 

Ireland  (ir'land),  340,  342,  344-345, 
347-348,  349  ;  see  also  British  Isles. 

Irish  Sea,  342. 

Irkutsk  (irjkootsk'),  426. 

Iron,  in  Argentina,  316 ;  in  Australia, 
471  ;  in  Austria-Hungary,  378  ;  in 
Belgium,  396 ;  in  Brazil,  320 ;  in 
the  British  Isles,  341  ;  in  Germany, 
354  ;  in  India,  441 ;  in  Japan,  435 ; 
in  Lake  Superior  district,  186-187  ; 
in  Mexico,  266  ;  in  Pennsylvania, 
New  York,  and  New  Jersey,  127  ; 
in  Russia,  385 ;  in  South  Africa, 
469  ;  in  Southern  States,  160 ;  in 
Spanish  peninsula,  400 ;  in  Sweden, 
389  ;  in  Western  States,  219. 

Iron  ore,  in  United  States,  108  ;  map 
showing  distribution  of  deposits  in 
United  States,  281 ;  the  six  leading 
states  in  production  of,  282. 

Iron  products,  129-130,  163,  253,  284, 
342. 

Iron  wood,  438. 

Irrigation,  use  of  Artesian  wells  for, 
182;  use  of  ponds  and  lakes  for, 
43  ;  use  of,  in  rice  production,  155  ; 
value  of  rivers  for,  37  ;  see  also 
subdivision  under  names  of  coun- 
tries, etc. 

Irrigation  canals,  211,  438,  454. 

Irtish  River  (ir'tish),  415. 

Ishpeming  (Mich.)  (ish'pe-ming) , 
187. 

Islands,  54,  99;  coral,  99-100,  272, 
473,  475. 

Isthmuses,  94. 

Isotherms  (i's6-therms),  304. 

Italian  Somaliland  (so-ma'l^-lSnd), 
462. 

Italy  (it'a-li;,  335,  337,  368-376  ;  ag- 
riculture, 369,  370;  area,  368; 
cities,  371,  372,  373,  374  ;  climate, 


368  ;  coast  line,  371,  374  ;  colonies, 
371  ;  fishing,  370 ;  government, 
368  ;  irrigation,  369  ;  manufactur- 
ing, 370  ;  minerals,  370  ;  popula- 
tion, 368,  371;  shape,  368;  stock- 
raising,  369  ;  surface,  368  ;  rain- 
fall, 369  ;  trade,  370,  371. 
Ivory,  walrus,  261  ;  elephant,  456, 
461,  462. 


Jackson  (Mich.)  (jSk'siin),  169. 
Jacksonville     (Fla.)     (jak'sun-vil), 

158,  161. 
Jamaica  (ja-ma'ka),  270. 
Jamaica  ginger,  270. 
James  River  (jamz-),  167. 
Jamestown  (Va.)   (jamz'toun),  132. 
Japan  (ja-pSn'),   97,  418,  419,  433- 

.437. 
Japanese     Current     (jap'a-nez'-    or 

nes'-),  302. 
Japanese    Empire,    433-437;    cities, 

436,  437  ;  civilization  and  growth, 

434  ;  climate,  435  ;  coast  line,  436  ; 
crops,  435  ;  fishing,  435 ;  govern- 
ment, 434.  435 ;  islands,  433  ; 
people,  434  ;  population,  433,  437  ; 
manufacturing,     436 ;      minerals, 

435  ;  railroads,  434  ;  size,  433  ; 
vegetation,  435. 

Java  (ja'va),  474. 

Jefferson  City   (Mo.)   (j6f 'fSr-siin-) , 

199. 
Jersey  City  (N.J.)  (jSr'zi-),  129, 137. 
Jersey  Islands,  340. 
Jerusalem  (je-ru'sa-lgm),  423. 
Jews,  422-. 
Johannesburg  (y6-h3,n'n6s-barg) ,  469, 

460. 
Joplin  (Mo.)  (jopTin),  189. 
Jordan  (jor'drtn),  43,  422. 
Juan    Fernandez    (hoo-an'   fer-nan'- 

deth),  328. 
Juneau  (Alaska)  (ju'no'),  240,  241. 
Jungles,    of   the   Amazon,   314 ;    of 

Africa,  450  ;  of  India,  441. 
Jura  Mountains  (ju'ra-),  403. 
Jute,  441. 
Jutland  (jiit'land),  391. 


Kabul  (ka'bul),425. 
Kaiser  (ki'zSr),  the,  350-351. 
Kaiser  Wilhelm  Canal,  358. 
Kayaks,  Eskimo  (ka'aks),  5,  6,  261. 
Kansas  (kan'zas),  178,  182,  184,  185, 

186,  189,  199. 
Kansas  City  (Mo.),  199,  200. 
Katahdin  (ka-ta'din),  118. 
Kennebec  (kgn'ne-b6k').  Fig.  144. 
Kentucky  (k6n-tuk1),  147,  155,  156, 

157,  169. 
Kerosene  oil,  124. 
Keys,  on  Florida  coast,  151. 
Key  West  (Fla.)_(ke-),  164. 
Khartum  (kar'tooni'),  456. 
Khedive  (kA'dev'),  454. 
Khiva  (ke'va),  425. 


Kimberley  (kim'ber-li),  459,  460. 
Kingston  (Canada)  (kingz'tiin),  261. 
Kingston  (Jamaica),  271. 
Klondike  (klon'dik),  240,  241,  253. 
Knoxville  (111.)  (noks'vil),  160,  163, 

169. 
Konigsburg  (ke'nigs-b6rg),  352. 
Korea  (ko-re'a),  434,  437. 
Krefeld  (kra'felt),  358. 
Kurile  (koo'ril),  433. 
Kyoto  (ky6't6),  437. 


Labrador  (iab'ra-d6r'),  250,  251,  301, 

303. 
Labrador  Current,  115, 251,  266,  257, 

299,  301,  302,  303. 
Lace  making,    in   Belgium,  397 ;   in 

Italy,  370 ;  in  Switzerland,  406. 
Lachine  Rapids  (la-shen'-),  258. 
Lacquer  (lak'Sr)  435. 
La  Crosse  (Wis.)  (Ia-kr6s'),  198. 
Ladrone  (la-dron'),  246. 
Lake  of  the  Woods,  263. 
Lakes,  in  Africa,  452  ;  formation  of, 

41-42 ;    names   for  parts   of,   42  ; 

navigation  on,  64  ;  reasons  for  salt 

in,  42;  uses  of,  43;   in  Italy,  369; 

in   Northeastern    States,    114 ;    in 

Switzerland,   407  ;   importance  as 

waterways  in  United  States,  109. 
Land,  proportion  of  water  to,  45. 
La  Paz  (lapaz'  or  pas'),  325,  326. 
Lapland  (lap'land),  381. 
La  Plata  (lapla'ta),  317. 
Lapps  (Iftps),  307,  381. 
Laramie  (Wyo.)  (lar'a-me),  212. 
Latitude,  92-93,  492-495. 
Lava,  99,  245,  263,  264. 
Lawrence  (Mass.)  (lar'ens),  131. 
Laws,  making  of,  for  cities,  78  ;*  for 

the  nation,  79-80. 
Lead,   in  Austria-Hungary,  378;   in 

Belgium,  396 ;    in  Germany,  354 ; 

in  Mexico,  266;   in  Missouri,  189; 

in  Montana,  217  ;  in  Spain,  399 ;  in 

other    Western     States,    218;    in 

United  States,  108. 
Leadville  (Col.)  (led'vil),  217,  223. 
Leather,  2,  132. 

Leather  working,  Turkey,  412. 
Leeds  (ledz),  342,  345. 
Legislature,  state,  77. 
Leicester  (16s'tgr),  343. 
Leipzig  (llp'sik),  357. 
Leith  (leth),  347. 
Lemons,  in  California,  206,  208,  211 ; 

in  Florida,    156 ;   in  France,  362 ; 

in   Italy,   369;    in  Spain,  399;  in 

Egypt,  453. 
Leopoldville  (le'6-p5ld-vil),  460. 
Lesser    Antilles     (les'gr   an-til'lez), 

270,  271. 
Lesser  Powers  of  Europe,  337,  387- 

41.3. 
Levee  (lev'^  or  lev-e'),  168. 
Lewiston  (Idaho)  (luls-tfm),  206. 
Lewiston(Me.),  131. 
Lexington  (Ky.)  (lekslng-tun),  166. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


529 


Liberia  (IT-be'ri-a),  462. 

Liechtenstein  (leK'ten-stin),  281. 

Liege  (le-ftzh'),  398. 

Life-saving  stations,  52. 

Light,  in  the  city,  70-71 ;  in  the 
country,  69. 

Lighthouses,  51-52. 

Lightships,  51-52. 

Lignite,  125,  160. 

Lille  (lei),  263. 

Lima  (le'ma),  324. 

Limestone  caves  (Kentucky),  157. 

Limestones,  160,  189,  341. 

Limoges  (l^'m6zh'),  366. 

Lincoln  (Neb.)  (lin'kiin),  199. 

Linseed  oil,  181,  344. 

Liquors,  manufacture  of,  in  Ger- 
many, 356. 

Lisbon  (liz'biin),  402. 

Little  Rock  (Ark.),  163,  169. 

Liverpool  (llv'gr-pool),  343,  347. 

Live  stock,  see  animals,  also  sub- 
division "stock-raising"  under 
names  of  countries,  etc. 

Llama  (la'ma),  313,  314,  315,  324,  .326. 

Llano  (la'no  or  lya'no),  310,  320,  322. 

Lobster  fishing,  122. 

Lockport  (N.Y.),  141. 

Lodz  (lodz),  .386. 

Logging,  see  Lumbering. 

Logwood,  in  Mexico,  264. 

Loire  (iwar),  365. 

London  (Eng.)  (liin'diin),  345-346, 
349. 

London  (Canada),  261. 

Long  Branch  (N.J.),  145. 

Longitude,  92-93,  492-495. 

Los  Angeles  (Cal.)  (I6s  3.n'g61-6s  or 
16s  an'jel-gs),  209,  227,  401. 

Louisiana  (loo'e-z^-a'na  or  -3,n'a), 
155,  160,  161. 

Louisville  (Ky.)  (I66'is-vil  or  loo'i- 
vil),  1.55,  163,  164,  169,  178. 

Louisville  and  Nashville  Railway, 
165,  168. 

Lourenco  Marquez  (l6-ren's6  mar'- 
kes),  460. 

Louvre  (166'vr),  365-366. 

Low  Countries,  333,  see  The  Nether- 
lands. 

Lowell  (Mass.)  (lo'el),  130,  131. 

Lucerne  (loo-seru'),  407. 

Lucknow  (liik'nou') ,  443. 

Lumbering,  29,  65,  118,  119;  see  also 
subdivision  under  names  of  coun- 
tries, etc. 

Luxemburg  (luks'em-burg) ,  351, 361. 

Luzon  (l66-z6n'),  247. 

Lynchburg  (Va.)  (linch'burg) ,  155, 
164. 

Lynn  (Mass.)  (lin),  132,  143. 

Lyon  (1^'on'),  363,  367. 


M 


Mackenzie  (ma'ken'zl),  417. 
Mackerel  fishing,  45,  120-122. 
Macon  (ma'kun),  163. 
Madagascar    (mSd'a-g&s'kar) ,    364, 
463. 


Madeira  Islands  (ma-de'ra-),  402, 
463. 

Madras  (ma-drSs'),  443. 

Madrid  (ma-drid'),  400. 

Magdeburg  (mao'de-boorg'),  357. 

Magellan,  Ferdinand  (ma-j61'lan-) , 
87. 

Magellan  Straits,  316. 

Maguey  (mag'wa),  265. 

Magyars  (mSg'yarz),  377. 

Mahogany,  in  Central  America,  268  ; 
in  Cuba,  243  ;  in  Mexico,  264. 

Main  River,  358.* 

Maine,  115,  118,  120,  122,  132-133. 

Maize,  see  Corn. 

Malaga  (mal'a-ga),  401. 

Malay  Peninsula  (mi-la'-),  437-438. 

Malay  States,  438. 

Malays,  307,  474. 

Maiden  (Mass.)  (mal'd&n),  143. 

Malta  (mal'ta),  375.' 

Mammoth  Cave,  157. 

Manaos  (nia-na'oosh),  318. 

Manchester  (Eng.)  (mSn'chgs-tgr) , 
343,  345,  347. 

Manchester  (N.H.),  131,  144. 

Mandalay  (mS,n'da-la),  444. 

Mandioca  (nian'd^-o'ka),  319. 

Manhattan  Island  (man-hat'tan-) , 
137. 

Manila  (ma-nil'a),  248,  275. 

Manitoba  (mSn'l-to'ba),  179,  250, 
251,  253. 

Manna  Islands  (man'na-)  246. 

Manufacturing,  changes  in  methods 
of,  134-135  ;  one  of  the  seven  great 
occupations,  65,  66  ;  value  of  rivers 
for,  38  ;  see  also  subdivision  under 
names  of  countries,  etc. 

Maoris  (ma'6-riz),  472. 

Maple  sugar  and  sirup,  133. 

Maps,  drawing  according  to  scale, 
82 ;  drawing  and  study  of,  81-85  ; 
directions  on,  83-84  ;  flat,  84  ;  im- 
portance of  watching  the  scale  of, 
110-111  ;  physical,  104  ;  political, 
102  ;  relief,  84-85,  103,  104,  105  ; 
weather,  296,  297,  298. 

Maraciabo  (ma'ra-ki'bo),  320. 

Marble,  in  Algeria,  456 ;  Belgium, 
396;  Ireland,  344;  Italy,  370; 
Texas,  Geor'gia,  and  Tennessee, 
160  ;  from  Vermont,  123. 

Marcus  Island  (mar'kiis-),  246. 

Marquette  (mar-ket'),  187. 

Marseilles  (mar-salz'),  367. 

Martha's  Vineyard,  145. 

Martinique  (mar'ti-nek'),  271. 

Maryland  (m6r1-land  or  ma'ri- 
land),  106,  147. 

Maskat  (mas-kaf),  424. 

Massachusetts  (mas'sa-chQ'sfits), 
101,  106. 

Matanzas  (ma-tS.n'zas),  243. 

Mauna  Loa  (mou'na  lo'a),  245. 

Mauritius  (ma-rish'i-us),  463. 

Mayor,  office  of,  78. 

McKinley,  Mt.  (-ma-kin'li),  241,322. 

Meat  packing,  189,  193-194. 

Mecca  (m6k'ka),  424. 


Mediterranean  (m6d'i-tgr-ra'n^-an), 
333,  365,  367,  368,  455. 

Melbourne  (mgl'burn),  471. 

Memphis  (Tenn.)  (mem'fis),  158, 
163,  167,  168,  169. 

Merced  River  (mgr-s6d'-),  234. 

Mercury,  378,  399. 

Meriden  (Conn.)  (mgr'i-den),  130. 

Merrimac  River  (m6r'ri-ma.k-),  131. 

Mescal  (mas-kal'),  265. 

Mesopotamia  (m6s'6-p6-ta'mi-a), 
421. 

Mesquite  (m6s-k6'ti)  bush,  264. 

Metz  (niets),  352. 

Mexico  (m6ks'i-kfi),  101,  263-267, 
289;  agriculture,  264,  265,  266; 
area,  263 ;  cities,  267  ;  coast  line, 
263  ;  irrigation,  264  ;  manufactur- 
ing, 267  ;  minerals,  266,  267  ;  popu- 
lation, 263 ;  rainfall,  263,  264 ; 
stock-raising,  265,  266 ;  surface, 
263. 

Mexico  City,  263,  267. 

Mexico,  Gulf  of,  270. 

Miami  (ml-am'i),  Fig.  198. 

Michigan  (mish'i-gan),  160,  180, 
185,  187,  189,  190,  191,  192. 

Michigan,  Lake,  180,  192,  195. 

Midnight  Sun,  Land  of  the,  389-390. 

Midway  Islands  (mid'wa'-),  246. 

Mikado  (mi-ka'd6),  434,  435. 

Milan  (mil'rtu  or  mi-ian'),  368,  873- 
374. 

Milk-producing  states,  279. 

Millet,  in  China,  429;  in  Egypt, 
453  ;  in  India,  441 ;  in  Indo-China, 
438  ;  in  Siam,  438. 

Mills,  38. 

Milwaukee  (Wis.)  (mil-waTc^),  181, 
195,  196. 

Mindanao  (m^n'da-na'6),  247. 

Mineral  phosphate  161. 

Mining,  28,  65,  108 ;  see  also  sub- 
division under  names  of  countries, 
etc. 

Minneapolis  (Minn.)  (min'n^-ap'- 
6-lis),  179,  185,  198,  200. 

Minnesota  (min'n^-so'ta),  160,  179, 
185,  187,  190,  192,  198. 

Miquelon  (me'k'lfiN),  256. 

Mississippi  River  (mis'is-sip'pi-), 
21,  35,  64,  101,  109,  150,  164,  167, 
199. 

Mississippi,  State  of,  174. 

Missouri  (mis-soo'ri  or  miz-zoo'ri), 
191,  199,  213. 

Missouri  River,  191,  199,  213. 

Mitchell,  Mt.,  149. 

Mobile  (Ala.)  (m6-b6l'),  158,  163, 
170. 

Mocha  (mo'ka),  424. 

Mohammedans  (m6-ham'm6d-anz), 
423,  452. 

Mohawk  River  (m5'hak-),  177. 

Molasses,  production  of,  154. 

Monaco  (mon'a-ko),  361. 

Monarchies,  defined,  80 ;  examples 
of  limited,  349,  350-351,  368,  376, 
390,  392,  395,  399,  435  ;  absolute, 
382,  412,  424,  428,  454. 


530 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


Mongolia  (mon-go'li-a) ,  428. 

Mongolians  (mon-go'li-anz),  307, 
381. 

Monongahela  River  (nio-non'ga- 
he'la-),  143. 

Monrovia  (mon-ro'vl-a) ,  462. 

Montana  (mon-ta'na),  214-216,  217, 
230. 

Mont  Blanc  (mQN'blaN),  26-28,  361. 

Montenegro  (mon'tS-na'gro),  411. 

Montevideo  (moii'te-vid'e-o),  317. 

Montgomery  (raont-guin'er-i),  163. 

Montreal  (mont're-al'),  255,  258, 
260. 

Moors  (moorz),  400-401. 

Mormons. (ii'Sr'muiiz),  212. 

Morocco  (mo-rok'ko),  401,  455,  456, 
457., 

Moros  (mo'riz),  247. 

Moscow  (mos'ko),  386. 

Mountain  chains,  24,  30. 

Mountain  climbing,  26-28. 

Mountain  passes,  2.5-26,  30. 

Mountain  peaks,  24,  30,  149  ;  noted, 
321,  382,  418,  439. 

Mountain  ranges,  24,  30,  204-205. 

Mountains,  23  ;  formation  of,  29-30  ; 
rain  caused  by,  57;  size  of,  24; 
temperature  on,  24-25 ;  use  of,  as 
summer  resorts,  25 ;  uses  of,  for 
raining,  growth  of  timber,  and 
water  supply,  28-29  ;  value  of,  in 
United  States,  109. 

Mountain  systems,  29-30. 

Mouth  of  rivers,  31,  40. 

Muir  Glacier  (mur'-),  241. 

Mulberry  trees,  in  Austria-Hungary, 
378  ;  in  France,  362,  363  ;  in  Kou- 
mania  and  Bulgaria,  411 ;  in  Swit- 
zerland, 403. 

Mules,  in  Southern  States,  156  ;  in 
Spanish  peninsula,  399. 

Munich  (mu'nik),  357. 

Murray  River  (mur'ri-),  469. 

N 

Nagoya  (na'go-ya),  437. 

Nantucket  (Mass.)  (nSn-tQk'et),  145. 

Naples  (na'p'lz),  371. 

Narragansett  Bay  (nar'ra-gSn'sgt-) , 
145. 

Nashua  (N.H.)  (nash'ft-a),  131. 

Nashville  (Tenn.)  (nasli'vU),  169. 

Nassau  (nas'sa),  271. 

Natal  (na-tal'),  468,  460. 

Natural  gas,  in  Central  States,  186 ; 
in  New  York  and  Pennsylvania, 
123-124  ;  in  Southern  States,  160. 

Naval  Academy,  Annapolis,  165. 

Navigation,  on  canals,  39  ;  on  lakes, 
43 ;  on  the  ocean,  47-52  ;  use  of 
rivers  for,  39  ;  see  also  subdivision 
"transportation"  under  names  of 
countries,  etc. 

Nazareth  (nSz'a-rgth),  423. 

Neap  (nep)  tides,  299. 

Nebraska  (ne-bras'ka) ,  182,  184. 

Negritos  (n^-gri'toz),  247. 

Negroes  (ng'groz),  8-4,  96,  448. 


Nepal  (ne-pal'),  4.39. 

Netherlands  (neth'er-landz),  392- 
395  ;  agriculture,  393,  394  ;  canals, 
393,  394  ;  cities,  395  ;  colonies,  468, 
473,  474  ;  commerce,  394  ;  drain- 
age, 393 ;  dairy  products,  394 ; 
fishing,  394 ;  government,  395 ; 
manufacturing,  394  ;  stock-raising, 
394 ;  surface,  393 ;  waterways, 
393,  394. 

Nevada  (ne-va'da),  216,  217. 

Newark  (N.J.)  (niVerk),  129,  137. 

New  Bedford  (Mass.)  (-bed'ferd), 
130,  131. 

New  Brunswick  (N.J.)  (-briinz'wik), 
250,  251,  2.52. 

New  Caledonia  (-kSl'e-do'ni-a) ,  475. 

New  England  States  (-in'gland-), 
111,  115. 

Newfoundland  (nu'fund-land),  102, 
122,  250,  289,  301,  303. 

New  Guatemala  (-ga'te-ma'la),  268. 

New  Guinea  (-gin'e),  473-474. 

New  Hampshire  (-hamp'shir),  106, 
118,  144. 

New  Haven  (Conn.)  (-ha'v'n),  130, 
144. 

New  Jersey  (-j6r'zi),  106,  115. 

New  Mexico  (-meks'i-ko) ,  218. 

New  Orleans  (La.)  (-6r'le-anz),  101, 
154,  164,  167-169,  285. 

Newport  (Ky.)  (iiu'port),  200. 

Newport  (R.I.),  145. 

Newport  News  (Va.),  167. 

New  Providence  (-prov'i-dens),  271. 

New  South  Wales  (-walz),  464,  470. 

New  World,  the,  87,  94. 

New  York  City  (N.Y.)  (nu'  york'-), 
53,  70,  71,  72,  73,  129,  130,  132, 
137,  139,  285,  288,  290,  360. 

New  York  State,  106,  111,  116,  141, 
186,  189. 

New  Zealand,  Dominion  of  (-ze'- 
land),  472-473;  agriculture,  472, 
474 ;  cities,  473 ;  climate,  472  ; 
commerce,  473 ;  dairy  products, 
472 ;  government,  472  ;  manufac- 
tures, 472  ;  mining,  472  ;  people, 
472  ;  stock-raising,  472  ;  surface, 
472. 

Niagara  Falls  (nl-ag'a-ra-),  114,  128, 
141,  460. 

Niagara  Falls,  City  of  (N.Y.),  141. 

Nicaragua  (ne'ka-rii'gwa  or  nik'a-), 
268. 

Nice  (nes),  362. 

Nickel,  in  Ontario,  253. 

Niger  (nl'jer),  364,  449,  460. 

Nigeria  (ni-je'ri-a) ,  461. 

Nile  (nil),  449,  450,  462,  463,  454, 
460. 

Nineveh  (nin'^-ve),  423. 

Nippon  (nip'pon'),  433. 

Nitrate  of  soda  beds,  Chile,  327. 

Nizhni  Novgorod  (ny^z'nyd  n6v'g6- 
rot),  ,386. 

Nomads  (nom'adz),  8-9. 

Nome  (Alaska)  (nom),^40. 

Nwfolk  (Va.)  (ndr'fak),  169,  164, 
167.  "    ^ 


Norristown(Pa.)  (nor'ris-toun),  142. 

Norsemen  (ndrs'men),  392. 

Norse  nations,  391,  392. 

North  America  (north  a-m6r'i-ka), 
93,  94,  101-291  ;  discovery  of,  101 ; 
divisions  of,  101;  drainage,  104; 
exploration  and  settlement  of,  101- 
102 ;  exports  and  imports,  290, 
487,  488,  489  ;  maps  of,  102-104  ; 
review  of,  273-291  ;  surface  of,  104; 
see  also  countries  of  North  America. 

North  Atlantic  (-ftt-lan'tik),  300. 

North  Atlantic  Eddy,  299-300. 

North  Cape  (-kap),  389. 

North  Carolina  (-kar'o-lT'na),  106, 
156,  160,  161. 

North  Dakota  (-da-ko'ta),  179,  181, 
182. 

Northeastern  States,  111-147;  agri- 
culture, 116,  278;  area.  111,  116; 
cities,  137,  140-144;  climate,  116, 
117  ;  coast  line,  114,  116,  135,  137, 
142,  143,  144;  dairying,  116,  117  ; 
fishing,  120-122;  lumbering.  118- 
120,  132,  133  ;  manufacturing,  128- 
136,  137,  138,  139  ;  mineral  prod- 
ucts, 123-128 ;  population,  116, 
137 ;  quarrying,  123 ;  railroads, 
136,  137  ;  scenery,  144,  146 ;  sur- 
face, 111,  114;  waterways,  136, 
1.36. 

North  Pole,  90. 

North  Sea.  .341,  394. 

North  Yakima  (Wash.)  (-yak1-ma), 
230. 

Norway  (nor'vva)  and  Sweden  (swe'- 
den),    387-391  ;    agriculture,   388, 

389  ;  cities,  390  ;  coast  line,  389, 
390 ;     fishing,    389 ;     government, 

390  ; .  lumbering,  389 ;  manufac- 
turing, 389;  minerals,  389;  popu- 
lation, 387,  388;  scenery,  389; 
shipping,  390 ;  size,  387  ;  transpor- 
tation, 390. 

Nova  Scotia  (no'va  sko'shl-a),  250, 

251,  252,  263,  265. 
Nuremberg  (nu'rem-berg),  367. 
Nyassa  Lake  (ni^-as'sa-),  463. 


Oahu  (o-a'hoo),  246. 

Oakland  (Cal.)  (okland),  226,  226. 

Oak  timber,  158,  185. 

Oases  (o'a-sez),  7-8,  108,  456. 

Oats,  in  Australia,  470 ;  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  378 ;  in  British  Isles, 
340  ;  in  Central  States,  181  ;  in  Ger- 
many, 363 ;  in  the  Netherlands, 
393  ;  in  Ireland,  344 ;  in  Ontario, 
262  ;  in  Russia,  384  ;  in  Saskatche- 
wan and  Manitoba,  261  ;  in  South- 
ern States,  155  ;  in  United  States, 
108  ;  in  Western  States,  *206. 

Oceans,  44-63,  96-100. 

Ocean  Currents,  251,  299-803 ;  Gulf 
Stream,  115,  301,  302  ;  Japanese, 
312  ;  Labrador,  115,  251,  301,  302, 
303 ;  North  Atlantic  Piddy,  800, 
301  ;  West  Wind  Drift,  302. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


531 


Oder  (o'dgr),  356,  357. 

Odessa  (o-des'sa),  386. 

Ogden  (Ut.)  (o^'den),  212,  231. 

Ohio  (o-hi'6),  176,  178,  181,  185,  186, 
189,  191,  199. 

Ohio  River,  64,  143,  191. 

Oil  City  (Pa.),  123. 

Oil  Wells,  124. 

Oklahoma  (6k-la-ho'ma),  160,  171. 

Oklahoma  City  (Okla.),  171. 

Old  Point  Comfort  (Va.),  167. 

Old  World,  the,  87,  94-95. 

Olean  (N.Y.)  (o'li^-an'),  12.3. 

Oleomargarine  (o'luoffl^^ga-rin  or 
-ri-n),  162,  194.  ^^ 

Olives  in  the  Barbary  States,  456 ; 
in  California,  206,  209,  211  ;  in 
France,  362 ;  in  Greece,  408  ;  in 
Italy,  369;  in  Russia,  384;  in 
Spain,  399 ;  in  Turkey  in  Asia, 
421. 

Olive  oil,  456. 

Olympia  (Wash.)  (6-lim'pi-a),  229. 

Omaha  ^(Neb.)  (6'ma-ha'),  199,  200, 

Oman  (6-nian'),  424. 

Ontario,  Lake  (-6n-ta'ri-o),  252. 

Ontario,  Province,  250,  251,  252. 

Opals,  378. 

Opium,  424,  441. 

Oporto  (6-p6r'tu6),  402. 

Orange  Free  State,  458. 

Orange  River,  459. 

Oranges,  108  ;  in  Australia,  470 ;  in 
the  Bahamas,  272  ;  in  California, 
206,  208-209,  211 ;  in  Chiiia,  429  ; 
in  Egypt,  453  ;  in  Florida,  156  ;  in 
France,  362;  in  Italy,  369,  371; 
in  Mexico,  266  ;  in  New  Zealand, 
472  ;  in  Spain,  399  ;  in  Turkey  in 
Asia,  421 ;  in  West  Indies,  270, 
271. 

Orbit  of  Earth  (6r'bit-),  89. 

Oregon  (or'^-gon),  205,  206,  220,  228. 

Oregon,  battleship,  225. 

Orinoco  (o'ri-no'k6),320. 

Osaka  (rVza'ka),  437. 

Oshkosh  (Wis.)  (osh'kosh),  190. 

Ostriches,  458,  459. 

Ostrich  feathers,  456,  458,  461. 

Ottawa  (ot'ta-wa),250,  255,  261. 

Ottawa  River,  258,  260. 

Ottoman  Empire  (ol'to-man-),  410- 
418,  419,  420,  424,  454. 

Oyster  fisheries,  120,  122,  159,  341. 


Pacific  Ocean  (pa-sif Ik-) ,  97,  99. 
Pago  Pago  (pii'go  pa'go),  246. 
Palermo  (pa-ler'mo),  372. 
Palestine    (pai'gs-tln),    42-43,    422, 

428. 
Pampas  (pam'pas),  310,  316. 
Panama    Canal     (pSn'a-ma'-),    101, 

171,  224,  244. 
Panama  Canal  Zone,  101. 
Panama,  City  of,  244. 
Panama,  Isthmus  of,  94,  101,  244. 
Panama,  Republic  of,  101,  268,  322. 
Panning  of  gold,  216. 


Paper-making,  133,  378. 

Para  (pa-rii'),  319. 

Paraguay  (pa'ra-gwl'  or  pSr'a-gwa), 
317. 

Parana  (pa'ra-na'),  317. 

Paris  (par'is),  363,  365-366. 

Parks  in  cities,  74. 

Parliament  (par'li-inent),  349. 

Parliament  Buildings,  Ottawa,  260. 

Pasadena  (Cal.)  (pas'a-de'na),  209, 
210,  227.  «B=r 

Patagonia  (pat'a-go'ni-a),  316. 

Paterson  (N.J.)  (pSt'er-sun),  137,138. 

Pawtucket  (R.I.)  (pa-tiik'et),  131. 

Peaches,  see  Fruit. 

Pearls,  from  Ceylon,  444 ;  from 
East  Indies,  414  ;  from  Persia,  424. 

Peat,  125,  344,  391. 

Pecos  River  (pa'kos-),  213. 

Peking  (pe'km),  432,  433. 

Pelee,  Mt.  (-pe-lS'),  271. 

Pendleton  (Ore.)  (pen'd'1-tiin),  206. 

Peninsulas,  51,  64 ;  of  Europe,  333. 

Pennsylvania  (pen'sil-va'ni-a),  106, 
116,  122,  126,   185,  186,  187,  191. 

Penobscot  (Me.)  (pS-nob'skot),  132. 

Pensacola  (Fla.)  (p6n'sa-ko'la),  168, 
170-171. 

Peoria  (111.)  (p^-o'ri-a),  178. 

Pepper,  in  Mexico,  264  ;  see  Spices. 

Pernambuco  (per'nam-boo'ko),  320. 

Perry,  Commodore,  434. 

Persia  (per'.sha  orper'zha),  424-425, 

Peru  (po-nw'),  315,  321,  322,  323-324. 

Peruvian  Bark,  324. 

Petersburg  (Va.)  (pe'terz-biirg),  155. 

Petroleum  (pe-tro'le-um),  in  Argen- 
tina, 316 ;  in  Austria-Hungary, 
378  ;  in  California,  Oklahoma,  and 
other  Western  States,  219  ;  in  On- 
tario, 2.53  ;  in  Central  States,  186  ; 
in  India,  441  ;  in  Japan,  435  ;  lead- 
ing petroleum-producing  sections 
of  the  world,  483-485  ;  in  Mexico, 
266  ;  in  New  York  and  Pennsyl- 
vania, 122-124  ;  in  Peru,  324  ;  rank 
of  Ru.ssia  in  production  of,  385  ;  in 
Texas  and  other  Southern  States, 
160. 

Philadelphia  (Pa.)  (fil'a-del'fi-a), 
53,  129,  1.30,  132,  141-142,  285.       . 

Philippine  Islands  (fil'lp-pin  or 
-pen-),  97,  246-248,  474;  cities, 
248 ;  climate,  247  ;  number  and 
area,  247  ;  people,  247  ;  products, 
247,  248  ;  surface,  247. 

Phoenix  (Ariz.)  (fe'niks),  213,  218. 

Phosphates  in  Southern  States,  161, 

Piedmont  Plateau  (ped'mont-) ,  149. 

Pike's  Peak,  230. 

Pilatus  Mt.  (po-la'toos),  407. 

Pineapples,  in  the  Bahamas,  272 ; 
in  Florida,  156  ;  in  Mexico,  266  ; 
in  islands  of  the  Pacific,  476  ;  in 
South  Africa,  458. 

Pioneer  life,  American,  69-60, 

Piraeus  (pl-re'iis),  409. 

Pitch  lake  in  Trinidad,  328. 

Pittsburg  (Pa.)  (pits'burg) ,  123,  125, 
12i),  180,  143,  199. 


Pittsfield  (Mass.)  (pits'feld),  131. 

Plains,  of  Argentina,  316  ;  in  Cen- 
tral States,  174  ;  the  Danubian, 
411  ;  in  Europe,  333  ;  coastal  and 
central,  of  the  United  States,  108- 
109 ;  definition  of,  16  ;  extent  of, 
in  United  States,  17;  work  of 
rivers  in  making,  36-36. 

Plant  food,  from  soil,  14-15. 

Plant  life  ;  see  Vegetation. 

Plants,  part  taken  by,  in  breaking 
up  rock,  13  ;  use  of  soil  by,  14-15. 

Plata  (pla'tii),  317. 

Plateau  land,  in  Africa,  446  ;  in 
Asia,  418  ;  in  Australia,  468  ;  in 
Brazil,  319;  in  India,  439;  in 
Mexico,  263 ;  in  South  Africa,  458  ; 
in  Spanish  peninsula,  398 ;  Tibet, 
418  ;  in  Western  States,  204-206. 

Platinum,  385. 

Platte  River  (plat-),  211, 

Po  (p6),  368,  369,  372, 

Poland  (po'land),  386. 

Poles,  the,  90. 

Pomona  (Cal.)  (po-mo'na),  227. 

Pompeii  (pom-pa'ye),  371,  372. 

Ponce  (pon'sS),  244. 

Ponds,  formation  of,  41-42  ;  uses  of, 
43. 

Popocatepetl  (p6-po'ka-ta'p§t'l  or 
-ta-pft'l).  Fig.  360. 

Population,  see  subdivision  under 
names  of  countries,  etc. 

Porcelain  manufacture,  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  378  ;  in  Denmark,  392  ; 
in  Japan,  437  ;  Munich,  357  ;  near 
Paris,  366  ;  Sevres,  366, 

Port  Arthur  (Canada)  (port  ar'thur), 
261. 

Port  Arthur  (China),  426. 

Port  au  Prince  (por'to'  prSNs'  or 
port'o  prins'),  270. 

Portland  (Me.)  (port'land),  120,  132, 
144. 

Portland  (Ore.),  222,  224,  228. 

Portland  cement,  123,  131,  191. 

Porto  Rico  (por'to  re'ko),  241-244, 
270. 

Portsmouth  (Eng.)  (ports'mQth) , 
346. 

Portsmouth  (N.H.),  144. 

Portugal  (por'tu-grtl),  see  Spain  and 
Portugal. 

Posen  (p5'zen),  352, 

Potatoes,  in  Austria-Hungary,  378  ; 
in  Germany,  353  ;  in  Ireland,  344  ; 
in  the  Netherlands,  394  ;  in  Russia, 
384  ;  in  United  States,  116, 156-156, 
180,  278. 

Potomac  River  (po-to'mak-),  166. 

Potsdam,  357. 

Pottery  manufacture,  130,  191,  436, 

Prague  (prag),  378,  379,  381, 

Prairie  land,  in  Central  States,  176, 

Precious  stones,  161,  320,  378,  385, 
424,  438,  440,  444,  459,  474. 

Precipices,  26,  30. 

President  of  United  States,  79-80. 

Prevailing  westerlies,  292,  293,  334. 

Pribilof  Islands  (pre'be-161'-).  2,']9.  a 


632 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


Prince  Edward  Island  (-6d'w5rd-), 

260,  252,  255. 
Printing,  143. 

Prisoners  in  Siberia,  426-427. 
Prospectors,  219. 
Providence     (R.  I.)      (prov'i-dens), 

131,  144. 
Prunes,  in  Servia,  411. 
Prussia  (prush'a),  360. 
Pueblo  (Col.)   (pweb'Io),  212,   219, 

223,  224,  230. 
Pueblo  (Mex.),  267. 
Pueblo  Indians,  235-236. 
Pueblos,  Aztec,  in  Mexico,  267. 
Puget    Sound    (pu'j6t-),    222,    224, 

229. 
Pullman  Car  Works,  195. 
Pulque  (pul'ka),  265. 
Pyramids  (pir'a-midz),  462,  453. 
Pyrenees  (pir'*-n*z),  360,  361,  398. 


Quarrying,  65 ;  granite,  123,  160, 
344;  marble,  123,  160,  344,  370, 
396,  456. 

Quartz  mining,  216 ;  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  378. 

Quebec  (kwe-b6k'),  102,  258,  260. 

Quebec,  Province  of,  250,  253. 

Queensland  (kwenz'land),  464. 

Quicksilver,  378,  399. 

Quincy  (111.)  (kwin'zi),  198. 

Quincy  (Mass.),  122. 

Quinine  (kwi'nin),  324. 

Quito  (ke'to),  323. 

R 

Races  of  mankind,  306-308. 

Racine  (Wis.)  (ra-sen'),  196. 

Railways,  elevated,  72-73,  139; 
transcontinental,  226 ;  transporta- 
tion of  passengers  and  freight  on, 
64 ;  underground,  73,  139 ;  use  of 
valleys  for,  19-20 ;  see  also  sub- 
division under  names  of  countries, 
etc. 

Rain,  causes  of,  66-59  ;  the  irregular 
rains  of  eastern  United  States  and 
Canada,  296-297  ;  lack  of,  in  West- 
ern States,  205-206 ;  principal 
cause  of,  293  ;  relation  of  winds  to, 
293  ;  the  regular  belts  of,  294-296. 

Raindrops,  formation  of,  58. 

Rainier,  Mt.  (ra'ner),  229,  235 ;  Na- 
tional Park,  235. 

Raisin  grapes,  in  Greece,  408;  in 
Servia,  411  ;  in  Turkey,  412. 

Raleigh  (N.  C.)  (raTi),  164. 

Ranch  life,  184-J.85. 

Rangoon  (ran-goon'),  443-444. 

Rapids,  in  rivers,  32,  40 ;  along  the 
Fall  Line,  149-160;  in  the  St. 
Lawrence  River,  257,  258  ;  of  the 
Nile,  460. 

Raw  materials,  2,  66,  282. 

Reading  (Pa.)  (rgdlng),  129. 

Redlands  (Cal.),  227. 

Red  River  of  the  North,  179,  262. 


Redwood  trees  in  California,  220. 

Reefs  49. 

Refrigerator  cars,  194,  222. 

Reichstag  (rlks'stag),  351. 

Reims  (remz),  363. 

Reindeer,  383,  384,  426,  426. 

Relief  maps,  84-86,  103,  104,  105. 

Representatives,  in  state  legislatures, 
77  ;  in  Congress,  79. 

Republic,  form  of  government  called 
a,  80 ;  France  one  form  of,  360  ; 
Portugal,  399 ;  San  Marino  the 
smallest,  375  ;  Switzerland,  403. 

Return  trades,  293. 

Reunion  Island  (r^-un'yiin-),  463. 

Revenue  duties,  290. 

Revolution  of  the  Earth,  88-90. 

Revolution,  War  of  the,  102. 

Rhea  (re'a),  313,  314. 

Rhine  River  (rin-),  366, 358-360, 393, 
394,  407. 

Rhinoceros,  460,  461. 

Rhode  Island  (rod'  i'land),  106. 

Rhodesia  (r6-de'zi-a  or  -zhi-a) ,  468. 

Rhone  River  (r5n-),  361,  362,  363, 
367,  404,  407. 

Rice,  108  ;  in  Australia,  470  ;  in  Cey- 
lon, 444  ;  in  China,  429  ;  in  the 
East  Indies,  474 ;  in  Hawaiian 
Islands,  246;  in  Italy,  369;  in 
India,  441  ;  in  Indo-China,  438 ; 
in  Japan,  436  ;  in  Korea,  437  ;  in 
Mexico,  266 ;  in  Siam,  438 ;  in 
South  Africa,  468 ;  in  Southern 
States,  154-155  ;  in  Spain,  399. 

Richmond  (Va.)  (rich'mund),  166, 
163,  164,  167. 

Riga  (re'ga),  386. 

Rigi,  Mt.  (re'g^),  407. 

Rio  de  Janeiro  (rg'S  d4  zha-na'ro), 
320. 

Rio  Grande  River  (re'6  gran'dS-), 
213. 

River  banks,  31,  40  ;  basins,  35,  40 ; 
beds,  33,  40 ;  navigation,  39  ; 
sources,  31,  40  ;  systems,  36,  40. 

Rivers,  importance .  of ,  for  transpor- 
tation of  goods,  64 ;  names  for 
parts  of,  31-33  ;  use  of,  in  lumber- 
ing, 119  ;  use  in  manufacturing, 
38  ;  use  of,  for  navigation,  39-40  ; 
value  of,  for  drainage,  37  ;  value 
of,  for  water  they  supply,  37,  38  ; 
the  work  of,  31-36  ;  see  also  sub- 
division "  transportation  "  under 
names  of  countries,  etc. 

Riverside  (Cal.),  227. 

Roads,  importance  of  good,  62-63 ; 
improvement  of,  in  the  country, 
73  ;  use  of  valleys  for,  20. 

Rochester  (N.  Y.)  (r6ch'6s-ter),  118, 
132,  133. 

Rocky  Mountains,  204,  205,  206. 

Roman  Empire,  372,  373. 

Rome  (Italy)  (rom),  372-373. 

Rookwood  ware,'  manufacture  of,  in 
Cincinnati,  191. 

Roosevelt  (r5'ze-v61t)  Dam,  the, 
213. 

Rosario  (r6-sa'r^-6),  317. 


Rosewood,  264,  268. 

Rosin  (roz'in),  164. 

Rotation  of  crops,  15. 

Rotation  of  earth,  88 ;  effects  of,  497- 
499. 

Rotterdam  (rot'ter-dam'),  395. 

Roubaix  (roo'bi'),  363. 

Rouen  (roo'aN'),  363,  366. 

Roumania  (roo-ma'ni-a) ,  411. 

Round-ups,  cattle,  183-184. 

Rubber,  in  Brazil,  319  ;  in  Central 
America,  268  ;  in  the  East  Indies, 
474 ;  in  the  Guianas,  320  ;  in  Malay 
Peninsula,  438  ;  in  Mexico,  264 ; 
in  Paraguay,  317 ;  in  Philippine 
Islands,  247  ;  in  the  Sudan,  461 ; 
in  Venezuela,  321. 

Rubies,  438,  444. 

Rugs,  from  Bokhara  and  Khiva,  426 ; 
Persian,  424;  Turkish,  412,  421. 

Russia  (riish'a),  381-387;  agricul- 
ture, 384 ;  area,  381 ;  cities,  386, 
387  ;  climate,  383,  384 ;  fishing, 
384  ;  government,  382  ;  lumbering, 

384  ;  manufacturing,  385  ;  min- 
erals, 384,  386 ;  population,  381  ; 
races,  381 ;  rainfall,  383 ;  stock- 
raising,  384  ;  surface,  382  ;  trade, 

385  ;  transportation,  385  ;  water- 
ways, 386. 

Russia,  in  Asia,  425-427  ;  cities,  426  ; 
climate,  425  ;  extent,  425 ;  indus- 
tries, 426 ;  minerals,  426  ;  popula- 
tion, 425  ;  railroad,  426  ;  stock- 
raising,  425  ;  vegetation,  426. 

Russiaas,  in  Alaska,  102. 

Russo-Japanese  War,  434. 

Rye,  in  Germany,  353;  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  378  ;  in  the  Netherlands, 
393  ;  in  Russia,  384. 


Sacramento  (Cal.)   (sak'ra-m6n't6), 

211,  225. 
Sacramento  River,  213,  224. 
Saginaw  (Mich.)  (sSg'i-na),  190. 
Sahara  Desert    (sa-ha'ra)j   7-9,  96, 

364,  446-447,  449,  465,  466. 
St.   Anthony  Falls  (sSnt  an't6-ny-) 

198. 
St.  Croix  (-kroi'),  271,  392. 
St.  Elias,  Mt.  (-^-li'as),  241. 
St.  Etienne  (saN'tSftygn')  363. 
St.  Gothard  Tunnel  (-goth'ard),  406, 

407. 
St.  Helena  (-h6-l6'na),  463. 
St.  John  (N.B.),392. 
St.  John,  Island,  392. 
St.  John's  (N.r.),256. 
St.  Joseph  (Mo.),  199,  200. 
St.  Lawrence,  Gulf  of  (-Iji'rens),  252. 
St.  Lawrence  River,  101,  174,  178, 

180,  181,  196,  266-267. 
St.  Louis  (Mo.)    (-lools   or  -lool), 

196,  198,  200. 
St.  Paul  (Minn.),  179,  188,  197,  200. 
St.  Peter's,  373. 

St.  Petersburg  (-pe'tSrs-bdrg) ,  386. 
St.  Pierre,  Island  (sSn'  p^ar'),  255. 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


533 


St.  Pierre,   Martinique,  271. 

St.  Thomas,  271,  392. 

St.  Vincent,  271. 

Sakhalin  (sa-Ka-ly6n'),  433. 

Salem  (Mass.)  (sa'lem),  132,  143. 

Salem  (Ore.),  228. 

Salmon  industry,  in  Alaska,  240  ;  in 
northern  Great  Britain,  341 ;  in 
western  Canada,  256;  on  the  Co- 
lumbia River,  222,  228. 

Salt,  in  Austria-Hungary,  378 ;  in 
Germany,  354  ;  in  India,  441 ;  in 
Michigan  and  other  Central  States, 
189 ;  in  New  York  State,  123  ;  in 
Texas  and  Louisiana,  161  ;  in 
United  States,  108. 

Salt  Lake  City  (Utah)  (salt-),  212, 
231. 

Salt  River,  213. 

Salt  lakes  and  inland  seas,  42-43, 
212-213,  415,  422,  469. 

Salvador  (sal'va-dor'),  268. 

Samoa  (sa-mo'a),  246,  475. 

San  Antonio  (Tex.)  (sjn  a,n-to'ni-0), 
171. 

San  Bernadino  (san  b6r'nar-de'n6) , 
227 

San  Diego  (Cal.)  (-d$-a'g6),  224, 
227. 

San  Francisco  (Cal.)  (sS.n  Mn- 
sis'ko),  53,  224,  225,  226,  227, 
285. 

San  Joaquin  River  (san  wa-k6n'), 
213,  226. 

San  Jose  (Cal.)  (san  hft-sa')  225. 

San  Juan  (san  ho6  an'),  244. 

San  Luis  Potosi  (san  loo-^s'  po'- 
to-se'),  267. 

San  Marino  (san  ma-re'n6),  375. 

San  Salvador  (san  sal'va-dor'),  268. 

Sandstone,  123,  189,  344. 

Santiago  (Chile)  (san't*-a'g6),  328. 

Santiago  de  Cuba  (-di  ku'ba),  243. 

Santo  Domingo  (san'to  do-m^n'go), 
270,  271. 

Santos  (saN'toosh),  320. 

Sao  Paulo  (soun  pou'ldo),  320. 

Sardinia  (sar-dinl-a),  368. 

Sargasso  Sea  (sar-gSs'so-),  300. 

Saskatchewan  (sSs-kach'^-won), 
250,  251. 

Sault  Ste.  Marie  (soo'  s4nt  ma'ri), 
191. 

Savannah  (Ga.)  (sa-vSn'na),  158, 
170. 

Savannas,  448,  460,  461. 

Sawmills,  in  Australia,  471  ;  at 
Bangor,  132,  133 ;  at  Minneapolis, 
Duluth,  and  Superior,  185 ;  at 
Ottawa,  Toronto,  and  other  Cana- 
dian cities,  255. 

Saxony  (saks'iin-i),  357. 

Scale  in  maps,  82,  110-111. 

Scallops,  122. 

Scandinavia  (skSn'di-na'vi-a),  330, 
387-390. 

Scandinavian  Peninsula  (skSn'di- 
na'vi-an-),  330,  387-391  ;  see  also 
Norway  and  Sweden. 

Scheldt  River  (sk61t-),  397. 


Schenectady  (N.  Y.)  (ske-n6k'ta-di), 
129. 

Schools,  in  the  city,  71-72  ;  in  the 
country,  69. 

Scotland  (skot'land),  338,  339,  343, 
347  ;  see  also  British  Isles. 

Scottish  Highlands,  339. 

Scranton  (Pa.)  (skran'tun),  125, 129. 

Sealing,  in  Alaska,  239-240  ;  in  east- 
ern Canada,  256. 

Seals,  5. 

Seaside  resorts,  46-47. 

Seasons,  cause  of,  499. 

Seattle  (Wash.)  (s^-St't'l),  221,  222, 
224,  228-229. 

Sediment,  carried  by  rivers,  35  ;  for- 
mation of  deltas  by,  S6-37. 

Seeland  Island  (se'land-),  392. 

Seine  River  (san-),  363,  365. 

Selvas,  311. 

Senators  in  Congress,  79. 

Seoul  (se-6ol'  or  soul),  437. 

Servia  (ser'vi-a),  411. 

Seville  (se-vil'),  400,  401. 

Shad  fishing,  159. 

Shawnee  (Okla.)  (sha'ne'),  171. 

Sheep,  in  Arabia,  424  ;  in  Argentina, 
Patagonia,  and  South  American 
islands,  316 ;  in  Australia,  469-470 ; 
in  the  Barbary  States,456  ;  in  Brit- 
ish Isles,  340  ;  in  Canada,  251  ;  in 
Chile,  327  ;  in  Denmark,  391 ;  on 
Desert  of  Sahara,  8 ;  in  France, 
362 ;  in  Iceland,  392  ;  in  Italy,  370  ; 
merino  (me-re'no),  469-470 ;  in  the 
Netherlands,  394  ;  in  New  Zealand, 
472 ;  in  Ohio  and  other  Central 
States,  181  ;  in  Paraguay  and  Uru- 
guay, 317  ;  in  Peru,  324  ;  in  Russia 
in  Asia,  425  ;  in  South  Africa,  458  ; 
in  Soutlaern  States,  156  ;  in  Spanish 
peninsula,  399 ;  in  Texas,  157  ;  in 
United  States,  108;  see  also  sub- 
division "stock-raising,"  under 
names  of  coimtries,  etc. 

Sheffield  (shef'feld),  342,  345. 

Shelter,  necessity  of,  and  materials 
used  for,  3. 

Shetland  ponies,  340. 

Shipbuilding,  at  Antwerp,  397  ;  in 
Denmark,  392  ;  at  Glasgow,  342  ; 
at  Belfast,  342  ;  at  Liverpool,  347 ; 
at  Philadelphia,  142  ;  at  San  Fran- 
cisco, 225  ;  at  Seattle,  229. 

Shoe  factories,  190. 

Shoshone  Falls  (sh6-sh6'n§),  235. 

Slam  (st-am'  or  se'am'),  438. 

Siberia  (si-be'ri-a),  381,  417,  426; 
see  also  Russia  in  Asia. 

Sicily  (sisl-li),  368,  370,  372. 

Sierra  Leone  (s^-er'ra  le-o'n^),  462. 

Sierra  Nevada  Mountains  (-n$- 
va'da-),  205,  398. 

Silk  industry,  in  Austria-Hungary, 
378  ;  in  China,  429,  430  ;  in  Flor- 
ence, 373 ;  in  France,  362, 363,  364  ; 
in  Germany,  355,  358  ;  in  Italy, 
369,  370 ;  in  Japan,  435,  436  ;  in 
Persia,  424 ;  in  Russia  in  Asia,  425 ; 
in  Switzerland,  405, 


Silver,  in  the  Andes,  322 ;  in  Argen- 
tina, 316  ;  in  Australia,  471 ;  in 
Austria- Hungary,  378  ;  in  Belgium, 
396  ;  in  British  Columbia  and  Yu- 
kon Territory,  252  ;  in  Chile,  326  ; 
in  Germany,  354  ;  in  Montana,  217; 
in  Nevada,  216-217  ;  in  New  Zea- 
land, 472 ;  in  Ontario,  253 ;  in 
Peru,  323,  324  ;  in  Russia,  384  ;  in 
Scandinavia,  389  ;  in  South  Amer- 
ica, 311 ;  in  Southern  States,  161  ; 
in  Spain,  399 ;  in  United  States, 
108  ;  in  other  Western  States,  218. 

Simplon  Tunnel  (sim'plon-),  406. 

Singapore  (sin'ga-p5r'),  438. 

Sioux  Falls  (soo-),  179, 

Sitka  (Alaska)  (sit'ka),  241, 

Skagway  (Alaska)  (skag'wS),  241, 

Slate,  123. 

Slavs,   377,  381, 

Slopes  in  land,  importance  of,  17, 

Smelting  industry,  128, 188, 218, 223, 
228,  230. 

Smyrna  (sraer'na),  421. 

Snake  River,  213. 

Snow,  formation  of,  58. 

Snow  line,  on  mountains,  27,  30,  403, 

Snow  slides,  27. 

Soil,  formation  of,  11-12;  impor- 
tance of,  10-11 ;  need  of  variety  of, 
15 ;  fertile  and  sterile,  15 ;  rich- 
ness of,  in  United  States,  108 ;  use 
made  of,  by  plants,  14-16. 

Sole  fishing,  341. 

Somaliland  (scJ-ma'lt-lSnd),  462, 

Somerville  (Mass.)  (sum'er-vil), 
134. 

Soo  Canal  (soo-),  191. 

South  Africa,  467-460  ;  cities,  457, 
460 ;  climate,  458  ;  colonization, 
457-458  ;  drainage,  459  ;  minerals, 
458,  459;  people,  457  ;  products, 
458  ;  trade,  459  ;  Union  of,  458. 

South  America,  310-320;  animals, 
314,  315  ;  area,  310  ;  climate,  311, 
312,  314;  drainage,  311;  govern- 
ment, 312  ;  islands,  328  ;  manufac- 
turing, 312,  315 ;  minerals,  311  ; 
people,  312,  316;  population,  311, 
312  ;  size  and  shape,  310  ;  surface, 
310  ;  transportation,  318  ;  vegeta- 
tion, 314  ;  see  also  names  of  coun- 
tries of  South  America. 

Southampton  (suth-hSmp'tun  or 
south-am p' tun) ,  346. 

South  Australia,  471,  472. 

South  Carolina  (-kar'6-li'na),  106, 
155,  161. 

South  Dakota  (-da-ko'ta),  179,  182, 
189. 

South  Georgia  (-j6r'ji-a),  328. 

South  Pole,  90. 

Southern  States,  147-173;  agricul- 
ture, 151-156  ;  area,  147  ;  cities, 
163-171 ;  climate,  161,  167  ;  coast 
line,  150,  151,  164;  fishing,  168, 
169, 165  ;  lumbering,  157, 168, 159  ; 
manufacturing,  161-165,  170  ;  min- 
ing, 159-161 ;  population,  147  ; 
railroads,  165,  168 ;  stock-raising. 


534 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


151,  166,  157  ;  surface,  147,  149, 
150;  trade,  104,  170,  171;  trans- 
portation, 164,  165 ;  waterways, 
164,  165. 

Spain  (span)  and  Portugal,  398-403  ; 
agriculture,  399  ;  cities,  400,  401, 
402  ;  climate,  398  ;  foreign  posses- 
sions, 401,  402,  458  ;  government, 
399;  grazing,  399;  irrigation,  399; 
manufacturing,  400 ;  minerals,  399, 
400  ;  rainfall,  398  ;  surface,  398. 

Spaniards  in  America,  101,  263. 

Spanish- American  War,  241,  246. 

Spartanburg  (S.  C.)  (spar'tan-burg)^ 
161,  162. 

Spices,  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Kico,  242  ; 
in  Philippine  Islands,  247  ;  in  India, 
441  ;  in  Indo-China  and  Malay 
Peninsula,  438  ;  in  Mexico,  264 ; 
in  the  East  Indies,  474. 

Spokane  (Wash.)  (spo'kan),  218, 
230. 

Sponge  fishing,  in  the  Bahamas,  271  ; 
in  Greece,  408  ;  in  Italy,  370  ;  in 
Southern  States,  159. 

Springfield  (Mass.)  (spring'feld), 
130. 

Springfield  (Ohio),  200. 

Springs,  31,  40. 

Spring  tides,  299. 

Stamp  mills,  223;  at  Butte,  231. 

Standard  Time,  495-496. 

Stassfurt  (stas'foort),  354. 

State  government,  77-79. 

Steam,  value  of,  in  development  of 
North  America,  290-291. 

Steamship  lines,  137,  142. 

Steamships,  48,  65. 

Steel,  manufacture  of,  129 ;  in  Bir- 
mingham, Ala.,  163;  in  British 
Isles,  342 ;  in  France,  364 ;  in 
"Gennany,  358. 

Steppes  (stepz),  384. 

Stettin  (stet-ten'),  356,  358. 

Stockholm  (st6k'h5lm),  390. 

Stock-raising  in  Southern  States, 
156-157  ;  see  Animals. 

Stockton  (Cal.)  (stok'tun),  211,  225, 
226. 

Stove-making,  129. 

Straits,  98. 

Straits  Settlements,  4.38. 

Strassburg  (stras'boorG),  352. 

Straw  plaiting,  Italy,  370,  373. 

Subways,  73 ;  in  Chicago,  195 ;  in 
New  York  City,  1.39. 

Sudan  (soo'dan^),  364,  454,  455,  461. 

Suez  Canal  (soo-ez'  or  soo'ez-),  453- 
454. 

Suez,  Isthmus  of,  95,  463. 

Sugar,  beet,  153 ;  in  Austria-Hun- 
gary, 378  ;  in  Belgium,  396 ;  in 
Central  States,  181  ;  in  Germany, 
353,  355  ;  in  the  Netherlands,  394  ; 
in  Russia,  384. 

Sugar,  cane,  108, 153  ;  in  tropical  An- 
dean countries,  322,  324  ;  in  Ar- 
gentina, 316  ;  in  Australia,  470  ; 
in  Brazil,  319  ;  in  Central  America, 
268  ;  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  242  ; 


in  Egypt,  453 ;  in  the  Guianas, 
320;  in  Haiti,  271;  in  Hawaiian 
Islands,  245 ;  in  India,  441 ;  in 
islands  of  the  Pacific,  475 ;  in 
Jamaica,  270  ;  in  Japan,  435  ;  in 
Java  and  the  East  Indies,  474 ;  in 
Philippine  Islands,  248 ;  in  Mexico, 
266 ;  in  South  Africa,  458 ;  in 
Southern  States,  153-154 ;  sections 
of  United  States  which  produce, 
277  ;  in  Venezuela,  321. 

Sugar,  maple,  133,  153. 

Sugar  refineries,  154,  164,  225. 

Sulphur,  in  Sicily,  370. 

Sultan  (siil'tan),  412. 

Sumatra  (soo-ma'tra) ,  474. 

Sunrise  and  sunset,  cause  of,  89. 

Superior  (Wis.)  (su-pe'ri-er),  185, 
187,  192,  196. 

Superior,  Lake,  186,  188. 

Surinam  (soo'ri-nam') ,  320. 

Susquehanna  River  (sus'kwe- 
hSn'na),  36. 

Swamps,  17. 

Sweden,  see  Norway  and  Sweden, 

Switzerland  (swit'zer-land),  26, 
368,  370,  403-407;  agriculture, 
404  ;  cities,  407  ;  climate,  403  ; 
commerce,  405,  406 ;  dairying, 
404  ;  government,  403  ;  languages, 
403  ;  lumbering,  404  ;  manufactur- 
ing, 404,  405  ;  railroads,  406,  407  ; 
rainfall,  403,  404 ;  scenery,  406, 
407  ;  stock-raising,  404  ;  surface, 
403,  407. 

Sydney  (Australia)  (sid'ni),  471, 
472. 

Sydney  (Cape  Breton  Island),  258. 

Syracuse  (N.  Y.)  (sir'a-kus),  123, 
129. 

Syrian  Desert  (sir'i-an-)  423. 


Tacoma  (Wash.)  (ta-ko'ma),  221, 
222,  224,  228. 

Tafilet  (tiif'i-lef  or  ta'f^-16t'),  456. 

Tagalogs  (ta-ga'16gs),  247. 

Tagus  River  (ta'giis-),  402. 

Tahoe,  Lake  (ta'ho  or  ta'h6),  235. 

Tampa  (Fla.)  (tSm'pa),  161;  164, 
170-171. 

Tampico  (tam-pe'ko),  267. 

Tanganyika  (tan'gan-ye'ka),  458, 
469. 

Tangier  (tan-jer'),  457. 

Tanneries,  132,  134. 

Tannic  acid,  133,  164. 

Tashkend  (tash'kenf),  426. 

Tasmania  (taz-ma'ni-a),  464,  470. 

Taunton  (Mass.)  (tan'tiin  or  tan'- 
tiin),  131. 

Tea,  in  Brazil,  319 ;  in  Ceylon,  444  ; 
in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  242  ;  in 
the  East  Indies,  474 ;  in  India, 
441  ;  in  Japan,  435 ;  in  Malay 
Peninsula  and  Indo-China,  438 ; 
in  South  Africa,  458. 

Teak,  438,  441. 

Teheran  (t6-h'ran'),  424. 


Temperate  Zone,  91,  92. 

Temperature,  distribution  of,  303- 
30-5  ;  on  mountains,  24-26. 

Tennessee  (ten'nes-se'),  165,  156, 
160,  161. 

Territories  of  the  United  States, 
238-249. 

Texas  (teks'crs),  107,  147,  151,  165, 
157,  160,  161,  171. 

Textile  manufacturing,  283 ;  in 
Great  Britain,  343. 

Thames  River  (temz),  346,  346. 

Thread  making,  Ireland,  344. 

Tiber  River  (tl'ber-),  372. 

Tibet  (ti-bef  or  tib'6t),  418,  428. 

Tides,  299. 

Tientsin  (te-?n'tsen),  433. 

Tiflis  (tye'flyes),  426. 

Tigris  River  (ti'gris-),  4^1,  423. 

Tiles,  190. 

Timber,  see  Lumbering. 

Timbuktu  (tim-buk'too),  456. 

Timber  line  on  mountains,  27,  30. 

Timor  (t^-mor'),  474. 

Tin,  in  Bolivia,  325  ;  in  the  East 
Indies,  474  ;  in  Siam,  438. 

Titicaca,  Lake  (-tit'e-ka'ka) ,  326. 

Tobacco,  in  Argentine,  316  ;  in  tropi- 
cal Andean  countries,  322,  324  ; 
in  Austria- Hungary,  378  ;  in  Bra- 
zil, 319  ;  in  Central  America,  268  ; 
in  Chile,  327  ;  in  Connecticut,  ]  17  ; 
in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  242  ;  in 
the  East  Indies,  474  ;  in  Germany, 
363  ;  in  Greece,  408  ;  in  Haiti,  271 ; 
in  India,  441  ;  in  Italy,  369 ;  in 
Korea,  437;  in  Mexico,  266  ;  in 
Missouri,  and  other  Central  States, 
180 ;  in  Ontario,  252  ;  in  Persia, 
424  ;  in  Philippine  Islands,  248  ; 
in  Russia,  384  ;  in  Russia  in  Asia, 
425;  in  South  Africa,  458 ;  in 
Southern  States,  155-156. 

Tobago  (to-ba'go),  328. 

Tokyo  (to'k^-6),  436-437. 

Toledo  (Ohio)  (to-le'do),  187,  196, 
196. 


Towns,  life  in,  74-75. 

Trade,  65,  66,  288  ;  see  subdivision 
"commerce"  under  names  of 
countries,  etc. 

Trade  Winds,  293,  296-297. 

Transportation,  65,  66  ;  in  the  coun- 
try and  in  cities,  72-73. 

Transvaal  (trans-val'),  458,  469,  460. 

Treaty  ports,  433. 

Trebizond  (treb'i-zond'),  421. 

Tree  line  on  mountains,  27,  30. 

Trees,  in  Australia,  466 ;  in  Brazilian 
forests,  318-319  ;  in  California  and 
other  Western  States,  220 ;  in 
Canadian  forests,  253 ;  in  Central 
States,  185  ;  in  India,  440-441  ;  in 
Japan,  435  ;  in  mountain  forests, 
28-29 ;  in  New  Zealand,  472 ; 
in  Switzerland,  403  ;  in  Yosemite 
region,  234, 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING   VOCABULARY 


535 


Tropics,  the,  91. 

Troy  (N.Y.)  (troi),  129,  132. 

Trenton  (N.  J.)  (tren'tuu),  130, 
HI. 

Trieste  (tre-es'ta),  381. 

Trinidad  (trin'i-dad') ,  328. 

Tripoli  (trip'6-li),  455,  457. 

Tucson  (Ariz.)  (tti-son'  or  tiik'sun), 
218. 

Tundras  (toon'draz),  334,  384,  417, 
425. 

Tunis  (tu'nis),  364,  367,  455,  457. 

Turin  (tu'rin),  370,  374. 

Turkey  and  Balkan  countries,  410- 
413  ;  agriculture,  411,  412  ;  cities, 
411,  412,  413  ;  climate,  410,  411  ; 
government,  412  ;  industries,  411, 
412 ;  people,  410,  412 ;  rainfall, 
410;  religion,  411  ;  separate  coun- 
tries, 411  ;  situation,  410  ;  stock- 
raising,  411,  412  ;  surface,  410,  411. 

Turkish  Empire  or  Turkey  in  Asia, 
419-423  ;  cities,  421  ;  climate,  419, 
420;  crops,  421;  drainage,  421, 
423  ;  irrigation,  421  ;  minerals, 
421  ;  manufacturing,  421 ;  rainfall, 
419  ;  surface,  419,  421,  422;  trade, 
421. 

Turpentine,  164. 

Turtle  fishing,  159. 

Tutuila  (too'too-e'la),  246. 

U 

United  Kingdom,  338-348 ;  see  also 
British  Isles. 

United  States,  47,  59-85,  101,  104- 
238,  273-289,  290-291,  476-491  ; 
agriculture,  274-279,  478-482  ;  cli- 
mate, 274, 478,  490 ;  coast  line,  109  ; 
commerce,  487-489  ;  fishing,  280  ; 
government,  110,  490,  491  ;  irri- 
gation, 278  ;  manufacturing,  283- 
286  ;  minerals,  108,  280-283  ;  popu- 
lation, 107,  273,  274,  476;  rail- 
roads, 285,  286,  287  ;  rainfall,  108  ; 
soil,  108  ;  stock-raising,  279  ;  sur- 
face, 108,  478,  490 ;  transportation, 
109,  285-288;  waterways,  109; 
see  also  under  names  of  physical 
divisions,  states  and  territories. 

Upernivik  (6o-per'ne-vik),  261. 

Ural  Mountains  (u'ral-),  330,  381, 
384-385.  _ 

Uruguay  (o6'ro6-gwi'  or  u'roo-gwa), 
317. 

Utah  (u'ta  or  u'ta),  212,  218. 

Utica  (N.  Y.)  (u'ti-ka),  117,  132. 


Valencia  (va-len'shi-a),  401. 

Valleys,  18  ;  different  sizes  of,  21 ; 
formation  of,  22-23 ;  use  of,  for 
homes,  20 ;  for  roads  and  rail- 
ways, 19-20. 

Valparaiso  (vai'pa-rl'sS),  328._ 

Vancouver  (Wash.)  (van-koo'ver) , 
257,  261. 

Vanilla  bean,  in  Brazil,  319 ;  in 
Mexico,  264. 


Vapor,  change  of  water  to,  56  ;  con- 
densation of,  into  fog,  clouds, 
raindrops,  etc.,  57-58. 

Vatican  (viit'i-kan),  373. 

Venezuela  (v6n'e-zwe'la),  320-321, 

Venice  (ven'is),  368,  374. 

Vera  Cruz  (vS'ra  krooz  or  ver'a 
krooz),  267. 

Vermont  (ver-mont'),  118,  144. 

Versailles  (ver-salz'),  366. 

Vesuvius  (ve-su'vi-us),  371,  372. 

Vicksburg  (Miss.)  (viks'burg)  169. 

Victoria  (Australia)  (vik-to'ri-a), 
464,  470,  471. 

Victoria  (Canada),  261. 

Victoria  Falls,  450,  459. 

Victoria  Nyanza  (-nyan'za),  463. 

Vienna  (vi-6n'na),  376,  379. 

Vikings,  388. 

Villages,  life  in,  74-75, 

Virginia  (ver-jin'i-a) ,  101,  106,  147, 
155. 

Virginia  City  (Nev.),  216,  217. 

Vladivostok  (vla'dye-vas-tok'),  426. 

Volcanoes,  99 ;  in  the  Andes,  322  ; 
in  Central  America,  268  ;  in  the 
East  Indies,  473 ;  on  islands  west 
of  Ecuador,  328 ;  on  island  of 
Hawaii,  245 ;  in  Iceland,  392  ;  in 
Mexico,  263  ;  Mont  Pel^e,  271  ; 
Mt.  Wrangell,  241  ;  in  New  Zea- 
land, 472  ;  among  islands  of  the 
Pacific,  475 ;  extinct,  in  Turkey 
in  Asia,  419  ;  Vesuvius,  371,  372; 
in  West  Indies,  271. 

Volga  (vol'ga),  383,  386. 

Voting,  75-77. 

W 

Wake  Island  (wak-),  246. 

Wales    (walz),   338,   341;    see   also 

J^ritisli  IsIgs 
Walfisch  Bay  "(wol'fish-),  460. 
Walla      Walla       (Wash.)     (woHa 

wol'la),  206,  230. 
Waltham  (Mass.)   (wol'tham),  130. 
Warsaw  (war'sa),  386. 
Washington  (D.  C.)  (wosh'ing-tiin), 

78,  79,  166. 
Washington,  George,  80,  102. 
Washington,  Mt,  114,  144. 
Washington,   State,  205,    206,   219, 

220,  221,  222,  226,  228,  229,  230, 

303. 
Watches,  manufacture  of,  in  United 

States,  130;  in  Switzerland,  405. 
Water,  changes  effected  by,  on  the 

land,    22-23  ;  in   the   city,   70  ;  in 

the  country,   69 ;    proportion    of, 

to  land,  45 ;  the  taking  up  of,  by 

the  air,  56. 
Waterbury   (Conn.)    (wa'ter-ber-i), 

1.30. 
Waterfalls  in  rivers,  32,  34,  40 ;  in 

African  rivers,  449-450,  459-460 ; 

along  the  Fall  Line,  149-150 ;  in 

Northeastern     States,     128 ;      on 

Spokane   River,  230,  231  ;   of  the 

Yellowstone,  232,  233. 
Water-partings,  21-22. 


Water  power,  38 ;  from  Niagara 
Falls,  128  ;  rivers  and  canals  asj 
39^0  ;  for  electricity  in  Switzer- 
land, 405. 

Watersheds,  21-22. 

Water  supply,  mountains  a  source 
of,  29 ;  relatibp  between  forests 
and,  120. 

Watertown  (N.  Y.)  (wa'tSr-toun) , 
133. 

Waterville  (Me.)  (wa't6r-vil),  133. 

Waterways,  39-40,  64  ;  the  Isthmus 
of  Panama,  94  ;  Isthmus  of  Suez, 
95  ;  lakes  as,  43. 

Wealth,  relation  between  manufac- 
turing and,  284-285. 

Wealth,  rank  of  United  States  as  to, 
and  comparison  of  six  leading 
nations,  489-490. 

Weather  Bureau,  Washington,  297. 

Weather  maps,  296,  297,  298. 

Weather  records,  59. 

Welland  Canal  (wgl'land-),  257.      ^ 

Wellington  (wel'ling-tun),  473. 

Western  Australia  (-as-tra'li-a) , 
4(!9. 

Western  Cordillera,  (-k6r-dil'ler-a), 
205. 

Western  States,  202-238 ;  agricul- 
ture, 206,  208,  209,  211,  212; 
area,  202  ;  cities,  225-231 ;  climate, 
206-207  ;  coast  line,  224  ;  fishing, 
222 ;  irrigation,  108,  181,  182,  206, 
208,  209,  211,  212,  213  ;  lumbering, 
219-222 ;  manufacturing,  222-224, 
225,  230;  mining,  216-219,  226, 
230;  population,  188,  189,  202, 
204  ;  railroads,  224,  225  ;  rainfall, 
205,  206,  208;  scenery,  231-235; 
stock-raising,  214,  216 ;  surface, 
204,  205;  trade,  224,  225,  226, 
228,  229  ;  waterways,  224. 

West  Indies  (-in'dgz),  241-244, 
270-272  ;  cities,  270  ;  government, 
270 ;  occupations,  270 ;  people, 
270  ;  position,  270  ;  products,  242, 
270,  271,  272  ;  surface,  270  ;  rain- 
fall, 242. 

West  Virginia  (-vgr-jin'i-a),  147,  160. 

West  Wind  Drift,  302,  303. 

Whaling,  266,  347. 

Wheat,  in  Argentina,  316 ;  in 
Australia,  470;  on  plains  of  the 
Danube  in  Austria-Hungary,  378  ; 
in  Central  States,  178 ;  in  Chile, 
327 ;  in  China,  429 ;  on  Desert 
of  Sahara,  8 ;  in  Ecuador,  322 ; 
in  Egypt,  453  ;  in  France,  362  ;  in 
Germany,  363  ;  in  India,  441  ;  in 
Ireland,  344 ;  in  Italy,  369 ;  in 
Japan,  436 ;  in  Mexico,  264 ;  in 
the  Netherlands,  393  ;  in  Ontario, 
252  ;  in  Persia,  424;  valley  of  Red 
River  of  the  North,  178, 179,  252  ;  in 
Russia,  384  ;  in  Saskatchewan  and 
Manitoba,  251 ;  in  South  Africa, 
458  ;  in  Southern  States,  155  ;  in 
Spanish  peninsula,  399  ;  in  Turkey 
and  Balkan  countries,  411,  412  ; 
in  Turkey  in  Asia,  421 ;  in  United 


536 


INDEX  AND  PRONOUNCING    VOCABULARY 


States,  108  ;  regions  of  production 

of,    in    United     States,     276 ;    in 

Western   States,  206. 
Wheeling  (W.Va.)  (hwel'ing),  163, 

199. 
White  Mountains,  114,  144. 
White  Pass  Ry.,  241. 
Whitney,  Mt,  205,  234. 
Wichita  (Kan.)  (wich'i-ta),  199. 
Wilkesbarre     (Pa.)     (wilks'bar-ri), 

125. 
Willamette      Valley      (wil-la'mgt), 

224,  228. 
Williamsport      (Ind.)      (wil'yaniz- 

port),  133. 
Wilmington  (Del.)    (wil'ming-tun), 

142,  163,  164,  166-167. 
Wind  belts,  292,  293. 
Winds,  55,  56  ;  prevailing  westerlies, 

293,  294  ;  regular,  292  ;  trade,  293, 

294,  296,  297,  Fig.  405. 
Windsor  (Vt.)  (win'zgr),  261. 
Wind  Waves,  299-303. 

Wine,  in  Algeria,  456 ;  in  California, 
209,  222  ;  in  France,  363,  364  ;  in 
Portugal,  402  ;  in  Spain,  401  ;  in 
Switzerland,  404. 

Winnipeg  (win'ni-p6g),  179,  252. 

Winona  (Minn.)  (wi-n5'na),  198. 

Winston-Salem  (N.  C.)  (win'stiin 
sa'lem),  164. 


Wisconsin  (wis-kon'sm),  185,  187, 
190,  195. 

Wood  pulp,  133,  255. 

Woods,  in  Australia,  466 ;  in  Cuba, 
243  ;  in  India,  440-441  ;  in  New 
Zealand,  472 ;  in  South  America, 
318-319. 

Wool,  production  of,  2 ;  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  378  ;  in  Brazil,  320  ;  in 
British  Isles,  342,  343  ;  in  Central 
States,  190 ;  in  France,  363  ;  in 
Germany,  355,  358 ;  in  Japan, 
436;  in  Northeastern  States,  117  ; 
in  Western  States,  214-215. 

Woolen  manufacturing,  in  North- 
eastern States,  130, 131 ;  in  Russia, 
385. 

Woonsocket  (R.  I.)  (w6on's6k'6t), 
131. 

Worcester  (Mass.)  (woos'tSr),  130. 

World  powers,  the,  337. 

Wrangell,  Mt.,  (-rXn'gel),  241. 

Wrought  iron^  129. 

Wuchang  (woo'chang'),  4.33. 

Wyoming  (wl-o'ming  or  wi'6-ming), 
212,  218,  219. 


Yakima   (Wash.)    (ySkl-ma),   213, 
230. 


Yangtse-kiang       (ySng'ts^-ke-ang'), 

428,  431. 
Yarmouth  (yar'muth),  255. 
Yellowstone     Park     (y61'l6-st5n'-), 

231,  233. 
Yellowstone  River,  213,  232. 
Yezo  (yez'6),  433. 
Yokohama  (yo'k6-ha'ma),  437. 
Yonkers     (N.   Y.)    (yon'kgrz),    132, 

137. 
Yosemite  (y6-s6m'i-t^),  231,  234. 
Yucatan  (yoo'ka-tan') ,  264. 
Yukon  (yoo'kun),  240. 
Yukon,  Territory  of,  253. 


Zambezi  (zam-ba'z^),  449,  450,  459, 

460. 
Zanzibar  (zan'zi-bar'  or  zan'zi-bar'), 

463. 
Zinc,    Belgium  and  Germany,   354, 

396 ;  in  Mexico,  266 ;   in  Missouri, 

189. 
Zones,  the,  91-92  ;  cause  of  the,  and 

their  boundaries,  498 ;  map  of  the, 

499. 
Zuider  Zee  (zi'der  ze'),  394. 
Zulu  (zoo'loo),  458. 
Zurich  (zoo'rik),  407. 
Zurich,  Lake,  407. 


.y 


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